MOTIVATION

STEPHEN P ROBBINS DEFINED

Motivation is defines as the willingness to exercise high levels of effort towards organizational goals, conditional by the effort ability to satisfy some individual needs.

MOTIVATIONMOTIVATIONDefined as the psychological forces within a

person that determine:1) direction of behavior in an organization;2) the effort or how hard people work;3) the persistence displayed in meeting goals.

Intrinsic Motivation: behavior performed for its own sake. Motivation comes from performing the work.

Extrinsic Motivation: behavior performed to acquire rewards. Motivation source is the consequence of an action.

PROCESS OF MOTIVATION

Motivation can be defined as an internal condition initiated by drives, needs or desires and producing a goal behavior.

NEED

DRIVE / GOAL DIRECTED BEHAVIOR

GOAL

INCENTIVES / RELIEF

MOTIVATION PROCESS

Needs- satisfaction chain

NEEDSWhich gives

rise toWANTS

Which cause

TENSION

GOALSATISFACTIONACTION (OR) BEHAVIOR

Which give rise

Which result in

FRUSTRATION

DEFENCE MECHANISM1. Aggression

2. Compromise3. Withdrawal

Needs (desires or wants):Example: need for water/ rood.

Drives: Drives or motives are specific condition that directs an organism towards its goal.

Goal: Attainment of an appropriate goal.

Relief / Incentives: reduction of the driving state and relief when the goal is reached.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATIONTHERORIES OF MOTIVATION

EARLY THEORIES

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT

HUMAN RELATIONS MODEL

MODERN THEOREIS

SATISFIED THEORIESMASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY

THEORY

HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY

ALDERFER’SERG THEORY

PROCESS THEORIES

VROOM’S EXPECTANCY MODEL

ADAM’S EQUITY THEORY

PORTER’S PERFORMANCE MODEL

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY THEORY

Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological

Safety

Social

Esteem

Self Actualization

HIERARCHY OF NEEDSHIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Self-Actualization

Self-Actualization

Realize one’s full potential

Realize one’s full potential

Use abilities to the fullest

Use abilities to the fullest

EsteemEsteem Feel good about oneself

Feel good about oneself

Promotions & recognition

Promotions & recognition

BelongingnessBelongingness Social interaction, love

Social interaction, love

Interpersonal relations, parties

Interpersonal relations, parties

SafetySafety Security, stabilitySecurity, stability Job security, health insurance

Job security, health insurance

PhysiologicalPhysiological Food, water, shelter

Food, water, shelter

Basic pay level to buy items

Basic pay level to buy items

Need Level Description Examples

Lower level needs must be satisfied before higher needs are addressed.

Physiological: Hunger, thirst, shelter, sex and other bodily needs

Safety: security and protection from physical and emotional harm

Social: Affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship

Esteem: internal esteem factors : such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement.external esteem factors : such as status, recognition and attention.

Self Actualization: The drive to become what one is capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving one’s potential and self fulfillment.

HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTORY THEORY

Factors led to dissatisfaction Factors led to satisfaction

20% 30% 50%40%20% 10%40% 30%50% 10%

Recognition

Achievement

Supervision

Work Itself

Responsibility

Advancement

Growth

RelationshipWith supervision

Company Policies

Salary

Relationship with peers

Security and Status

0

Hygiene Factors Motivator Factors

Supervision Achievement

Company Policy Recognition

Working Conditions Work itself

Salary Responsibility

Interpersonal relationship Growth and Advancement

Security Challenging job

Hygiene Factors Motivator Factors

Job dissatisfaction occurs when the hygiene factors are either not present or not sufficient.

Factors are related to the job and may be considered support factors.

Supervision, Company policies, working conditions, Salary, security

Motivation factors into a job produces job satisfaction.

Factors are related to the content of the job and advancement and the work itself.

Achievement, Recognition, work itself, responsibility, challenging job.

ALDERFER’S ERG THEORYALDERFER’S ERG THEORY

After lower level needs satisfied, person seeks higher needs. Whenunable to satisfy higher needs, lower needs motivation is raised.

GrowthGrowth Self-development,creative work

Self-development,creative work

Worker continuallyimproves skills

Worker continuallyimproves skills

RelatednessRelatedness Interpersonal relations, feelings

Interpersonal relations, feelings

Good relations,feedback

Good relations,feedback

ExistenceExistence Food, water, shelter

Food, water, shelter

Basic pay level to buy items

Basic pay level to buy items

Low

est

Hig

hest

Need Level Description Examples

VROOM’S EXPECTANCY THEORY

Effort- performance relationship: The probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance.

Performance-reward relationship: The degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome.

Rewards-personal goals relationship: The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s

EXPECTANCY, INSTRUMENTALITY, & VALENCE EXPECTANCY, INSTRUMENTALITY, & VALENCE

EffortEffort

Expectancy:Person’s

perception thattheir effort will

result inperformance

Expectancy:Person’s

perception thattheir effort will

result inperformance

Instrumentalityperception that

performanceresults in outcomes

Instrumentalityperception that

performanceresults in outcomes

Valence:How desired

are the outcomesfrom a

job

Valence:How desired

are the outcomesfrom a

job

PerformancePerformance OutcomesOutcomes

Inputs fromOrganizational

members

Inputs fromOrganizational

membersPerformancePerformance

Outcomesreceived bymembers

Outcomesreceived bymembers

TimeEffort

EducationExperience

SkillsKnowledge

Work Behave.

TimeEffort

EducationExperience

SkillsKnowledge

Work Behave.

