ST. AUGUSTINE UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA

Faculty of Education

The Influence of ICT on Effective Teaching: A Study of Selected Public

Secondary Schools in Arusha City

By

Gustav. A. Myonga

(SAA/MEM/ 53247)

A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of Education in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements

for the Degree of Master Education Management of St. Augustine University of Tanzania

© November, 2017

ii

DECLARATION

This dissertation is my original work and has not been presented for an award or diploma or

degree in any other institution or university.

Signature ………………………………….

Name: GUSTAV ANSGAR MYONGA

Date …………………………………

iii

CERTIFICATION

This dissertation has been submitted for examination with my approvals as University

Supervisor.

Name: Dr. Solomon Omer Wachara (Ph. D)

DEPARTMENT: EDUCATION

NAME OF UNIVERSITY: ST.AUGUSTINE UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA

SIGNATURE…………………………………….

DATE……………………………………………..

iv

COPYRIGHT

This dissertation is a copy right material and should not be reproduced by any means whatsoever,

in whole or in part without the prior permission of the author or St. Augustine University of

Tanzania.

Copy right ©2017

Gustav Ansgar Myonga

All Rights Reserved

v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost I thank the Almighty God for His love and grace through all my endeavors.

And also my heartfelt gratitude goes to Dr. Omer. S. W my supervisor for his genuine and

intellectual advice and his efforts to transform me intellectually.

Special thanks goes to my beloved family for their material support my father Ansgar. J.

Myonga, my mother Aurelia. B. Sambala, my wife Martha. E. Katala my sons Ansgar. G.

Myonga and Alvin. G. Myonga and my daughter Briael. G. Myonga. Sister Noelia Myonga, my

brother Peter Myonga , my sisters Christina, Josephine and Grolia whose love and care have

always been a source of strength and encouragement in my studies.

I would also like to extend my special thanks to all my lecturers of the Saint Augustine

University Arusha centre for their support which enabled me to finish the coursework which laid

the foundation for the dissertation. In a very special way I thank Mr Efraim Kosia from Nelson

Mandela African institution of Science and Technology for his support.

May I also extend my gratitude to my colleagues in the 2016/2017 MA Education Management

for their moral and material support throughout the Programme.

Finally I wish to thank every individual who assisted me either directly or indirectly to

accomplish this dissertation hence it is not easy to mention every person, may the Almighty God

bless St. Augustine University of Tanzania.

vi

DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my family members, my best friend Mr. Samwel Mollel and my fellow

students of Saint Augustine University Arusha centre for their encouragement.

vii

LIST OF ABBREVIATION/ ACRONYMS

EMIS.........Education Management Information System

ICT…........Information and Communication Technology

MEM…….Masters of Education Management

MIS……….Management Information System

MOEVT…Ministry of Education and Vocational Training

SAA……...Saint Augustine Arusha

UNDP……United Nations Development Programme

SPSS………Statistical Package for Social Sciences

BERA……..British Educational Research Association

viii

ABSTRACT

The purpose of the study was to investigate the influence of ICT on effective Teaching: A study

of selected public secondary schools in Arusha City. Four research objectives were formulated to

guide the study. These were, to find out the advantages of using ICT for teaching and learning in

secondary schools, to highlight teacher’s perception in the use of ICT for teaching and learning

process in secondary schools, to determine the challenges facing the use of ICT in teaching and

learning and to establish intervention measures to the use of ICT in teaching. The study adopted

explanatory sequential design. The sample of 160 respondents was obtained. Data were gathered

by use of questionnaires and interview. The instruments were tested by using test retest.

Qualitative data were analyzed by using simple descriptive statistics presented in form of

frequencies, percentages and cross tabulations while quantitative data were analyzed by using

thematic coding. The findings were that students are encouraged being taught by using ICT,

heads of public secondary schools responded that ICT helps in, attentive listening, students can

learn at their pace, ICT save the cost of buying and preparing teaching material, it simplify

teaching, creativity and innovation, easy to teach large class, easy to keep information and

visualization of knowledge. Results showed that high cost of ICT equipments, absence of ICT

technician, peoples ignorance on ICT use are some challenges to ICT use for effective teaching.

Results for intervention measures to challenges facing ICT were Provision of enough advanced

ICT equipments in schools, training ICT technicians, construction of ICT laboratories in schools,

to improve ICT curriculum in schools and colleges, the government to subsidize the purchasing

of ICT equipments, to improve power supply, to improve ICT use in school schedule, to

introduce ICT as a basic subject to all students in secondary schools, proper maintenance and

upgrading of ICT tools and use of Kiswahili computer programmed. Based on the findings of the

study suggested that the study as to why ICT teachers are misplaced despite their professional to

use ICT for effective teaching and provisional of quality education. The Tanzanian government

should revive, design and implement ICT policies in public secondary schools to meet the

demand of the current education.

ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. i

CERTIFICATION ......................................................................................................................... iii

COPYRIGHT ................................................................................................................................. iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .............................................................................................................. v

DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... vi

LIST OF ABBREVIATION/ ACRONYMS ................................................................................ vii

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................. viii

LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... xiv

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background of the Study ..................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................................... 3

1.3 Objectives of the Study ............................................................................................................. 3

1.3.1 General Objectives ................................................................................................................. 3

1.3.2 Specific Objectives ................................................................................................................ 4

1.4 Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 4

1.5 Significance of the Study .......................................................................................................... 4

1.6 Scope of the Study .................................................................................................................... 5

1.7 Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................. 5

1.8 Definition of Key Terms ........................................................................................................... 9

x

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 10

2.1 The Theoretical Literature ...................................................................................................... 10

2.1.1 Learning Theory................................................................................................................... 10

2.1.2 Constructivist Principles ...................................................................................................... 11

2.1.3 Constructivism and Constructionism ................................................................................... 12

2.1.4 Constructive Classrooms ..................................................................................................... 13

2.1.5 Criticisms of Constructionist Theory ................................................................................... 14

2.1.6 The Application of ICT in a Constructivist Approach......................................................... 15

2.1.7. ICT and Constructionist Theory ......................................................................................... 16

2.2 Empirical Literature ................................................................................................................ 17

2.2.1 Advantages of using ICT in Teaching and Learning in Secondary schools ........................ 17

2.2.2 Teachers Perception on the use of ICT for Teaching and Learning .................................... 20

2.2.3 The Challenges that Face the use of ICT in Teaching ......................................................... 25

2.2.4 Intervention Measures to the Challenges facing the usage of ICT in Teaching and Learning.

....................................................................................................................................................... 28

2.3 Research Gap .......................................................................................................................... 29

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 31

3.1 Research Design...................................................................................................................... 31

3.1.1 Research Approach .............................................................................................................. 32

3.2 Study Area .............................................................................................................................. 32

3.3 Target Population .................................................................................................................... 32

xi

3.4. Sample Size and Sampling Procedure ................................................................................... 33

3.5. Research Instruments ............................................................................................................. 34

3.5.1. Questionnaires for Students ................................................................................................ 34

3.5.2. Questionnaires for Teachers ............................................................................................... 35

3.5.3. Interview Schedule for Head of Schools ............................................................................ 35

3.6. Validity and Reliability of Instruments.................................................................................. 35

3.6.1. Validity of Instruments ....................................................................................................... 35

3.6.2 Reliability of Instruments .................................................................................................... 36

3.7. Data Collection Procedures.................................................................................................... 37

3.8. Data Analysis Procedures ...................................................................................................... 38

3.9. Ethical Consideration ............................................................................................................. 39

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION

4.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 40

4.1 Questionnaire Return Rate ...................................................................................................... 40

4.2 Demographic Information of the Participants......................................................................... 40

4.3 Findings on the Influence of ICT on Effective Teaching. ...................................................... 42

4.4 Findings from Qualitative Data. ............................................................................................. 46

4.5 Discussion From Qualitative Data. ......................................................................................... 47

4.5.1 Advantages of Using ICT for Effective Teaching in Secondary Schools. .......................... 47

4.5.2 Challenges Facing the use of ICT for Effective Teaching in Secondary Schools. .............. 47

4.5.3 Intervention Measures to Challenges Facing the Use of ICT for Effective Teaching in

Secondary Schools ........................................................................................................................ 48

xii

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS, SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 49

5.1 Discussion of the Findings ...................................................................................................... 49

5.1.1 Discussion of the Findings on the Advantages of Using ICT for Teaching and Learning in

Secondary Schools ........................................................................................................................ 49

5.1.2 Teachers Perception in the use of ICT for Teaching and Learning Process in Secondary

Schools .......................................................................................................................................... 52

5.1.3 Challenges Facing the use of ICT in Teaching and Learning .............................................. 55

5.1.4 Findings on the Intervention Measures to the use of ICT in Teaching ................................ 57

5.2 Summary of the Findings ........................................................................................................ 59

5.2.1 Advantages of Using ICT for Teaching and Learning in Secondary Schools ..................... 60

5.2.2 Teachers Perception in the use of ICT for Teaching and Learning Process in Secondary

Schools .......................................................................................................................................... 60

5.2.3 Challenges Facing the use of ICT in Teaching and Learning .............................................. 61

5.2.4 The Intervention Measures to the use of ICT in Teaching .................................................. 61

5.3 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 62

5.4. Recommendations for the Study ............................................................................................ 63

5.5 Suggestions for Further Study ................................................................................................ 64

APPENDICES: APPENDIX I

Questionnaire for Teachers ........................................................................................................... 75

APPENDIX II ............................................................................................................................... 77

Questionnaire for Students ............................................................................................................ 77

xiii

APPENDIX III .............................................................................................................................. 79

Sample Interview schedule for Heads of School .......................................................................... 79

APPENDIX IV.............................................................................................................................. 80

Permission Letter .......................................................................................................................... 80

APPENDIX VI………………………………...…………………………………………………80

Research permit letter from Arusha City Director………………………………..…………..80

xiv

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3. 1. Reliability Statistics .................................................................................................... 37

Table 4.1. Presents the Summary of Students’ Gender.................................................................40

Table 4.2. Presents the Summary of Teachers Highest Level of Education..................................41

Table 4.3. Presents the Summary of Teachers Professional Experience in years Gender ............41

Table 4.4. Presents the Summary of Respondents Designation Gender in Cross tabulation.........42

Table4.5. Presents the Summary of Quantitative data from Teachers...........................................43

Table 4.6. Presents the Summary of Quantitative data from Students .........................................43

Table 4.7. Presents the Summary of Quantitative data from Teachers .........................................44

Table 4.8. Presents the Summary of Quantitative data on the Students’ Perception ...................45

Table 4.9. Presents the Summary of Quantitative data from teachers ..........................................45

Table 4.10. Presents the Summary of Quantitative data from students on Challenges ................46

Table 4.11 Thematic Analysis Coding...........................................................................................47

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

This chapter presents background of the study, statement of the problem, objectives of the study,

research questions, significance of the study, scope and delimitation of the study, theoretical

frame work and definition of key terms.

1.1 Background of the Study

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is a study of the use of computers, internet,

video and other technology (Nyirenda, 2013). The use of ICT in schools has become widespread

in many countries throughout the world. ICT Development in Secondary Education: The e-

School Forum which was formed after the education stakeholders’ workshop organized by the

ministry of education in 2005, submitted a programme proposal to the Ministry of Education and

Vocational Training in Tanzania. The proposal recommended the introduction of ICT in

secondary education, in phases starting with 200 schools in phase 1 (2006 to 2008), a large scale

rollout covering 2,000 schools in phase 2 (within five years), and nationwide coverage by 2015.

The proposal covered a wide range of activities that need to be undertaken within the

programme, including ICT infrastructure development in the schools, technical resources,

student management at school levels integrated with Education Management Information System

(EMIS), content and curriculum development, e-learning, sensitization, human resources, and

programme co-ordination and funding (Nyirenda, 2013).

