ONE AMERICAN’S STORYOne of George Messersmith’s duties as a U.S. diplomat in

Austria in the 1930s was to watch events in Central

Europe closely. What he saw happening in Germany

worried him.

A VOICE FROM THE PAST

The National Socialist [Nazi] regime in Germany is based on aprogram of ruthless force, which program has for its aim, first,the enslavement of the German population to a NationalSocialist social and political program, and then to use the forceof these 67 million people for the extension of German politicaland economic sovereignty over South-Eastern Europe—thusputting it into a position to dominate Europe completely.

George Messersmith, quoted in The Making of the SecondWorld War

As you will read in Section 3, Messersmith’s predictions would prove true.

The Rise of DictatorsBy the mid-1930s, dictators, or absolute rulers, had seized control in sev-eral countries—Italy, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union. Their riseto power was due to economic and political factors that dated back to theend of World War I.

The treaties that ended the war had left many nations feeling betrayed.Japan and Italy, for example, had helped to win the war. However, bothwere dissatisfied by the peace treaties. Italy gained less territory than itwanted. Japan felt ignored by the European powers. Of the losing coun-tries, Germany was treated the most severely. The winners strippedGermany of more than 10 percent of its territory and all of its overseascolonies. The winners also forced Germany to disarm. And they madeGermany pay for war damages and accept responsibility for the war.

The Rise of Dictators and World War II 757

Adolf Hitler in a HarvestFestival crowd, 1937

Steps to War

MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES

11

IMPORTANT BATTLES IN EUROPE,AFRICA, AND THE PACIFIC

September 1,1939—Germanyinvades Poland

The rise of dictators in Europe and

Asia led to World War II.

Aggressive rulers still threaten peace

today.

fascism

Adolf Hitler

Nazi Party

Joseph Stalin

Axis

appeasement

Lend-Lease Act

Pearl Harbor

Taking Notes

Use your chart totake notes about conflicts leading toWorld War II.

Meanwhile, World War I had left the economies ofEurope in ruins. Both sides emerged from the warheavily in debt. There was some economic growth inthe 1920s. But the world economic situation collapsedwith the Great Depression of the 1930s. Mass unem-ployment caused widespread unrest. Many Europeansturned to new leaders to solve these problems.

Mussolini, Hitler, and StalinOne new leader was Benito Mussolini of Italy. Shortlyafter World War I, Mussolini began a political move-ment known as fascism (FASH•IZ•uhm). Fascistspreached an extreme form of patriotism and nationalismthat was often linked to racism. They oppressed peoplewho did not share their views. In 1922, Mussolinibecame prime minister of Italy. In 1925, he establisheda dictatorship and took the title Il Duce (eel DOO•chay),or “the Leader.”

In Germany, Adolf Hitler led the fascist NationalSocialist German Workers’ Party, or Nazi Party.Throughout the early 1930s, the Nazis gained power bypreaching German racial superiority. They also prom-ised to avenge the nation’s defeat in World War I. In1933, the Nazis won control of the government. Hitlerthen overthrew the constitution. He called himself derFührer (duhr FYUR•uhr), or “the Leader.”

In the Soviet Union, the Communists tightened theirgrip on power during the 1920s and 1930s. V.I. Lenin,

who led the Communist takeover of Russia in 1917, died in 1924. His suc-cessor was Joseph Stalin. Under Stalin, the government tried to controlevery aspect of life in the nation. It crushed any form of opposition.

Dictators Seek to Expand TerritoryWhile dictators were gaining power in Europe, the military was gainingincreasing power in Japan. By 1931, the Japanese military pushed theisland nation to grab more land and resources. That year, the Japaneseattacked Manchuria, a province in northern China rich in naturalresources. They conquered the region within months.

Both Italy and Germany also sought new territory. In 1935, Italyattacked Ethiopia, one of the few independent African nations. Italiantroops roared in with machine guns, tanks, and airplanes. By the springof 1936, Il Duce had his first conquest.