Contribute toorganizationefficiency,

effectivenessand

attain goals

Contribute toorganizationefficiency,

effectivenessand

attain goals

PayJob Security

BenefitsVacation

AutonomyResponsibility

PayJob Security

BenefitsVacation

AutonomyResponsibility

EXPECTANCY THEORYEXPECTANCY THEORY

High Expectancy

(Worker knows thatif they try, they can

perform)

High Expectancy

(Worker knows thatif they try, they can

perform)

High Instrumentality

(Worker perceives thathigh performance

leads to outcomes)

High Instrumentality

(Worker perceives thathigh performance

leads to outcomes)

High Valence

(Worker desires theoutcomes resulting

from highperformance)

High Valence

(Worker desires theoutcomes resulting

from highperformance)

High Motivation

High Motivation

EXPECTANCY, INSTRUMENTALITY, & VALENCEEXPECTANCY, INSTRUMENTALITY, & VALENCE

Expectancy :the perception that effort (input) will result in a level of

performance. You will work hard if it leads to high performance. You would be less willing to work hard if you knew that

the best you would get on a paper was a D regardless of how hard you tried.

Instrumentality: Performance leads to outcomes. Workers are only motivated if they think performance leads to

an outcome. Managers should link performance to outcomes.

Valence: How desirable each outcome is to a person. Managers should determine the outcomes, the workers want

most.

OUTCOMES & INPUTSOUTCOMES & INPUTS

Regardless of the source of motivation, people seek outcomes.Outcome: anything a person gets from a job.

Examples include pay, autonomy, accomplishment.

Organizations hire workers to obtain inputs: Input: anything a person contributes to their job.

Examples include skills, knowledge, work behavior.

Managers thus use outcomes to motivate workers to provide inputs.

EQUITY THEORYEQUITY THEORY

Considers worker’s perceptions of the fairness of work outcomes in proportion to their inputs.

The Outcome/input ratio is compared by worker with another person called a referent.

The referent is perceived as similar to the worker.

Equity exists when a person perceives their outcome/input ratio to be equal to the referent’s ratio.

If the referent receives more outcomes, they should also give more inputs to achieve equity.

EQUITY THEORYEQUITY THEORY

ConditionCondition Person ReferentPerson Referent ExampleExample

EquityEquity Outcomes = OutcomesInputs Inputs

Outcomes = OutcomesInputs Inputs

Worker contributesmore inputs but alsogets more outputs

than referent

Worker contributesmore inputs but alsogets more outputs

than referent

UnderpaymentEquity

UnderpaymentEquity

Outcomes < OutcomesInputs Inputs

Outcomes < OutcomesInputs Inputs

Worker contributesmore inputs but also

gets the same outputsas referent

Worker contributesmore inputs but also

gets the same outputsas referent

OverpaymentEquity

OverpaymentEquity

Outcomes > OutcomesInputs Inputs

Outcomes > OutcomesInputs Inputs

Worker contributessame inputs but alsogets more outputs

than referent

Worker contributessame inputs but alsogets more outputs

than referent

GOAL SETTING THEORYGOAL SETTING THEORY

Focus worker’s inputs in the direction of high performance & achievement of organizational goals.Goal is what a worker tries to accomplish.

Goals must be specific and difficult for high performance results.

Workers put in high effort to achieve such goals.Workers must accept and be committed to them.

Feedback on goal attainment also is important.Goals point out what is important to the firm.

Managers should encourage workers to develop action plans to attain goals.

LEARNING THEORYLEARNING THEORY

Focuses on the linkage between performance and outcomes in the motivation equation.

Learning: permanent change in person’s knowledge or behavior resulting from practice or experience.

Operant Conditioning: people learn to do things leading to desired outcomes and avoid doing things with adverse outcomes.Motivation can be increased by linking specific behaviors with specific outcomes.

Managers can use four tools of conditioning to motivate high performance.

OPERANT CONDITIONING TOOLSOPERANT CONDITIONING TOOLS

Positive Reinforcement: people get desired outcomes when they perform needed work behaviors.Positive reinforcers: pay raises, promotions.

Negative Reinforcement: manager eliminates undesired outcomes once the desired behavior occurs.Worker performs to avoid an undesired outcome (Work harder or you are fired).

In both types of reinforcement, managers must be careful to link the right behaviors by workers to what the organization needs.

OPERANT CONDITIONING TOOLSOPERANT CONDITIONING TOOLS

Extinction: used when workers are performing behavior detrimental to the firm. Manager does not reward the behavior and over time, the worker will stop performing it.

Punishment: used when the manager does not control the reward the worker receives (perhaps it is outside the job).Manager administers an undesired consequence to worker (verbal reprimands to pay cuts).

Punishment can lead to unexpected side-effects such as resentment, and should be used sparingly.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORYSOCIAL LEARNING THEORYVicarious Learning: or observational learning, occurs when a person is motivated to learn by watching someone else work and be rewarded.

People are motivated to imitate models who are highly competent, expert and receive attractive reinforcers.

Self- reinforcers: desired outcomes a person can give themselves.

Person can reward themselves for success.

Self-efficacy: refers to a person’s belief about their ability to perform a behavior successfully.

People will only be motivated if they think they have the ability to accomplish the task.

OTHER MOTIVATIONAL PROGRAMMES IN OBOTHER MOTIVATIONAL PROGRAMMES IN OB

Employee Involvement ProgrammesParticipative ManagementRepresentative participation

Works CommitteesBoard Representatives

Quality CirclesEffective Reward Systems