The study about factors contributing to teachers use of computer technology in the classroom

founded that teaching experience, self-efficacy, availability and accessibility to technology,

2

professional development training on technology, teachers attitude, availability of internet,

maintenance of ICTs infrastructure, teachers workload, teacher gender, teachers’ age, presence

of ICT policy, adequacy of funds, confidence, technology, computer compatibility and attitude,

teachers pedagogical beliefs and school culture as factors that influenced teachers use of

technology (Gilakjani,2013).

According to Tanzania National ICT policy of the year 2003, Tanzania cannot afford to overlook

the importance of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for improved access,

equity, quality and relevance of education. In our inter-connected world, knowledge and

information are becoming corner stone’s for the development of a society, as is the ability to

communicate. It is our duty to prepare our children so that they can benefit from and contribute

to our country´s development in the information age. We must therefore take advantage of the

full range of ICTs, from radio and mobile telephony to computers and the Internet, to build the

foundation for a well educated and learning knowledge society (URT, 2007).

The Ministry of Education and Vocational Training in Tanzania has developed this policy to

guide the integration of ICT in basic education. The policy covers pre-primary, primary,

secondary and teacher education, as well as non-formal and adult education. It is guided by the

overall objectives of education policies, and relevant national development policies, including

the Tanzania National ICT Policy of 2003. Since ICT is a cross cutting tool, this policy is also

linked to ICT activities in other areas and sectors, especially vocational training, higher

education, and regional administration and local government. The benefits of ICT can only be

obtained through the commitment and collaboration of all stakeholders (MOEVT, 2007).

3

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The use of ICT will have no substitute in modern world. The policy of ICT in schools introduced

in the year 2003 in Tanzania was a great achievement however; more effort is needed to make

the use of ICT more effective. Evidence has consistently shown that ICT mediated instruction

using conventional teaching methods is as good as traditional face to face instruction and in the

case of computer-based instruction, it can help to improve student attitudes towards learning

(URT, 2007). However, Tanzania need more sophisticated uses of ICT in the classroom,

especially for the host of applications and methods that support constructivist learning, in which

students are encouraged to work in rich environments of information and experience to build

their own understandings (URT, 2003). Worldwide, research into the effectiveness of ICT-

mediated instruction is continuing and should provide a clearer picture of the effectiveness of

ICT in supporting constructivist pedagogy.

Despite the good ICT policy for secondary schools in Tanzania, no proper efforts have been

made for effective use of ICT in influencing teaching in secondary schools in Arusha City. This

study was set out to find out the influence of ICT on effective teaching in secondary schools in

Arusha City because the use of ICT in secondary schools is still facing a lot of challenges.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

1.3.1 General Objectives

To find out the influence of ICT on effective teaching for secondary schools in Arusha City.

4

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

i. To find out the advantages of using ICT for teaching and learning in secondary schools

ii. To highlight teachers perception in the use of ICT for teaching and learning process in

secondary schools.

iii. To determine the challenges facing the use of ICT in teaching and learning.

iv. To establish the intervention measures to the challenges facing the use of ICT in

teaching and learning.

1.4 Research Questions

i. What are the advantages of using ICT in the teaching and learning process?

ii. What are the teacher’s perceptions towards the use of ICT in teaching and learning

process?

iii. What are the challenges facing the use of ICT in teaching and learning?

iv. What are the intervention measures to the challenges facing the use of ICT in teaching

and learning?

1.5 Significance of the Study

This study aimed to, help students, teachers, educational officials, policy makers and other

stakeholders to know the need for the use of ICT in teaching and learning process. Some

teachers and students are not aware on the advantages of using ICT in accessing teaching and

learning materials through the use of ICT equipments including television set, computer hard

disc, smart phones, and internet services.

It may help to support policy makers in the ministry of education and Higher Education in

Tanzania, educational managers and teachers in developing ICT use in Secondary Schools.

5

It also may help to collect and compare current perception of teachers on the use of ICT for

effective teaching in Tanzania Secondary Schools. This study so far helps to support educational

administrators and educational leaders in secondary schools on how to manage the use of ICT in

secondary schools. Also it is among the research work which shows the link between ICT and

the provision of secondary education.

1.6 Scope of the Study

This study concentrated to find out the use of ICT in secondary schools and its influence on

effective teaching. The researcher covered ten public secondary schools in Arusha City. Data

was collected from heads of schools, teachers and students from form four classes. These ten

secondary schools were those with more opportunity to use ICT since they are found in urban

area convenient in terms of accessibility. This study was done between May to July 2017.

1.7 Theoretical Framework

This study based on a theory of a New Literacies Perspective which was proposed in the twenty

first century (Jupiter Images Corporation, 2009). Founders of this theory were Barbara J. Walker,

Kathryn An, Patricia A. Edwards, Mark Mullen and Adelina Arellano. This theory explains the

importance of technology in education and the fact that the Internet and other forms of

Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are redefining the nature of reading,

writing, and communication. These ICTs will continue to change in the years ahead, requiring

continuously new literacies to successfully exploit their potentials. Although many new ICTs

will emerge in the future, those that are common in the lives of our students include search

engines, web pages, e-mail, instant messaging (IM), blogs, podcasts, e-books, wikis, nings,

YouTube, video. New literacy skills and practices are required by each new ICT as it emerges

and evolves. New Literacies and 21st Century Technologies theory requires all the people to

6

become fully literate in today’s world. Students must become proficient in new literacies of the

21st century technologies.

Literacy educators have a responsibility to integrate these new literacies into the curriculum to

prepare students for successful civic participation in a global environment. The International

Reading Association believes that students have the right to the following: Teachers who use

ICTs skillfully for teaching and learning effectively, peers who use ICTs responsibly and

actively share effective strategies applied to a range of literacy purposes and settings, a literacy

curriculum that offers opportunities to collaboratively read, share, and create content with peers

from around the world, literacy instruction that embeds critical and culturally sensitive thinking

into print and digital literacy practices, state reading and writing standards that include new

literacies, state reading and writing assessments that include new literacies, school leaders and

policymakers committed to advocating the use of ICTs for teaching and learning, equal access to

ICTs for all classrooms and all students Expanding Our Conception of Literacy.

There is extensive debate about what new literacies the term is used to mean many different

things by many different people. However, there are at least four common elements that apply to

nearly all of the current perspectives being used to inform the broader dimensions of new

literacies research (Coiro, Knobel, Lankshear, & Leu, 2008): The Internet and other ICTs

require new social practices, skills, strategies, and dispositions for their effective use; new

literacies are central to full civic, economic, and personal participation in a global community;

new literacies rapidly change as defining technologies change; and new literacies are multiple,

multimodal, and multifaceted; thus, they benefit from multiple lenses seeking to understand how

to better support our students in a digital age. The changes taking place to literacy have been

noted by many in our field (Alvermann, 2008).

7

Many will finish their secondary school careers familiar with the new literacies demanded by a

wide variety of ICTs: wikis, blogs, avatars, podcasts, mobile technologies, and many others

unimagined at the beginning of their schooling. Because of rapid changes in technology, it is

likely that students who begin school this year will experience even more profound changes in

their literacy journeys. Changes to literacy are defined by regular and continuous change (Leu,

Kinzer, Coiro, & Cammack, 2004). Thus, the new literacies of today will be replaced by even

newer literacies tomorrow as new ICTs continuously emerge among a more globalized

community of learners. In addition, the changes to literacy are taking place with breakneck

speed.

Finally, networked communication technologies such as the Internet provide the most powerful

capabilities for information and communication we have ever seen, permitting access to people

and information in ways and at speeds never before possible. Such changes have important

implications for instruction, assessment, professional development, and research. The literacy

community needs to quickly turn its attention to these profound changes. The researcher applied

this theory in order to address the importance of using ICT for teaching in a digital age and its

demand.

Relevance of this theory is that, it helps the researcher to explain to the educators their

responsibility on effective integration of new technologies into the curriculum, in order to

prepare students for the future they deserve especially use of computer technology for their

living. It explains the advantages of using ICT that is it brings equity of access to ICTs will

ensure literacy opportunities for children around the world. Teachers Education programs can

play a critical role in preparing teachers to use new technologies for instruction (Bruce, 2007:

8

Grishan & Wolsey, 2009). The critique of this theory is that it does not consider the challenges

including how the change in technology can affect the use of ICT especially in developing

countries like Tanzania.

9

1.8 Definition of Key Terms

Information and Communication Technology: A study of the use of computers, internet,

video and other technology.

Head of School: is a person who administers the school with other teaching and non-teaching

staff. Accordingly, the head of school is regarded as the chief executive of the school, who is

responsible for all that, happens in the school.

Secondary School: A learning institution in the -4-2- system joined after standard seven.

Students: Refers to learner, or someone who attends an educational institution to acquire

knowledge, skills and change.

Teacher: Refers to a professional person who provides education for learners and students.

10

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.0 Introduction

In this part, literature relating to the use advantages of using ICT in teaching and learning,

perception of teachers and students towards the use of ICT in teaching and learning, challenges

facing the use of ICT in teaching and learning and the intervention measures to the challenges

facing the use of ICT in teaching and learning was discussed.

2.1 The Theoretical Literature

2.1.1 Learning Theory

In the 20th and 21st centuries, many scholars attempted to define teaching and learning. These

definitions became theories of teaching and learning, created to try and clarify the meaning of

both. Learning theories provide us with conceptual frameworks of interpretation for the act of

learning, and show us where to look for solutions to practical problems. Teaching methods are in

the main based on theories of learning. The most important learning theories are Behaviourism

and Constructivism. These two approaches are based on two main schools of psychology that

have influenced learning theory. They have different perspectives on learning, different

perspectives on teaching styles, and different approaches to pedagogy and evaluation.

Constructivist learning theory has been used to study the impact of ICT on teaching and learning.

This learning theory contributes to understanding both the construction of and relationship

between curricula and events. It also provides direction for research and implementation.

Because of the influence of the constructivist learning movement, the theory of constructive

learning emphasizes the teachers’ central role in academic curricula and suggests improvement

11

according to the teachers’ needs and interests (Gredler, 2000; Woolfolk, 2006). This theory

supports the individual’s growth and enables the students to explore their learning potential.

Despite of different theorists’ definitions of learning, a majority are agreed that learning happens

when experience leads to a constant change in the individual’s knowledge or manner (Weiten,

2002). What is meant by experience in this definition experience is the interaction of the person

with his or her environment‟ (Woolfolk, 2006).

2.1.2 Constructivist Principles

Learning theories based on mannerist and knowledge theories dominated the 20th century. Their

principles have contributed to the enhancement of organized teaching practice through which the

teacher transmits information and knowledge to students through methods similar to lecturing.

Mannerist and knowledge directions placed little emphasis on students input and their

contributions in the teaching and learning process. Accordingly, students could be deemed by

these theories to be passive participants in the learning process (Woolfolk, 2006). In contrast to

knowledge and mannerist theories which emphasized the important role played by the teacher

and the organized transfer of content, the constructionist theory emphasized the students‟ central

role in the learning process and acknowledged the students‟ ability to construct meaning through

their learning (Kanuka & Anderson, 1999).

Despite of the policy of implementing constructionist practices in the second half of the past

century, the theories that formed student centered learning was simplified. Constructionism has

been influenced as a learning theory by the writings and thoughts of Biajeh and Vijeotski

(Woolfolk, 2006). The organization of constructionist learning environments is done such that

students are asked to construct meaning from the context and actively participate in the process

of problem solving. Constructionism supports interaction between students and their teachers,

12

and this contributes to the creation of an environment in which all students and teachers

participate in the learning process. Learning construction happens through the constructionist

environment at different times. Accordingly, constructionist theory implies that there are no

specific goals and frameworks to be followed (Gance, 2002). Generally, the following principles

are drawn from the constructionist approach (Brooks & Brooks, 1999; Kanuka & Anderson,

1999) Learning is an active process through which the learner constructs meaning. There must be

previous experience and knowledge for learning new things. Individuals learn for the sake of

learning constitutes the meaning and its systems. Motivation is regarded essential for learning.

Learning practice is considered important for active learning. Practical training activities have to

be emphasized. Learning represents a social activity, as our interaction with others is extremely

important. Language is an important component of the learning process. Language is regarded

as context bound. Our learning is tied to what we know and believe in. It is also tied to our

previous judgments and fears. Learning is not instant. It occurs over a period of time.