That same year, Hitler moved troops into the Rhineland, a region ofGermany along the French border. Under the Treaty of Versailles, theRhineland was to remain free of German forces. The French govern-ment was outraged by the treaty violation. However, it took no action.Nor did the League of Nations.

758 CHAPTER 27

GERMAN SCIENTISTS

Many scientists left Germany orgave up their German citizenshipafter the Nazis took power. Themost famous German scientist todo so was the physicist AlbertEinstein (below).

Einstein, a German Jew, wasvisiting the United States whenHitler took control of Germany in1933. Einstein announced hewould not return home. “I shalllive only in a country where civilliberty, tolerance, and equality ofall citizens before the law prevail,”he said. Einstein played a key rolein convincing President Rooseveltto support research that wouldlead to the development ofnuclear weapons.

Vocabularyavenge: to getrevenge

A. Finding MainIdeas What factors led to the rise of dictators afterWorld War I?A. PossibleResponsesUnfavorable termsin the Treaty ofVersailles upsetthe people ofsome nations. TheGreat Depressionalso made peopleturn to dictatorswho promisedrelief.

BackgroundIn theory,Communists andfascists have opposing ideasabout govern-ment and society.Despite these differences,Stalin and Hitlerwere both brutaldictators.

In 1936, Hitler and Mussolini formed an allianceknown as the Rome-Berlin Axis. After this treaty,Germany, Italy, and their allies became known as theAxis. That year, a civil war erupted in Spain. The con-flict pitted Spain’s fascist-style military against thecountry’s elected government. Hitler and Mussolinisupplied the fascist forces with troops, weapons, andaircraft. In April 1939, Spain’s army declared victoryover the government and established a dictatorship.

In 1938, Hitler invaded Austria, home to mostlyGerman-speaking peoples. He insisted that theAustrians wanted to be part of Germany. Many residentsof Austria and Germany welcomed the unification.

Appeasement at MunichAfter taking over Austria, Hitler set his sights on the Sudetenland. Thiswas a region of Czechoslovakia where many people of German descentlived. Czechoslovakia, though, did not want to give up the region.

France and Russia pledged their support to Czechoslovakia if Germanyattacked. Suddenly, Europe teetered on the brink of another war. Britain’sprime minister, Neville Chamberlain, stepped in. He met with Hitler inan attempt to calm the situation. But their talks made little progress.

On September 29, 1938, Hitler and Chamberlain met in Munich,Germany. By the next day, the two sides had made a breakthrough andsigned an agreement. Germany gained control of the Sudetenland. Inreturn, Hitler promised to stop seeking any more territory.

The Munich Agreement was an example of the British and French pol-icy known as appeasement. Under this policy, they met Germany’sdemands in order to avoid war. Chamberlain returned home from Munichand triumphantly announced that he had achieved “peace in our time.”

Others, however, disagreed with appeasement. Winston Churchillreportedly wrote of the agreement: “[Britain and France] had to choosebetween war and shame. They chose shame. They will get war, too.”

The Rise of Dictators and World War II 759

BackgroundSome Americanswent to Spain tofight against thefascists. Theywere known asthe AbrahamLincoln Battalion.

B. PossibleResponse TheBritish and Frenchleaders supportedappeasementbecause theywanted to avoidwar. Churchillopposed this pol-icy because hebelieve war wasinevitable.

B. AnalyzingPoints of ViewWhat were thedifferent pointsof view aboutthe policy ofappeasement?

Spanish artist Pablo Picassoexpresses the horrors of war in his painting Guernica(GUAHR•nih•keh), shownabove. Picasso created thiswork after German planesdestroyed much of the Spanishtown of Guernica in April 1937,during the Spanish Civil War.Through Picasso’s painting, thetown became a symbol of thedestructiveness of air warfare.

What characteristics of wardoes the painting bring out?