2.1.3 Constructivism and Constructionism

Partly in reaction to didactic approaches such as behaviorism and programmed instruction,

constructivists have argued that learning is an active, contextualized process of constructing

knowledge rather than acquiring it. This theoretical stance actively opposes traditionalist,

didactic, transmissions of knowledge. Seymour Papert and Idit Harel(1991), define learning as

building knowledge structures irrespective of the circumstances of the learning.

Theorists like Edith Ackerman (2001), also see a smooth transition between constructivism and

constructionism, between Piaget (1969) and Papert, seeing constructionism largely as a more

situated learning theory, especially valuable in cybernetics and more socially contexted than

Piagets earlier work.

13

Constructivism asserts that learning is an active, constructive process. The learner is an

information constructor. The learner actively constructs or creates his/her own subjective

representations of objective reality. New information is linked to prior knowledge, existing

schemata always activated (Ackerman, 2001).

2.1.4 Constructive Classrooms

Constructivist theory emphasizes the importance of experience and learning based on

experiments. Students play a pivotal role in the learning process. The teacher’s role appears in

directing and supporting students to construct meaning and understand situations. Practitioners

and scientists have claimed that constructionism cannot be implemented in a traditional

knowledge environment. They support that constructionism goes beyond formal learning which

relates to students previous experiences. Howe and Berv (2000), acknowledged the pointlessness

of avoiding direct teaching, especially when teaching children, with the conclusion that it is

ineffective to depend solely on constructionist teaching patterns.

Constructionism differs from other educational practices in that most other types of learning

emphasise the importance of acquisition of knowledge and information. The essence of

constructionism appears in the individual’s personal experience of learning and reflection

(Jonassen, Peck & Wilson, 1999; Kafai and Resnick, 1996). During the learning process,

students’ activities are considered important and basic for constructing knowledge. Meaningful

learning occurs when there is collaboration among learners, teachers, and specialists in this

domain. Activities are not organized officially inside constructionist classrooms through

timetables or plans that students are required to follow. Students actively help in planning and

organizing the activities within the classroom. This contributes to stimulating and encouraging

them to think. The methods of teaching and learning are characterized by flexibility and

14

comprehending student’s viewpoints and thoughts (Gould, 1996; Jonssen, Peck & Wilson,

1999).

Classrooms and constructionist programmers exhibit the following characteristics (Gould, 1996;

Jonssen, Peck & Wilson, 1999): learning focuses on thoughts instead of facts; the learning

process implies interaction between students and teachers; focus on the construction of

knowledge instead of repetition; encouraging and supporting dialogue and discourse within a

complicated world which involves various representations of knowledge; students interests

define learning; and learning experiences emphasize the prominence of realistic activities.

2.1.5 Criticisms of Constructionist Theory

Despite its progressive ideas about the nature of learning, constructionism evokes a number of

criticisms. Fears surrounding its principles and applications are centered on the following

(Roblyer & Edwards, 2000): Permitting learning skill Despite constructionist’s condemnation of

formal tests and objective assessments, schools need sometimes to authenticate the basic skills

which the students have learnt. Previous knowledge, a lot of students lack the previous skills

which enable them to deal with the complicated problems and solving them according to what

constructionist strategies require. Selecting the most effective teaching, it is difficult for students

to choose for themselves the methods through which they will learn to solve problems.

Specifying suitable topics for constructionist methods sometimes tension occurs when choosing

appropriate topics for a particular event and when covering one topic deeply is preferred to

talking in elaboration on many topics. Skill transfer to practical situations fears also arise over

the ease of transferring problem solving skills that were learnt in practical situations inside the

school to problems, which students have to solve in real life.

15

As is the case with any change, constructionist directions in learning pose risks for students,

parents, teachers and administrators (Jonassen, Peck & Wilson, 1999). Some may suppose that

constructionism burdens students and exempts teachers from the responsibility of their teaching

capabilities. Nevertheless, contrary to this conception, teachers in the constructivist learning

environment do not give up their responsibility, but play different roles as facilitators for

students learning (Brooks & Brooks, 1999).

2.1.6 The Application of ICT in a Constructivist Approach

Constructivism argues that learning is interactive and argues for the autonomy and active

participation of the student. The learner is an information constructor and actively builds his/her

own subjective representations of reality. New information is related to previous knowledge in

terms of schema development. Followers of constructivism include such names as Vygotsky,

Piaget, Dewey, Vico, Rorty, and Bruner (Learning Theories Knowledgebase, 2009).

Constructivism as a term covers a huge theoretical area. Constructivist learning theorists range

from the individual cognitive and personal constructivism of Piaget, to the social constructivism

of Vygotsky. There are many other types of constructivism but there are certain ideas that all

constructivists have in common. Taber (2006), describes them as being:

The active construction of knowledge by the learner knowledge is not passively received from

the outside. Here the theory is vastly different from behaviourism, which defines learning as an

externally modified behavior. Learning according to constructivists is therefore something the

learner does, not something that the learner is compelled to do.

Learners have prior knowledge so they come to the learning situation with ideas about many

things. These ideas are called schemas and teachers have to take them into consideration and

make teaching relevant to these conceptual structures.

16

Learners have their own individual ideas about reality and generate their own meaning

structures to cope with everyday living.

Their ideas often contradict or clash with accepted scientific ideas or with school curricula and

are culturally or socially conditioned.

Knowledge is described by these theorists as conceptual structures in the brain and it is possible

to describe and to model them.

Instructional Design and teaching has to take the learner's prior knowledge into account if the

educators want to achieve their educational aims and objectives.

Knowledge is both personal and individual and at the same time has a social dimension.

Learners construct their conceptual schemas by interacting with the social world, in social

settings and within cultural and linguistic contexts.

2.1.7. ICT and Constructionist Theory

The use of ICT enables opportunities for learning environments and practices that require

interaction among individuals, cooperation with chances to experiencing learning, and the

principles which constructionism supports. Many educational establishments, especially at a post

secondary school level, work on supporting integrating technology into teaching and learning.

Kanuka and Anderson (1999), provide an example of the use of the internet for learning, as

learners use the internet and explore it in different ways and explore it in different directions.

According to Gance (2002), it is not always true to suppose that because technology facilitates

student focused learning, constructionist strategies centered on learners are used to play a central

role in their learning when ICT is utilized. At most times the use of software and the internet do

17

not agree with the constructionist philosophy. For example, it could be argued that a course

about the internet individually directed towards learners does not emphasize cooperation,

interaction or the software which is meant for training and which in practice can implement the

constructionist pattern (Gance, 2002). Additionally, Gance (2002), points out the flaws

associated with some aspects of using ICT, notably in areas such as electronic learning or subject

specific software. These methods are associated with short answer or multiple choice testing.

Constructionism invites students to show their understanding in more profound ways, to explain

or confirm their knowledge through assembling the information extracted previously in the

manner of a new conclusion or solution design. Such short answers do not allow this. The

present short tests based on technology, despite being a great improvement in programming

technology, are not considered an improvement in the teaching process.

Technology may represent an important tool for facilitating and enhancing the implementation of

the constructionist pattern; however, it is not the only method to be used as an example for

constructionism. The use of only ICT to create a teaching environment that draws on

constructionist principles will not give the required effect. Indeed, it may have a reverse effect

through weakening constructionist practices (Gance, 2002).

2.2 Empirical Literature

2.2.1 Advantages of using ICT in Teaching and Learning in Secondary schools

ICT is important in schools and educational institutions as it assists in carrying out their activities

and functions such as record keeping, research work, instructional uses, presentations, financial

analysis, examination results management, communication, supervision, MIS, teaching-learning

activities, and general school management functions. According to Peeraer and Petergem (2011),

ICT benefits schools in several ways: enhancing learning in classroom, improving school

18

management and related tasks, improving accountability, efficiency and effectiveness in school

activities, introducing usage of Power Point presentations and internet. Keengwe and Onchwari

(2011), support the view that ICT in schools can lead to high quality teaching and learning.

Jhuree (2005), Yusuf (2005), Dzidonu (2010), Higgins and Moseley (2011), and Rebecca and

Marshall (2012), found that availability and usage of ICT improves the knowledge and learning

skills of students. Hence, it compels policy formulation for the education sector. Literature

reveals that when well-utilized, ICT in schools has the potential to improve the teaching and

learning process in many ways. ICT is learner centric and hence brings about active involvement

of students in the learning process. Students get motivated when learning activities are

challenging, authentic, multi sensorial and multi disciplinary. Schools tend to witness a higher

attendance, motivation levels, academic accomplishments and effective communication as an

outcome of ICT programs and projects. Teachers too gain as a result of ICT initiatives. They find

ICT to be useful for teaching as well as for personal and professional work.

Application of ICT in teaching makes teaching more innovative, interesting, interactive, easy and

effective. It complements the traditional teaching and learning process. While imparting

knowledge with the aid of ICT, educators find that students are more receptive and responsive.

Also, ICT can help to impart more information and knowledge to students in a shorter time,

enabling maximum utilization of resources and time. However, from the above studies

challenges facing the use of ICT in teaching remain overlooked. The current research study fills

in the gaps for the reviewed literature from Arusha City Tanzania.

Against this, the study explores the issues and challenges associated with the implementation of

ICT in rural schools in India. The study also makes suggestions for improving ICT assisted

education in Indian schools. In India, ASER (2014) reports a small increase in the availability of

19

computers in the rural schools visited. Computer availability has increased from 15.8 percent in

2010 to 19.6 percent in 2014. Several states stand out in this regard. In Gujarat, 81.3 percent of

schools visited had computers; Kerala witnessed a record of 89.8 percent schools with computer

facilities; Maharashtra with 46.3 percent computer enabled schools and 62.4 percent schools in

Tamil Nadu. The reviewed study above was carried out in India but not in Tanzania. Therefore,

the present study fills the gaps in literature by providing findings from Arusha City Tanzania.

Olatunji (2016), conducted a research carried out an in depth finding on the availability of ICT

equipment’s in selected state secondary schools in the Ado Odo Ota Local Government of

Nigeria. Researcher tried to look at various literatures review about the concept of Information

and Communication Technologies in Schools, it uses, it benefits to both teachers and students

and the environment. Numerous researchers characterize what Information, Communication

Technologies is, yet that of the (UNDP), and Ogunsola perspectives are the most adequate. But

the study did not consider the level of technology between localities. Therefore, the present study

will present study fills in gaps in the literature by providing findings for Arusha City Tanzania.

Ogunsola view (2005), on ICT is an electronic based game plan of information transmission,

social event, taking care of and recuperation, which has unquestionably changed the way we

think, the way we live and nature in which we live. It can be used to get to overall learning and

correspondence with different people Ogunsola (2005), ICT is an electronic based arrangement

of data transmission, gathering, preparing and recovery, it change the way we think and live

among others. According to Apple Computer (2002), students who use ICTs have more ideas in

solving complex situation, which are, through ICT it develops the imagination and visual skills

of learner so far it can be accessible. The above studies assume that all school environments are

the same. While their arguments are important, they did not account for the challenges facing

20

effective use of ICT in secondary schools. Thus, the current study fills in the gaps for reviewed

literature.

The formation of ICT policies in education, although embedded in the national ICT policies of

the East African countries, is seen to be crucial as ICT plays an important role in preparing

individuals in school for the workplace (Rubagiza, Denley and Sutherland, 2007). ICT, if

carefully integrated in education, has a potential to facilitate the acquisition of relevant life skills

that buttress the development process in the prevailing economic and information order

(Rubagiza, 2007).

Tchombe et al (2008), posited that it is not just acquiring the knowledge of ICT that is important

but also teachers need to understand how to use ICT pedagogically. He asserted that ICT if used

appropriately can stimulate the development of higher cognitive skills, deepen learning and

contribute to the acquisition of skills needed for learning all lifelong and for working in today's

job market. This study did not address the intervention measures to the use of ICT in teaching.

Therefore, the current study fills in gaps in literature by providing new findings from Arusha

City Tanzania.

2.2.2 Teachers Perception on the use of ICT for Teaching and Learning

Although pedagogical and didactical use of ICT in education seems to be emphasized, research

has shown that teachers feel unprepared to teach with the digital technologies available to them

in schools. The OECD’s first and second Teacher and Learning International Survey (TALIS)

revealed that considerable proportions of teachers in lower secondary school reported a high

level of need for professional development in “ICT teaching skills” (OECD, 2009) and using

new technologies in the workplace (OECD, 2014). In Norway (Carlsten, 2014; Vibe, Aamodt, &

21

Carlsten, 2009), the recently reported needs for professional development in ICT teaching skills

have decreased slightly since the first survey (OEC, 2014).

Moreover, the recent International Computer and Information Literacy Study (ICILS, 2014)

showed that 75% of lower-secondary grade 9 pupils in Norway used their computers daily at

home. However, only 8% of them used computers daily for school related purposes (Hatlevik

&Throndsen, 2015; Ottestad, Throndsen, Hatlevik, & Rohatgi, 2014). In addition, on a digital

skill level scale from 1 (lowest) to 4 (highest), nearly one out of four pupils (24%) scored on the

lowest digital skill level (Hatlevik & Throndsen, 2015; Ottestad, Throndsen, et al., 2014). These

results might indicate a continuing challenge for teachers and schools to keep up to date with the

current and evolving technological trends, understand how to utilize ICT to benefit teaching and

pupils’ learning, and learn how to develop pupils’ digital competence. Furthermore, these needs

for professional development for teaching with ICT might be decreased if they were properly

addressed with student -teachers in teacher education.

According to Erstad (2010b), the way people perceive ICT must evolve for it to be used in a

pedagogical way. He argued that pedagogical use of ICT needs to move away from an

instrumental or tool-based understanding, where it is perceived as a means to achieve certain

goals, to an expanded conceptual understanding as a medium. Here, ICT represents the new

physical and abstract technological forms which permeate our social and cultural processes, and

which “humans use to mediate their opinions, comprehension, and knowledge” (Erstad, 2010b).

However this study was in a developed nation with different opportunities compared to

Tanzania. Therefore the present study fills in the gaps in literature by providing findings from

Arusha City Tanzania.

22

Vekiri (2010) carried out an explorative study within the context of an intermediate computer

school in Greece. This study sought to examine the values and beliefs of both genders in relation

to computer machines and ICT, parents’ conscious support, teachers’ expectations, and

conceptions of the nature of teaching ICT. Over 300 students participated in the study, and

answered a self-report questionnaire.

The analysis showed that the teachers’ expectations were positively connected with students’

beliefs of ability, and that the conceptions of the educational activities were creative and

effective on a personal level, and greatly influenced student’s interest in the field of IT. Also,

parents support was connected with students’ values and beliefs on the efficiency of ICT.

Contrary to earlier studies, the findings of this study did not support the claim that males do

better than females in relation to the personal values and beliefs connected with ICT. Moreover,

the study pointed out that males and females beliefs are influenced differently by parents,

teachers and the school teaching of informatics. However Greece is well of in technology

compared to Tanzania. The present study therefore fills the gaps in literature by focusing on

Arusha City Tanzania.

During the eLearning Africa conference, Traxler, (2009) argued that , in Africa, mobile learning

is partly a way of dealing with the challenges of poor connectivity, mains electricity, and PC

availability on the one hand, and on the other hand, has been stimulated by the enormous spread

of mobile phones and by the vigor and talent of the mobile phone networks. However this study

did not explain the students and teachers perception on pedagogical use of ICT for teaching and

learning in secondary schools. Therefore the present study fills in the gaps for the reviewed

literature for Arusha City Tanzania.

23

It has been noted that within a school different students may have different levels of access based

on the subjects they opt for. In Uganda, students taking computer studies as a subject have

greater access to computers and in schools that have cyber schooling and computer clubs,

science students and club members often enjoy greater access to the computer rooms (Ndidde,

Lubega, Babikwa & Baguma, 2009). However, this study did not consider the differences

between rural and urban localities in ICT use. Therefore, the present study fills in the gaps for

the reviewed literature for Arusha City Tanzania.

Hare (2007), reporting on the info Dev-supported ICT survey for Tanzania indicated that most

private schools in the country were already users of ICT despite the lack of a formal setting or

policy framework then. It was reported that the push was provided by the parents and students

desiring to achieve high national grades. This report further indicated that the use of the ICTs

was confined to administrative work and not really evident in the classrooms; it was mainly

concentrated in secondary schools. Teacher professional development, the findings of the survey

done in 53 countries reveal that most of them have invested in developing the capacity of

teachers to use ICT for teaching and learning through both in service and pre service

programmes (Farrell & Isaacs, 2007). Most of the programmes emphasize the development of

basic ICT skills and occasionally included the application of ICT as a teaching and learning tool

for teachers. This is an important outcome since having resources without the expertise on how

to use them is a sure path towards wastage of investment. It is also clear that there is a need to

expand the professional development programmes as the findings do not portray a picture of

large scale professional development but rather smaller proportions of the teaching force are

reached by these initiatives. The impacts of initial and continuing teacher education programmes

on ICT use in schools and the issues arising, including teacher confidence and beliefs about ICT.

24

In the absence of widespread fixed phone line access, mobile connectivity is emerging as a

powerful means of providing connectivity in Africa and over 90% of phones are now digital.

Further studies (Tella, 2007), found that computer use was predicted by intentions to use it and

that perceived usefulness was also strongly linked to these intentions. Generally, if the ICTs are

available, this will motivate teachers to access them more than when they are not available or

available but not in sufficient quantity and quality. The current study fills in the gaps for

reviewed literature by providing findings from Arusha City Tanzania.

A range of studies have looked at why teachers choose to use ICT. These typically involve

conducting case studies of classroom use in a particular setting or from a longitudinal

perspective. For instance Tella, Toyobo, Adika & Adeyinka (2007), examined Nigerian

secondary school teachers’ uses of ICTs and implications for further development of ICT use in

schools using a census of 700 teachers. The findings showed that most teachers perceived ICT as

very useful and as making teaching and learning easier. It was recommended that professional

development policies should support ICT related teaching models, in particular those that

encourage both students and teachers to play an active role in teaching activities. Additionally,

emphasis should be placed on the pedagogy underlying the use of ICTs for teaching and

learning. However this study overlooked the challenges facing effective use of ICT in secondary

schools. The present study account for the challenges facing use of ICT to fill the gaps for the

reviewed literature.

Research and active projects, such as those runned by EdQual51, a Research Consortium of

educational institutions in the UK and Africa (Ghana, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania) on

Educational Quality, typically indicate two main reasons why teachers use ICT: teachers feel that

25

their own use of computers benefits their learners, and teachers feel learners benefit from using

computers themselves; they gain confidence, self-esteem and renewed motivation. This result

was to general. The present study fills in the gaps for the reviewed literature.

Ndibalema (2014), researched on teachers attitudes towards the use of Information and

Communication Technology (ICT) as a pedagogical Tool in Secondary Schools in Tanzania the

findings shows that, teachers receive insufficient training and the focus is mainly on basic ICT

skills rather than pedagogical skills. This is consistent with the suggestion by (Cubukcuoglu,

2013), who stresses that the training among teachers should not only include basic technology

skills but also provide training on improving pedagogical use of technology. This kind of

training will help teachers feel confident and competent while using ICT at the right time and

opportunity. In my view, the above discussion sends a very strong message to educational

stakeholders in Tanzania that teachers need sufficient pedagogical training about ICT. Therefore

the present study fills in the gaps for reviewed literature in Arusha City Tanzania.

2.2.3 The Challenges that Face the use of ICT in Teaching

According to Shradha (2016), who did a study about the use of ICT for teaching in schools and

came out with the following as challenges of using ICT in India.

Lack of trained teachers. A major obstacle in the use of ICT in rural education is the lack of

knowledge and skills. There is dearth of dynamic teachers formally trained in ICT. Moreover,

there is hardly any quality training imparted on a regular basis to teachers involved in ICT

education.

Unfavorable Organizational Culture and Poor Attitude and Beliefs. Is often in developing

nations, the educational organizations and school management fail to perceive the importance

26

and seriousness of the role of ICT in education enhancement. Also, the teachers‟ attitudes and

beliefs are outdated and orthodox. They are unaware and rigid and not willing to adapt to the

change. They harbor false beliefs that ICT is meant primarily for the youngsters and are skeptical

about the effectiveness and utility of ICTs in school education.

Shortage of time. In schools, teachers are usually burdened with multiple tasks other than

teaching. Moreover, they have to teach all subjects along with ICT. They do not have time to

design, develop and incorporate technology into teaching and learning. The teacher needs time to

collaborate with other teachers as well as learn how to use hardware and software and at the

same time keep oneself updated with the latest technology.

Issues of maintenance and upgrading of equipment. Maintenance and upgrading of ICT

equipments in rural schools is subject to their limited financial resources. Largely, the

government initiatives are restricted by budgetary constraints. The ICT projects in rural schools

are not self-sustainable. When the projects launched by government or private sector phases out,

the maintenance of equipments need to be borne by the students. The students often with weak

economic backgrounds are unable to fund the maintenance and computing facilities expenses.

Insufficient funds. Appropriate and latest hardware and software facility availability determines

the effective and efficient usage of technology. In developing countries, technology

implementation into education systems is a difficult task as it requires a magnum of funds,

infrastructure and support facilities. Lack or insufficiency of finances leads to redundant and

obsolete infrastructure and equipments in rural schools leaving a huge lacuna in the process of

enabling ICT skills and imparting ICT education; thereby rendering the entire ICT experience

meaningless (Shradha,2016).

27

Challenge of language and content. A large proportion of the educational software produced in

the world market is in English. Majority of online content is available in English. In developing

countries, English language proficiency is not high, especially outside the urban areas which

becomes a serious barrier to maximizing the educational benefits of ICT. Crucial external

barriers in the implementation of ICT in rural schools are:

Shortage of equipments There is lack of computers and computer-related resources such as

printers, projectors, scanners. The ratio of computer per student is insufficient. The option of

private schools is limited or missing in these regions. There is a mismatch between the

complementing resources and inappropriate combination of ICT resources resulting into reduced

diffusion of technology as well as poor ICT understanding in these educational institutions.

Unreliability of equipment. Even the basic ICT equipments and computers possessed by rural

schools are unreliable and undependable. The schools lack up to date hardware and software

availability. Old and obsolete equipments are major hindrances to ICT adoption and application.

Lack of technical support. Rural schools face issues related to technical know-how, absence of

ICT service centers, shortage of trained technical personnel. Whether provided by in-school staff

or external service providers, or both, technical support specialists are essential to the continued

viability of ICT use in a given school. Without on-site technical support, much time and money

may be lost due to technical breakdowns. One of the major obstacles to optimizing computer use

in schools has been the lack of timely technical support (Shradha,2016).

Resource related issues and internet. Rural schools usually face trouble with respect to the

availability of ICT related resources such as supporting infrastructure, uninterrupted electricity,

supplementary resources like multimedia, projectors, scanners, smart boards. Despite being an

integral component of the ICT, internet is lacking in most rural schools. Most schools cannot

28

afford the high fees charged by internet providers and even where there is internet, slow or

erratic connectivity destroys the very essence and impact of ICT (Shradha, 2016).

Other external factors inhibiting the usage of ICT in rural schools are social and cultural factors

inherent to these regions, lack of initiative by community leaders, corruption and burglary.

Although ICT has the potential to improve education system of a country to a great extent, yet it

is not the case in the developing countries. There are multiple issues and challenges confronting

the implementation of ICT education in schools and educational institutions in these countries

and the problems are much more magnified in case of schools located in remote villages and

rural areas. For rural schools in specific, the introduction of ICT faces hindrances in the form of

internal and external barriers (Shradha, 2016). However the study did not explain what should be

done in order to solve those challenges. The present study therefore fills in gaps in literature by

focusing on Arusha City Tanzania.