ICELAND

40° E

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ITALY

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GREATBRITAIN

DENMARK

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NETH.IRELAND

POR

TUG

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BELG.

AUSTRIA HUNGARY

ROMANIA

TURKEY

POLAND

FINLAND

SOVIETUNION

GERMANY

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ESTONIA

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1940

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Dunkirk

Paris

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Rome

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Moscow

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Stalingrad

Axis nations, 1938Axis-controlled, 1941AlliesNeutral nationsGerman advances

0

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500 Miles

1,000 Kilometers

Germany Starts the WarHitler soon broke the promise he had made in Munich. In March 1939,his troops moved in and conquered the rest of Czechoslovakia. TheFührer then declared his intent to seize territory from Poland. Britainand France warned that an attack on Poland would mean war.

Britain and France assumed they had an ally in Stalin. After all, theSoviet Union and Germany were bitter enemies. However, in August1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed a nonaggression pact. Init, they agreed not to declare war on each other. On September 1,1939, Germany invaded Poland. Great Britain and France declaredwar on Germany two days after the invasion of Poland. World War IIhad begun.

The Germans introduced a new method of warfare known asblitzkrieg (“lightning war”). It stressed speed and surprise in the use oftanks, troops, and planes. German forces drove deep into Poland. AsGermany conquered western Poland, the Soviet Union invaded from theeast. In less than a month, Poland fell to the invading armies.

In April 1940, Hitler conquered Denmark and overran Norway. Amonth later, Germany launched a blitzkrieg against Belgium, Luxem-bourg, and the Netherlands. British and French troops could do littleto stop the advancing Germans.

C. Making Inferences Why do you think Stalin signed a nonaggression pact with Hitler?C. PossibleResponse Somemight say hefeared theGermans woulddefeat the Soviets.

SkillbuilderAnswers 1. 1940west; 1941 east2. Portugal, Spain, Ireland,Switzerland, andSweden

World War II in Europe, 1939–1941

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDERInterpreting Maps1. Movement In which direction did the

Germans attack in 1940? in 1941?

2. Place Which European nations wereneutral in World War II?

760

Major Axis and Allied Nations

Belgium, Canada, China, France,Great Britain, India, Mexico,

Netherlands, Poland, Soviet Union,United States

ALLIES

AXIS

Germany, Italy, Japan

As each nation surrendered, Britishsoldiers retreated to the French seaportof Dunkirk on the English Channel.Under heavy German bombardment,British vessels evacuated nearly 340,000British, French, and Belgian troops.

In June 1940, the Germans launcheda major offensive against France. In lessthan two weeks, they reached Paris.Days later, France surrendered. Hitlerbelieved that Great Britain would seekpeace after France fell.

Even though France had fallen, theBritish had no intention of quitting.Churchill, the new British prime min-ister, declared, “We shall defend every village, every town, and every city.”Hitler soon made plans to invadeBritain. To do so, however, he neededto destroy Britain’s Royal Air Force,often called the RAF. In the summer of1940, the German air force, or Luft-waffe (LUFT•VAHF•eh), and the RAF fought in the skies over Britain.

German planes also unleashed massive bombing attacks on Londonand other civilian targets. By September, however, the Battle of Britainhad left Hitler frustrated. The RAF was holding off the Luftwaffe. Anddespite constant bombing, the British people did not surrender.

Germany Attacks the Soviet UnionWhile Hitler’s forces conquered Western Europe, Stalin’s troops invadedFinland in November 1939. The Soviets then seized the countries ofEstonia, Latvia, and Lithuania along the Baltic Sea. Despite their part-nership, Hitler and Stalin distrusted each other. Hitler feared Sovietambitions in Europe. He also wanted Soviet wheat and oil fields.

As a result, Hitler invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941. Germanforces moved easily through the giant country. They inflicted heavycasualties on Soviet troops. Then Hitler made a major mistake. Hedecided not to concentrate all his forces against Moscow. Instead, hereinforced his armies heading north toward Leningrad and south towardthe Crimean Peninsula. The Germans tried to capture Leningrad fromSeptember 1941 to January 1944. About one million citizens died, manyfrom starvation. But the city never fell to the Germans.