2.2.4 Intervention Measures to the Challenges facing the usage of ICT in Teaching and

Learning.

According to Roken (2016), who conducted a research about the use of ICT in teaching English

language in Norway came with the following findings, knowing how to critically use digital

technologies or digital competence is as an important aspect for social interaction, civic

inclusion, work, and education in today’s knowledge based economy (Aesaert & van Braak,

2015; Castells, 1996; European Commission, 2007; Janssen et al., 2013). This is reflected in the

way digital competence has been listed as important for citizens and educators of the future

workforce in, for instance, policy documents (European Commission, 2007), frameworks

(Ferrari, 2012; UNESCO, 2011), and national curricula for schools and teacher education

(Ministry of Education and Research, 2006a, 2013).

29

Currently, the critical role of ICT in a number of professions in the information or knowledge

society such as in finance, computer science, healthcare, and teaching (Plomp, 2013) has led to

an increased demand for new skills. For example, while some researchers have recognized that

the development of digital competence is highly relevant for starting new business ventures

(Scuotto & Morellato, 2013), others have focused on the social ramifications and referred to

issues such as enabling active participation in a democratic society (Pope & Walton, 2009) and

empowering participants to become engaged citizen (Meyers, Erickson, & Small, 2013;

Pangrazio, 2014). However, these claims have also met scrutiny (Selwyn, 2013), as researchers

have argued that the use of ICT and digital devices in the classroom have little or even a negative

impact on students’ learning outcomes and test scores (Ravizza, Hambrick, & Fenn, 2014). Yet,

others have asserted that ICT can have a positive impact when technology, rather than being used

in traditional teacher centered ways for content delivery and instruction, is used to support

students’ efforts to achieve (Tamim, 2011). To increase demand for new skills in learning has

been proposed for the above study in Norway. However the present study fills in the gaps for

intervention measures in the use of ICT for effective teaching by providing findings from Arusha

City Tanzania.

2.3 Research Gap

From the literature review, there is no enough explanation on the influence of ICT on effective

teaching in Tanzania Secondary schools. In spite of various importance of using ICT for

effective teaching in secondary schools there are few studies especially in East Africa, Tanzania

in particular. Studies done on the influence of ICT on effective teaching in secondary schools

have been done mostly in Kenya and Nigeria but few studies have been conducted in Tanzania.

However, the reason as to how ICT contributes to effective teaching is not well explained. For

30

instance, Ndibalema (2014), researched on teachers attitudes towards the use of Information and

Communication Technology (ICT) as a pedagogical Tool in Secondary Schools in Tanzania, the

findings shows that teachers receive insufficient training and the focus is mainly on basic ICT

skills rather than pedagogical skills. The study used quantitative approach to arrive at its

findings. Despite the findings, the challenges that affect effective teaching due to the influence of

ICT continue to exist. So far, no study has recorded findings that are geared towards a lasting

solution to these challenges. Therefore the current study used mixed method as an approach to

collect and analyze data on the influence of ICT on effective teaching in secondary schools. The

study was done in Tanzania specifically in Arusha City. Consequently, the current study sought

to investigate the influence of ICT on effective teaching in secondary schools in Arusha City.

31

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the research design(s), study area, target population, sample size and

sampling procedures, research instruments, validity and reliability of instruments, data collection

procedures, data analysis and ethical consideration.

3.1 Research Design

Research design is a framework of an investigation, which gives directions and systematized

research work. It shows how to collect data, analyze, and interpret data by using quantitative and

qualitative research. Krishnashnaw (2007), defines research design as a logical and systematic

arrangement prepared for the aim of directing on how to undertake a research study. It shows the

objectives of the study, data collection, analysis and interpreting the observation.

In conducting this study, the researcher used explanatory sequential design or two-phase model.

In this design, quantitative data were collected followed by qualitative data. Creswell (2012),

indicated that explanatory sequential design is the most popular form of mixed methods design in

educational research. The reasons for the use of this design is that quantitative data and results

provide a general picture of a research problem but more analysis, specifically from qualitative

data collection, is needed to be refined in order to explain the general picture. Explanatory

sequential design has the advantage of having clearly identified quantitative and qualitative parts

to the reader (Creswell, 2014).

32

3.1.1 Research Approach

Mixed method research approach was used in this study. Mixed method is a procedure for

collecting, analyzing and mixing both quantitative and qualitative methods in a single study or a

series of studies to understand a research problem (Creswell, 2012). The use of both quantitative

and qualitative methods, in combination, provides a better understanding of a research problem

and question than a single method. A mixed methodology approach was employed in this study,

because it balances the strengths and weaknesses of both quantitative and qualitative research

(Creswell & Plano Clark 2007). There are many advantages of using a mixed method approach

for this particular research focus, which is the influence of ICT on effective teaching a study of

selected secondary schools in Arusha City. This mixed method approach provides the best

opportunities for answering the important research questions of this study, the answers of which

based upon a variety forms of data.

3.2 Study Area

The study was conducted at Arusha City Council. Arusha Council is one among seven districts

council of Arusha Region of Tanzania. The area of the study is chosen because Arusha City is

among the rapidly growing city where human population is increasing day to day hence rapid

increase of ward secondary schools is not well integrated with ICT in teaching and learning

(URT,2017).

3.3 Target Population

Creswell (2014), defines the term population to include the people with the same characteristics

the researcher wish to investigate. The current study focused mainly on the influence of ICT on

effective teaching in public secondary schools. The target population included 26 public head of

schools, 974 teachers from public secondary school, 22,460 students from public secondary

33

schools in Arusha City Council. From this population sampling procedures were conducted to

reduce the number so as to get the representative who was respondents of the study.

3.4. Sample Size and Sampling Procedure

Mugenda (2003), define a sample as a group obtained from the accessible population. This group

is carefully selected so as to be representative of the whole population. Orodho (2009), also

defines a sampling as the process of selecting a sub set of cases in order to draw conclusions

about the entire set.

In this study, the researcher used both probability and non probability techniques. In probability

sampling, there is random selection of participants for the study and each respondent in the

population has an equal and independent chance of being selected in the sample (Kothari, 2014).

Non-probability sampling does not use randomization of the sample population.

Probability sampling, especially simple random sampling was employed to select five teachers

from every school out of 10 schools chosen for the study. Therefore a total 50 teachers out of

974 teachers were the respondents in this study. The researcher gave every teacher a number and

picked the number randomly to get the sample needed (Kothari, 2011).

Stratified sampling was employed to select 100 students out of 22,460 students in which the

researcher selected only form four students to participate in the study because the researcher

believed that they have more exposure on ICT compared to other lower classes. The students

were stratified according to their gender then grouped to select 10 students from each group. This

group was selected because the researcher believes that they have more experience concerning

the use of ICT for learning purpose. Purposive sampling was used to select 10 heads of the

school in which most qualitative data was obtained (Kothari, 2014).

34

3.5. Research Instruments

In this study the researcher used questionnaires and interview which were prepared by the

researcher as the tool for of data collection as two basic types of data gathering instruments (Ary,

2010).

The questionnaires included closed-ended questions which were administered to teachers and

students. Ary (2010), contends that, questionnaires data can be entered into a computer system

for analysis and quick response. Both open ended and closed ended questions were used for

teachers and students. Questionnaires were chosen because of limited time to the researcher and

chance to ensure confidentiality of information given.

In this study the researcher used semi structured interview to collect data which included 10

heads of secondary schools. Use of interview schedules as one of the research instruments is

emphasized by Ary (2010), who observed that most of the people are willing to communicate

orally than in writing and therefore provide data more readily in an interview. With semi

structured interview the researcher was free to ask additional detailed questions that can explore

more deeply into participants deep inner feelings that means a researcher did not stick to the

interview guide only.

3.5.1. Questionnaires for Students

The questionnaire for students contains Section A that was for seeking demographic information

of the respondents. Section B item 1 to 5 investigated the advantages of using ICT in teaching,

item 6 to 10 investigated the students perception in the use of ICT, item 11 to 15 investigated

challenges facing the use of ICT in teaching, finally the researcher investigated the intervention

measures to challenges facing the use of ICT in teaching by using open ended questionnaire.

35

3.5.2. Questionnaires for Teachers

Questionnaires for teachers include two sections. Section A: That will seek demographic

information of the respondents, which involves gender, academic qualification, and professional

experience in years and designation.

Section B: Item 1 to 5 closed questionnaires on advantages of using ICT in teaching, item 6 to 10

investigated teacher’s perception in the use of ICT, and item 11 to 17 will investigate the

challenges facing the use of ICT in teaching. The last item open ended questionnaires were used

to investigate the intervention measures to challenges facing the use of ICT in teaching.

3.5.3. Interview Schedule for Head of Schools

Interview schedule for the head of schools included five sample guiding questions about ICT

tools found in schools, how teachers use ICT in schools, advantages of using ICT, challenges of

using ICT for teaching and solutions to challenges facing the use of ICT in teaching and

learning.

3.6. Validity and Reliability of Instruments

3.6.1. Validity of Instruments

According to Mugenda (2003), validity is the degree to which results obtained from the analysis

of data actually represents phenomena under study. This study applied content validity. In

checking content validity the instruments was taken to St. Augustine University research experts

to check its validity before the researcher went for data collection. The recommendations from

expertise were then used to improve the content of the instruments before they were administered

to respondents. Validity for qualitative data was done by interviewing some heads of selected

schools twice through the interview schedule the same data were obtained hence data collected

were validated (Creswell, 2012).

36

3.6.2 Reliability of Instruments

Gall and Borg (2003), defines reliability of the instrument as the quality of measured procedure

that provides repeatability and accuracy of the research instruments. The current research used

test retest in checking reliability of instruments. Creswell (2012), define test retest as the degree

to which the results are consistence overtime. In order to measure test retest reliability the

researcher administered the test at two different times to the same participants, if the score at two

times correlate then it is reliable. The closest of the score between one test to the other score the

more reliable of the tool but if the score differ means that the tool is not reliable.

Before collecting data for this study, the researcher carried a pilot study in two randomly selected

public secondary schools in Arusha City Council, which were not included in this study. Two

heads of secondary schools were interviewed in order to obtain data about the influence of ICT

on effective teaching. Others included one teacher from two secondary schools, and four students

from two selected secondary schools, which were not included in the study. Teachers and

students filled the provided questionnaires. Piloting of the questionnaires was therefore being

carried out in order to detect any weakness such as vague statements in order to take corrective

measures. It also helped the researcher to revise the research instruments and determine whether

the respondents understand the questions or not.

The researcher used Cronbach’s Coefficient alpha method so as to determine reliability of these

instruments. The collected data were coded and entered into the computer using an SPSS

programme.

37

Table 3. 1. Reliability Statistics

Variables Students Teachers

Cronbach's

Alpha

N of

Items

Cronbach's

Alpha

N of

Items

Advantages of using ICT in teaching 0.564 5 0.805 5

Perception in the use of ICT for

teaching 0.381 5 0.592 5

Challenges facing the use of ICT in

teaching 0.570 5 0.857 7

Overall Reliability 0.622 15 0.860 17

Findings from table 3.1 indicated that the overall reliability of the instrument for students was

Cronbach’s Alpha 0.622 and 0.860 for teachers.

According to Amin (2005), a perfect reliable instrument has a coefficient alpha of 1.00, meaning

that all values close to 1.00 are reliable. According to Kothari (2011), if 10-20 items are used, the

minimum reliability value should be between 0.6 – 0.8. Therefore, the instruments provided were

proved reliable.

Dependability and credibility for qualitative instrument was done by using external auditor

(Creswell, 2013). Few heads of schools apart from ten chosen schools were interviewed later

after dealing with former selected schools. External auditors provided the same data hence

qualitative data was reliable.

3.7. Data Collection Procedures

The researcher collected a letter of introduction from St Augustine University Arusha center,

then submitted to the Arusha Regional Administrative Secretary for consent, after getting the

consent letter it was submitted to Arusha City Executive Director who issued a research permit

to collect data in secondary schools.

38

A researcher made a prior arrangement for the distribution of questionnaires where teachers and

students filled it and made an arrangement on the day, date and time of collecting questionnaires

from respondents. After collecting quantitative data from students and teachers immediately the

researcher asked for the appointment from head of secondary schools for interview date, day and

time then during interview schedule the researcher asked questions according to the interview

guiding questions prepared. The interview was done face to face. Interview Questions were

based on research objectives and answers were recorded. The researchers collected quantitative

data in the first phase, analyze the results and then used the results to plan the second qualitative

phase. The procedure involved collecting survey data in the first phase, analyzing the data and

then following up with qualitative interviews to help explaining the survey responses. Data

collection proceeded in two distinct phases.

3.8. Data Analysis Procedures

Data analysis comprised the interpretation of the data findings. The details of the data analysis

related to the research questions so that the required information was reliable and valid according

to the instructions of the research instruments. Mixed method was used to collect data by using

questionnaires and semi structured interview. Quantitative data were analyzed using simple

descriptive statistics presented in the form of frequencies, percentages and cross tabulations.

Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 program was used for analyzing

quantitative data. This statistical software was applied because of its ability of simplifying

analysis process instead of using manual calculation. Qualitative data were transcribed by using

frame work analysis; transcribed data was manually analyzed by thematic frame work

procedures which involve familiarization, identifying thematic framework and interpretation.

Familiarization involves repeated listening to the audio tape at the same time as reading the

39

transcript. Identifying thematic framework was done according to the study objectives, emerging

issues and concepts and coded according to the themes.

3.9. Ethical Consideration

The ethical issues were considered important from early stage of the research, which was to

ensure confidentiality of the respondents. Also the researcher acknowledged the authors used in

the research so as to avoid plagiarism. The primary purpose of research ethics was to protect

participating individuals and organization from any harm or adverse consequences that may

result from research activity. According to BERA formal ethical guide lines (Hammersley&

Traianon, 2012) five key criteria are identified: minimizing harm, respecting autonomy,

protecting privacy, offering reciprocity and treating people equitably. The researcher requested

for the consent from all administrative offices including Arusha Regional Office, Arusha City

Council Office and individual school. The researcher required an introductory letter from

directorate of the post graduate studies from St.Augustine University of Tanzania Arusha Centre,

which was taken to Regional Administrative Secretary (Arusha Regional) office who wrote a

consent letter to the Arusha City Executive Director who then issued a research permit that was

taken to secondary schools where data was collected. The researcher ensured that the study

adhered to human rights and national policies. Pseudo names were used for protection purpose.

40

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION

4.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the results of the analysis of the research data. This chapter is divided into

sections and subsections. These include Questionnaire return rate, demographic information of

the participants basing on the study objectives. Furthermore, other subsections present the data as

per the study objectives.

4.1 Questionnaire Return Rate

Questionnaire return rate is the proportion of the questionnaires returned after they have been

issued to the respondents. In this study, questionnaires were administered to 50 teachers, 100

students and all questionnaires were returned. Thus, the return rate was 100%. The Head of

secondary schools who were interviewed were 10 and all of them participated fully.

4.2 Demographic Information of the Participants

The following sub- section presents information on the respondents’ sex, professional experience

in years and designation of respondents.

The respondents from form four classes were asked to indicate their gender in this study.

Table 4.1. Presents the Summary of Students’ Gender

Gender Frequency Percent

Male 50 50

Female 50 50

Total 100 100

41

Findings from table 4.1 indicate that 50(50%) of the student were male while 50(50%) were

female. These findings suggest that male students were chosen equally to female students.

Table 4.2. Presents the Summary of Teachers Highest Level of Education

Level of education Frequency Percent

Diploma 9 18.0

Bachelor’s Degree 37 74.0

Masters 4 8.0

Total 50 100.0

The finding from table 4.2 indicates that teachers with diploma level in their career were 9(18%),

teachers with bachelor’s degree in their career were 37(74%) and teachers with master’s degree

in their career were 4(8%). The results showed that most teachers had bachelor’s degree in their

career 37(74%) so they know more about the influence of ICT on effective teaching and

learning.

Table 4.3. Presents the Summary of Teachers Professional Experience in years Gender of

respondents Cross tabulation

S/N

Professional experience in

years

Gender of respondents Total

Male Female

1. At most 5 years 6(12%) 13(26%) 19(38%)

2. 6 - 10 years 4(8%) 6(12%) 10(20%)

3. 11 - 16 years 5(10%) 7(14%) 12(24%)

4. Above 16 years 0(0%) 9(18%) 9(18%)

Total 15(30%) 35(70%) 50(100%)

The findings from table 4.3 indicate that professional teachers with the experience less than 5

years 6(12%) were male teachers and 13(26%) were female teachers. Teachers professional

experience between 6 to 10 years indicate 4(8%) for male teachers and 6(12%) for female

teachers. Teachers professional experience 11 to 16 years indicate 5(10%) were male teachers

42

and 7(14%) were female teachers. Teachers professional experience above 16 years indicate

0(0%) for male teachers while for female teachers 9(18%). The result showed that most teachers

had an experience of less than 10 years 29(58%).

Table 4.4. Presents the Summary of Respondents Designation Gender in Cross tabulation

S/N Designation of Respondents Gender of respondents

Male Female Total

1. Academic Master/Mistress

2(4%) 2(4%) 4(8%)

2. Head of Department

9(18%) 7(14%) 16(32%)

3. Class Teacher

6(12%) 24(48%) 30(60%)

Total 17(34%) 33(66%) 44(100%)

Fifty teachers participated in this study but six teachers were not able to show their designation.

The findings from table 4.4 indicate that there were 2(4%) of male academic master and 2(4%)

of academic mistress. Head of departments occupied 9(18%) for male teachers and 7(14%) for

female teachers. Class teachers formed 6(12%) for male teachers and 24(48%) were female

teachers. The results on teachers designation showed that majority of the teachers 33(66%) were

female teachers whose designation is class teacher 24(48%).

4.3 Findings on the Influence of ICT on Effective Teaching.

The findings from the first objective about the advantages of using ICT in teaching responded by

teachers.

43

Table4.5. Presents the Summary of Quantitative data from Teachers on the Advantages of

using ICT in teaching (n=100)

Advantages of using ICT in teaching Responses

A D TOTAL

I am encouraged to make use of ICT in my

teaching.

49(98%) 1(2%) 50(100%)

I am encouraged to use internet in search of

teaching material.

49(98%) 1(2%) 50(100%)

ICT helps me to know new things. 48(96%) 2(4%) 50(100%)

I believe that ICT makes the lesson more

interesting and systematic.

49(98%) 1(2%) 50(100%)

I believe that ICT can really improve my

teaching practice.

50(100%) 0(0%) 50(100%)

Table 4.5 above shows that teacher who participated in this study agreed on the advantages of

using ICT in teaching, 49(98%) are encouraged to make use of ICT in their teaching, 49(98%)

are encouraged to use internet in search of teaching material, 48(96%) believe that ICT help

them to know new things, 49(98%) believe that ICT makes the lesson more interesting and

systematic. In the last sub item 50(100%) of teachers believe that ICT really improve their

teaching practice.

Table 4.6. Presents the Summary of Quantitative data from Students on the Advantages of

using ICT in teaching (n=100)

Advantages of using ICT in teaching Responses

A D TOTAL

I am encouraged being taught by using ICT. 90(90%) 10(10%) 100(100%)

I am encouraged to use internet in search of

teaching material.

97(97%) 3(3%) 100(100%)

ICT helps me to know new things in school

and at home.

95(95%) 5(5%) 100(100%)

I believe that ICT makes the lesson more

interesting and systematic.

94(94%) 6(6%) 100(100%)

I believe that ICT can really improve my

learning practice.

93(93%) 3(3%) 100(100%)

44

Table 4.6 above shows that students who participated in this study agreed, 90(90%) they are

encouraged being taught by using ICT, 97(97%) are encouraged to use internet in search of

learning material, 95(95%) responded that ICT help them to know new things at school and at

home, 94(94%) believe that ICT makes the lesson more interesting and systematic while

93(93%) believe that ICT can really improve their learning practice.

Table 4.7. Presents the Summary of Quantitative data from Teachers on the teachers’

Perception in the use of ICT. (n=100)

Teachers’ perception in the use of ICT. Responses

A D TOTAL

I am confident to use ICT in my teaching. 49(98%) 1(2%) 50(100%)

I am motivated to use ICT in teaching and

non teaching school task.

48(96%) 2(4%) 50(100%)

I normally get professional development in

the use of ICT.

39(78%) 11(22%) 50(100%)

I have sufficient training in ICT pedagogy/use

of ICT for teaching.

34(68%) 16(32%) 50(100%)

I own personal computer, smart phone for

internet use.

40(80%) 10(20) 50(100%)

Table 4.7 above shows that teachers who participated in this study agreed, 49(98%) are confident

to use ICT in teaching, 48(96%) are motivated to use ICT in teaching and non teaching school

task, 39(78%) normally get professional development in the use of ICT, 34(68%) had sufficient

training in ICT pedagogy while 40(80%) own personal computer, smart phone for internet use.

45

Table 4.8. Presents the Summary of Quantitative data on the Students’ Perception in the

use of ICT. (n=100)

Teachers’ perception in the use of ICT. Responses

A D TOTAL

I am confident to use ICT in my studies. 93(93%) 7(7%) 100(100%)

I am motivated to use ICT in lessons and non

school task.

75(75%) 25(25%) 100(100%)

I have knowledge in the use of ICT. 77(77%) 23(23%) 100(100%)

I have sufficient knowledge with the use of

ICT.

73(73%) 27(27%) 100(100%)

I own mobile phone for internet use/ or any

other digital tool.

78(78%) 22(22%) 100(100%)

Table 4.8 above shows that students who participated in this study agreed, 93(93%) are confident

to use ICT in their studies, 75(75%) are motivated to use ICT in lessons and non school task,

77(77%) had knowledge in the use of ICT, 73(73%) had sufficient knowledge with the use of

ICT while 78(78%) owned mobile phone for internet use.

Table 4.9. Presents the Summary of Quantitative data from teachers on Challenges facing

the use of ICT in teaching. (n=100)

Challenges facing the use of ICT in

teaching.

Responses

A D TOTAL

Lack of trained teachers. 47(94%) 3(6%) 50(100%)

Shortage of time in school schedule affects

the use of ICT.

43(86%) 7(14%) 50(100%)

Resource related issues and internet. 46(92%) 4(8%) 50(100%)

Language and content used in ICT

technology is a problem.

43(86%) 7(14%) 50(100%)

Issues of maintenance and upgrading. 49(98%) 1(2%) 50(100%)

Lack of technical support. 47(94%) 3(6%) 50(100%)

Shortage of equipments. 46(92%) 4(8%) 50(100)

46

Table 4.9 above shows that teachers who participated in this study agreed, 47(94%) lack of

trained teachers, 43(86%) shortage of time in school schedule affects the use of ICT, 46(92%)

resource related issues and internet, 43(86%) language and content used in ICT technology is a

problem, 49(98%) issues of maintenance and upgrading, 47(94%) lack of technical support and

46(92%) shortage of equipments.

Table 4.10. Presents the Summary of Quantitative data from students on Challenges facing

the use of ICT in teaching. (n=100)

Challenges facing the use of ICT in

teaching.

Responses

A D TOTAL

Lack of trained teachers. 89(89%) 11(11%) 100(100%)

Shortage of time in school schedule

affects the use of ICT in learning.

87(87%) 13(13%) 100(100%)

Resources related issues and internet. 77(77%) 23(23%) 100(100%)

Language and content used in ICT

technology is a problem in ICT use.

71(71%) 29(29%) 100(100%)

Shortage of ICT equipments. 87(87%) 13(13%) 100(100%)

Table 4.10 above shows that students who participated in this study agreed, 89(89%) lack of

trained teachers, 87(87%) shortage of time in school schedule affects the use of ICT in learning,

77(77%) resource related issues and internet, 71(71%) language and content used in ICT

technology is a problem in ICT use finally 87(87%) shortage of ICT equipments.