As German troops approached Moscow in December 1941, theyran into the harshest Russian winter in decades. Many German sol-diers suffered frostbite. German tanks and weapons broke down inthe cold. The Nazi advance had ground to a halt, and Soviet forcesdrove the Germans back.

The Rise of Dictators and World War II 761

D. PossibleResponses Somestudents mightsay that Hitlerwanted to surprise them.Others might saythat he waited toattack until afterhe had defeatedFrance. He didn’twant to fightboth at the sametime.

D. MakingInferences Whydid Hitler attackthe Soviet Unionjust months aftersigning the non-aggression pact?

British civilianssleep in a subwaystation being used as an air raidshelter during theBattle of Britain in 1940.

The United States Aids the AlliesWhile the Nazis advanced, President Roosevelt tried to help the Alliesby supplying them with arms and other materials. “We must be the greatarsenal of democracy,” he declared. He proposed the Lend-Lease Act to

address this issue. This measure allowed the UnitedStates to lend or lease raw materials, equipment, andweapons to the Allied nations. Congress approved theact in 1941. Under Lend-Lease, the United States sentabout $50 billion worth of war goods to the Allies.

Japan Attacks Pearl HarborIn 1940, Japan joined the alliance with Germany andItaly. In 1941, an even more warlike government cameto power in Japan. Its leader was Hideki Tojo(HEE•deh•kee TOH•JOH), an army general. The Tojogovernment made plans to invade the Dutch EastIndies—a source of oil—and Asian territories.

In the eyes of Japan’s rulers, only one thing stood intheir way—the United States Navy. On December 7,1941, Japanese warplanes bombed the huge Americannaval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. Before the daywas over, about 2,400 Americans—both servicemenand civilians—died. Many of the American warplanesand ships were destroyed or damaged.

President Roosevelt asked Congress to declare waron Japan. He called December 7, 1941, “a date whichwill live in infamy.” The nation quickly united behindhim. On December 11, Germany and Italy declared waron the United States. In the next section, you will readabout U.S. participation in the war in Europe.

762 CHAPTER 27

2. Using GraphicsUse a diagram to reviewevents that led to Americanparticipation in World War II.

Which of these events do you think was the mostimportant? Why?

3. Main Ideasa. Who were the main Axispowers? Who were the mainAllied powers?

b. Why was Hitler unable toconquer Great Britain?

c. What event prompted U.S.entry into the war?

4. Critical ThinkingAnalyzing Causes Why do you think dictators such asHitler and Mussolini were ableto gain such power in theyears before World War II?

THINK ABOUT• the peace treaties of

World War I• the worldwide depression

1. Terms & NamesExplain the

significance of:• fascism• Adolf Hitler• Nazi Party• Joseph Stalin• Axis• appeasement• Lend-Lease Act• Pearl Harbor

Section Assessment

ACTIVITY OPTIONS

LANGUAGE ARTSGEOGRAPHY

Imagine that you are a citizen of one of the countries invaded by Germany. Writea journal entry describing the invasion or draw a map of the invasion route.

1

U.S.S. ARIZONA MEMORIAL

The U.S.S. Arizona sufferedextensive damage during theattack on Pearl Harbor. The shipsank, and 1,177 of its crew died.The nation chose not to raisethe ship. Instead, officials cre-ated a memorial (shown below)that sits above the sunken hull.

The names of all the crewmenwho perished aboard the shipare carved on the memorial. Tocommemorate the 50th anniver-sary of the attack, PresidentGeorge Bush visited the site anddropped flowers in the waterabove the ship.

Event 3 Event 4

Event 2Event 1

E. PossibleResponse accessto raw materials,such as oil

E. AnalyzingCauses Whatwas the mainsource of conflictbetween Japanand the UnitedStates?