4.4 Findings from Qualitative Data.

This section presents data obtained from open ended questionnaire and interview. The

participants from current research study were asked questions which needed them to give their

ideas and opinion on the influence of ICT on effective teaching in secondary schools.

47

Table 4.11 Thematic Analysis Coding

Transcripts Theme Codes

Attentive listening Good listening AL

Creativity and innovation Efficiency CI

ICT leads to effective and captivating

learning

Simplify learning EC

High cost of ICT equipments leading to

inadequacy

Financial constrain HC

Lack of trained personnel in use of ICT Technician TP

Unstable network Network UN

Provision of advanced ICT equipments in

schools

Buying equipments AE

4.5 Discussion From Qualitative Data.

4.5.1 Advantages of Using ICT for Effective Teaching in Secondary Schools.

Results from heads of schools showed that ICT had the following advantages, attentive listening

to students, students can learn at their own pace, ICT save the cost of buying and preparing

teaching material, ICT simplify teaching, creativity and innovation, easy to teach large class size,

easy to keep information.

4.5.2 Challenges Facing the use of ICT for Effective Teaching in Secondary Schools.

Results from students, teachers and head of schools were as follows, high cost for ICT

equipments, absence of computer laboratories in schools, absence of ICT technicians, peoples

ignorance on the use of ICT, unreliability of power supply, use of old equipments, lack of

motivation, network problem, no clear policy on the use of ICT, high cost for internet services,

use of old ICT equipments, failure on maintenance and upgrading, underutilization of ICT

teacher/ misplacement of ICT teachers.

48

4.5.3 Intervention Measures to Challenges Facing the Use of ICT for Effective Teaching in

Secondary Schools.

Results from students, teachers and head of schools were as follows, provision of enough

advanced ICT equipments in schools, training ICT technicians, construction of ICT laboratories

in schools, to improve ICT curriculum in schools and colleges, the government to subsidize the

purchasing of ICT equipments, to improve power supply, to improve ICT use in a school

schedule, proper maintenance and upgrading of ICT tools, providing ICT training and seminar

among teachers, to establish reliable internet services.

49

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS, SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the discussion of the findings from the research study, summary of the

findings, conclusion, recommendations and suggestions for further studies.

5.1 Discussion of the Findings

The findings are presented according to the following objectives; to find out the advantages of

using ICT for teaching and learning in secondary schools, to highlight teachers perception in the

use of ICT for teaching and learning process in secondary schools, to determine the challenges

facing the use of ICT in teaching and learning and to establish the intervention measures to the

use of ICT in teaching.

5.1.1 Discussion of the Findings on the Advantages of Using ICT for Teaching and

Learning in Secondary Schools

The first objective of this study was to identify the advantages of using ICT for teaching and

learning. Table presentation on the responses in the first objective showed that the advantages of

using ICT teaching help teachers to use internet in search of teaching material, it help teachers to

know new things, ICT makes the lesson more interesting and systematic. Students agreed that

they are encouraged to use internet in searching learning material, ICT help them to know new

things in school and at home, ICT makes the lesson more interesting and arouses student desire

to learn, and also ICT really improve learning practice.

50

From the findings in table 4.5 showed that teacher who participated in this study agreed on the

advantages of using ICT in teaching, 49(98%) are encouraged to make use of ICT in their

teaching, 49(98%) are encouraged to use internet in search of teaching material, 48(96%) believe

that ICT help them to know new things, 49(98%) believe that ICT makes the lesson more

interesting and systematic. In the last sub item 50(100%) of teachers believe that ICT really

improve their teaching practice. Jhuree (2005), Yusuf (2005), Dzidonu (2010), Higgins and

Moseley (2011), and Rebecca and Marshall (2012), revealed that availability and usage of ICT

improves the knowledge and learning skills of students. When well-utilized, ICT in schools has

the potential to improve the teaching and learning process in many ways. ICT is learner centric

and hence brings about active involvement of students in the learning process. Students get

motivated when learning activities are challenging, authentic, multi sensorial and multi

disciplinary. Schools tend to witness a higher attendance, motivation levels, academic

accomplishments and effective communication as an outcome of ICT programs and projects.

Teachers too gain as a result of ICT initiatives. They find ICT to be useful for teaching as well as

for personal and professional work. Peeraer and Petergem (2011) supported that, ICT benefits

schools in several ways: enhancing learning in classroom, improving school management and

related tasks, improving accountability, efficiency and effectiveness in school activities,

introducing usage of Power Point presentations and internet.

From the findings in table 4.6 showed that students who participated in this study agreed,

90(90%) they are encouraged being taught by using ICT, 97(97%) are encouraged to use internet

in search of learning material, 95(95%) responded that ICT help them to know new things at

school and at home, 94(94%) believe that ICT makes the lesson more interesting and systematic

while 93(93%) believed that ICT can really improve their learning practice.

51

Ogunsola (2005), contented that ICT is an electronic based game plan of information

transmission, social event, taking care of and recuperation, which has unquestionably changed

the way we think, the way we live and nature in which we live. It can be used to get to overall

learning and correspondence with different people Ogunsola (2005), ICT is an electronic based

arrangement of data transmission, gathering, preparing and recovery, it change the way we think

and live among others.

Apple Computer (2002), argued that students who use ICTs have more ideas in solving complex

situation, which are, through ICT it develops the imagination and visual skills of learner so far it

can be accessible.

The formation of ICT policies in education, although embedded in the national ICT policies of

the East African countries, is seen to be crucial as ICT plays an important role in preparing

individuals in school for the workplace ( Rubagiza, Denley and Sutherland, 2007). ICT, if

carefully integrated in education, has a potential to facilitate the acquisition of relevant life skills

that buttress the development process in the prevailing economic and information order as

recommended by (Rubagiza, 2007).

Tchombe et al (2008), posited that it is not just acquiring the knowledge of ICT that is important

but also teachers need to understand how to use ICT pedagogically. He asserted that ICT if used

appropriately can stimulate the development of higher cognitive skills, deepen learning and

contribute to the acquisition of skills needed for learning all lifelong and for working in today's

job market. This study did not address the intervention measures to the use of ICT in teaching.

52

The results from the interview done with 10 heads of school supported the views on the on the

advantages of using ICT for teaching and learning in secondary schools. Interviewee had this to

report:

ICT contributes to attentive listening, students can learn at their own pace, ICT save the

cost of buying and preparing teaching material, ICT simplify teaching, ICT encourage

creativity and innovation, easy to teach large class, easy to keep information,

visualization of knowledge.

(Ref.H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H7,H10)

The findings revealed that ICT help students to have attentive listening, ICT help students to

learn at their own pace, ICT save the cost of buying and preparing teaching material, ICT

simplify teachers work, ICT encourage creativity and innovation to students and teachers , easy

to teach large class, easy to keep information, visualization of knowledge.

5.1.2 Teachers Perception in the use of ICT for Teaching and Learning Process in

Secondary Schools

From the findings in table 4.7 showed that teachers who participated in this study agreed,

49(98%) are confident to use ICT in teaching, 48(96%) are motivated to use ICT in teaching and

non teaching school task, 39(78%) normally get professional development in the use of ICT,

34(68%) had sufficient training in ICT pedagogy while 40(80%) own personal computer, smart

phone for internet use. Erstad (2010) asserted that the way people perceive ICT must evolve for

it to be used in a pedagogical way. He argued that pedagogical use of ICT needs to move away

from an instrumental or tool-based understanding, where it is perceived as a means to achieve

certain goals, to an expanded conceptual understanding as a medium. Here, ICT represents the

new physical and abstract technological forms which permeate our social and cultural processes,

and which “humans use to mediate their opinions, comprehension, and knowledge” (Erstad,

2010).

53

Vekiri (2010), analysis showed that the teachers’ expectations were positively connected with

students’ beliefs of ability, and that the conceptions of the educational activities were creative

and effective on a personal level, and greatly influenced students’ interest in the field of IT. Also,

parents support was connected with students’ values and beliefs on the efficiency of ICT.

Hare (2007), reporting on the info Dev-supported ICT survey for Tanzania indicated that most

private schools in the country were already users of ICT despite the lack of a formal setting or

policy framework then. It was reported that the push was provided by the parents and students

desiring to achieve high national grades. This report further indicated that the use of the ICTs

was confined to administrative work and not really evident in the classrooms; it was mainly

concentrated in secondary schools. Teacher professional development, the findings of the survey

done in 53 countries reveal that most of them have invested in developing the capacity of

teachers to use ICT for teaching and learning through both in service and pre service

programmes (Farrell & Isaacs, 2007). Most of the programmes emphasize the development of

basic ICT skills and occasionally included the application of ICT as a teaching and learning tool

for teachers. This is an important outcome since having resources without the expertise on how

to use them is a sure path towards wastage of investment. It is also clear that there is a need to

expand the professional development programmes as the findings do not portray a picture of

large scale professional development but rather smaller proportions of the teaching force are

reached by these initiatives. The impacts of initial and continuing teacher education programmes

on ICT use in schools and the issues arising, including teacher confidence and beliefs about ICT.

In the absence of widespread fixed phone line access, mobile connectivity is emerging as a

powerful means of providing connectivity in Africa and over 90% of phones are now digital.

Further studies ( Tella, 2007) found that computer use was predicted by intentions to use it and

that perceived usefulness was also strongly linked to these intentions. Generally, if the ICTs are

54

available, this will motivate the teachers to access them more than when they are not available or

available but not in sufficient quantity and quality.

Ndibalema (2014), researched on teachers’ attitudes towards the use of information

communication Technology (ICT) as a pedagogical Tool in Secondary Schools in Tanzania the

findings showed that, teachers receive insufficient training and the focus is mainly on basic ICT

skills rather than pedagogical skills. This is consistent with the suggestion by (Cubukcuoglu,

2013), who stresses that the training among teachers should not only include basic technology

skills but also provide training on improving pedagogical use of technology. This kind of

training will help teachers feel confident and competent while using ICT at the right time and

opportunity. In my view, the above discussion sends a very strong message to educational

stakeholders in Tanzania that teachers need sufficient pedagogical training about ICT.

From the findings in table 4.8 showed that students who participated in this study agreed,

93(93%) are confident to use ICT in their studies, 75(75%) are motivated to use ICT in lessons

and non school task, 77(77%) had knowledge in the use of ICT, 73(73%) had sufficient

knowledge with the use of ICT while 78(78%) owned mobile phone for internet use.

It has been noted that within a school different students may have different levels of access

based on the subjects they opt for. In Uganda, students taking computer studies as a subject have

greater access to computers and in schools that have cyber schooling and computer clubs,

science students and club members often enjoy greater access to the computer rooms (Ndidde,

Lubega, Babikwa & Baguma, 2009). Research and active projects, such as those runned by

EdQual51, a Research Consortium of educational institutions in the UK and Africa (Ghana,

Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania) on Educational Quality, typically indicate two main reasons

55

why teachers use ICT: teachers feel that their own use of computers benefits their learners, and

teachers feel learners benefit from using computers themselves; they gain confidence, self-

esteem and renewed motivation.

5.1.3 Challenges Facing the use of ICT in Teaching and Learning

From the findings in table 4.9 showed that teachers who participated in this study agreed,

47(94%) lack of trained teachers, 43(86%) shortage of time in school schedule affects the use of

ICT, 46(92%) resource related issues and internet, 43(86%) language and content used in ICT

technology is a problem, 49(98%) issues of maintenance and upgrading, 47(94%) lack of

technical support and 46(92%) shortage of equipments.

Sharadha (2016), did a study about the use of ICT for teaching in schools and came out with the

following findings lack of trained teachers, unfavorable Organizational Culture and Poor

Attitude and Beliefs, shortage of time, issues of maintenance and upgrading of equipment,

insufficient funds, challenge of language and content, shortage of equipments, unreliability of

equipment, lack of technical support, resource related issues and internet and lack of initiative by

community leaders.

From the findings in table 4.10 shows that students who participated in this study agreed,

89(89%) lack of trained teachers, 87(87%) shortage of time in school schedule affects the use of

ICT in learning, 77(77%) resource related issues and internet, 71(71%) language and content

used in ICT technology is a problem in ICT use finally 87(87%) shortage of ICT equipments.

The recent International Computer and Information Literacy Study (ICILS) showed that 75% of

lower-secondary grade 9 pupils in Norway used their computers daily at home.

56

However, only 8% of them used computers daily for school related purposes (Hatlevik

&Throndsen, 2015; Ottestad, Throndsen, Hatlevik, & Rohatgi, 2014). In addition, on a digital

skill level scale from 1 (lowest) to 4 (highest), nearly one out of four pupils (24%) scored on the

lowest digital skill level (Hatlevik & Throndsen, 2015; Ottestad, Throndsen, et al., 2014). These

results might indicate a continuing challenge for teachers and schools to keep up to date with the

current and evolving technological trends, understand how to utilize ICT to benefit teaching and

pupils’ learning, and learn how to develop pupils’ digital competence. Furthermore, these needs

for professional development for teaching with ICT might be decreased if they were properly

addressed with student -teachers in teacher education.

The results from open ended questionnaires about other challenges facing the use of ICT in

teaching and learning for both teachers and students. Interviewee had this to report.

High cost for ICT equipments, absence of computer laboratories, absence of ICT

technicians, peoples ignorance on ICT use, bad use of ICT, unreliability of power supply,

use of old equipments, lack of motivation, net work problem and no clear policy on the

use of ICT (Ref.T2, T7, T22, T33, T35, T39, S3, S7, S11, S15, S35,S42, S50).

The findings revealed that high cost for ICT equipments, absence of computer laboratories,

absence of ICT technicians, peoples ignorance on ICT use, bad use of ICT, unreliability of power

supply, use of old equipments, lack of motivation, net work problem and no clear policy on the

use of ICT are other challenges facing the use of ICT in teaching and learning.

The results from the interview done with 10 heads of school supported the views on the on the

challenges facing the use of ICT for teaching and learning in secondary schools.

High cost for internet services, shortage of ICT equipments, lack of training on ICT use

among teachers, unreliable power supply, use of old ICT equipments, ignorance on ICT

use by school administration, failure on maintenance and upgrading, underutilization and

misuse of ICT teachers, absence of computer laboratories, lack of ICT knowledge among

teachers and low support from the government (Ref.H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, H7, H8,

H9, H10).

57

Findings revealed that high cost for internet services, shortage of ICT equipments, lack of

training on ICT use among teachers, unreliable power supply, use of old ICT equipments,

ignorance on ICT use by school administration, failure on maintenance and upgrading,

underutilization and misuse of ICT teachers, absence of computer laboratories, lack of ICT

knowledge among teachers and low support from the government. Those were the challenges

which were said to be the major challenges facing ICT use for teaching in secondary schools.

5.1.4 Findings on the Intervention Measures to the use of ICT in Teaching

The fourth objective of this study was to suggest the intervention measures to the use of ICT in

teaching.

Roken (2016), who conducted a research about the use of ICT in teaching English language in

Norway came with the following findings, knowing how to critically use digital technologies or

digital competence is as an important aspect for social interaction, civic inclusion, work, and

education in today’s knowledge based economy (Aesaert & van Braak, 2015; Castells, 1996;

European Commission, 2007; Janssen et al., 2013). This is reflected in the way digital

competence has been listed as important for citizens and educators of the future workforce in, for

instance, policy documents (European Commission, 2007), frameworks (Ferrari, 2012;

UNESCO, 2011), and national curricula for schools and teacher education (Ministry of

Education and Research, 2006a, 2013). Currently, the critical role of ICT in a number of

professions in the information or knowledge society such as in finance, computer science,

healthcare, and teaching (Plomp, 2013) has led to an increased demand for new skills. For

example, while some researchers have recognized that the development of digital competence is

highly relevant for starting new business ventures (Scuotto & Morellato, 2013), others have

58

focused on the social ramifications and referred to issues such as enabling active participation in

a democratic society (Pope & Walton, 2009) and empowering participants to become engaged

citizen (Meyers, Erickson, & Small, 2013; Pangrazio, 2014). However, these claims have also

met scrutiny (Selwyn, 2013) as researchers have argued that the use of ICT and digital devices in

the classroom have little or even a negative impact on students’ learning outcomes and test

scores (Ravizza, Hambrick, & Fenn, 2014). Yet, others have asserted that ICT can have a

positive impact when technology, rather than being used in traditional teacher centered ways for

content delivery and instruction, is used to support students’ efforts to achieve (Tamim, 2011).

The results from open ended questionnaires about the intervention measures to the use of ICT in

teaching and learning for both teachers and students. Interviewee had this to report.

Provision of enough advanced ICT equipments in schools, training ICT technicians,

construction of ICT laboratories in schools, to improve ICT curriculum in schools and

colleges, the government to subsidize the purchasing of ICT equipments, to improve

power supply, to improve ICT use in school schedule, to introduce ICT as a basic subject

to all students, proper maintenance and upgrading of ICT tools and use of Kiswahili

programmed (Ref.T6,T6,T12,T19, T22, T35, T37,T39,S7, S30,S57,S58,S70, S75).

The findings revealed that provision of enough advanced ICT equipments in schools, training

ICT technicians, construction of ICT laboratories in schools, to improve ICT curriculum in

schools and colleges, the government to subsidize the purchasing of ICT equipments, to improve

power supply, to improve ICT use in school schedule, to introduce ICT as a basic subject to all

students, proper maintenance and upgrading of ICT tools and use of Kiswahili programmed can

be applied to solve the challenges facing the use of ICT for effective teaching and learning.

The results from the interview done with 10 heads of school supported the views on the

intervention measures to challenges facing the use of ICT for teaching and learning in secondary

schools. Interviewee had this to report:

59

Purchasing modern ICT equipments for government schools, providing ICT training/ seminar

among teachers, training of ICT technicians in public schools, good use of ICT teachers,

construction of ICT laboratories, to improve power supply, to make a follow up on ICT

curriculum, individual school to buy the most important ICT equipments and establishment of

reliable internet services.

The findings revealed that purchasing modern ICT equipments for government schools,

providing ICT training/ seminar among teachers, training of ICT technicians in public schools,

good use of ICT teachers, construction of ICT laboratories, to improve power supply, to make a

follow up on ICT curriculum, individual school to buy the most important ICT equipments and

establishment of reliable internet services. However if the said solutions will be done probably

ICT will help to make effective teaching and learning.

5.2 Summary of the Findings

The influence of ICT on effective teaching is a key component in promoting the ability of

teachers to perform effectively in teaching and learning process. This study was guided with the

following objectives:

To find out the advantages of using ICT for teaching and learning in secondary schools in

Arusha City. To highlight teachers perception in the use of ICT for teaching and learning

process in secondary schools in Arusha City. To determine the challenges facing the use of ICT

in teaching and learning in Arusha City. To establish the intervention measures to the use of ICT

in teaching in Arusha City.

In order to achieve the above mentioned objectives, the study was guided and answered by the

following questions from the objectives of the study.

60

What are the advantages of using ICT in the teaching and learning process in Arusha City? What

are the teacher’s perceptions towards the use of ICT in teaching and learning process in Arusha

City? What are the challenges facing the use of ICT in teaching and learning in Arusha City?

What are the intervention measures to the use of ICT in teaching in Arusha City?

The study findings revealed that ICT has got influence on effective teaching in Arusha City. The

study revealed the advantages of using ICT for teaching and learning in Arusha City. The study

observed positive perception for the use of ICT for teaching in Arusha city. The study so far

found out the major challenges facing the use of ICT in teaching among Arusha City public

secondary schools. The study also proposed the intervention measures to the challenges facing

the use of ICT for teaching in Arusha City Secondary Schools.

5.2.1 Advantages of Using ICT for Teaching and Learning in Secondary Schools

The findings revealed that ICT help students to have attentive listening, ICT help students to

learn at their own pace either at school or at home, save the cost of buying and preparing

teaching material this can be done by the use of projector display, simplify teachers work by

using computer models, encourage creativity and innovation to students and teachers which can

be done by using animations, easy to teach large class by using tools like projector, easy to keep

information by using permanent memory storage hard disc, visualization of knowledge through

use of video picture. The study revealed that ICT is a learning tool.

5.2.2 Teachers Perception in the use of ICT for Teaching and Learning Process in

Secondary Schools

Participants who participated in this study agreed that they are confident to use ICT in teaching,

they are motivated to use ICT in teaching and non teaching school task, they normally get

61

professional development in the use of ICT, they had sufficient training in ICT pedagogy and

they own personal computer, smart phone for internet use. Teachers perception was that ICT

have positive impact in their pedagogy since it involves the participation of students in terms of

learner centered technique.

5.2.3 Challenges Facing the use of ICT in Teaching and Learning

The study revealed that high cost for internet services, shortage of ICT equipments, lack of

training on ICT use among teachers, unreliable power supply, use of old ICT equipments,

ignorance on ICT use by school administration, failure on maintenance and upgrading,

underutilization and misuse of ICT teachers, absence of computer laboratories, lack of ICT

knowledge among teachers and low support from the government. Those were the challenges

which were said to be the major challenges facing ICT use for teaching in secondary schools.

5.2.4 The Intervention Measures to the use of ICT in Teaching

The study revealed that provision of enough advanced ICT equipments in schools, training ICT

technicians, construction of ICT laboratories in schools, to improve ICT curriculum in schools

and colleges, the government to subsidize the purchasing of ICT equipments, to improve power

supply, to improve ICT use in school schedule, to introduce ICT as a basic subject to all students,

proper maintenance and upgrading of ICT tools and use of Kiswahili programmed can be applied

to solve the challenges facing the use of ICT for effective teaching and learning.

More over the study revealed that purchasing modern ICT equipments for government schools,

providing ICT training/ seminar among teachers, training of ICT technicians in public secondary

schools, good use of ICT teachers, construction of ICT laboratories, to improve power supply, to

make a follow up on ICT curriculum, individual school to buy the most important ICT

62

equipments and establishment of reliable internet services. Should be done if the said solutions

will be done probably ICT will help to make effective teaching and learning.

5.3 Conclusion

Based on the findings from chapter four the conclusion can be drawn regarding with the

objectives. The study concluded that ICT has got a number of advantages in influencing effective

teaching. Both teachers and students are encouraged to use ICT in teaching and learning, ICT

help teachers and students to search teaching and learning material through internet, ICT helps

teachers and students to learn new things, ICT make the lesson more interesting and systematic,

ICT really improve teaching and learning practice, ICT contribute attentive listening in the

lesson, students can learn at their pace, ICT save the cost of buying and preparing teaching

material, ICT simplify teaching, ICT encourage creativity and innovation, ICT make the

possibility of teaching large class, ICT help to keep information and visualization of knowledge.

The study also concluded that teachers and students are confident to use ICT in teaching and

learning, they use ICT for teaching and non teaching task, teachers normally get professional

development in the use of ICT, teachers have sufficient training in ICT pedagogy, and teachers

own personal computer and smart phone for internet use. Students are confident to use ICT in

their studies; students are motivated to use ICT in their lessons and non school task, students

have knowledge in the use of ICT, students own mobile phone for internet use.

Furthermore, the study concluded that lack of trained teachers in ICT, shortage of time in school

schedule affects the use of ICT, resource related issues and internet, language and content used

in ICT technology is a problem, failure on maintenance and upgrading, lack of technical support,

shortage of ICT equipments, high cost for ICT equipments, absence of computer laboratories,

63

absence of ICT technician, peoples ignorance on ICT use, bad use of ICT, unreliability of power

supply, use of old ICT equipments, lack of motivation on ICT use, network problem, ignorance

on ICT use by school administration, high cost for internet services, low support from the

government and absence of clear policy on the use of ICT were said to be the challenges facing

the use of ICT for teaching and learning.

It was also concluded that provision of enough advanced ICT equipments in schools, training

ICT technicians, construction of ICT laboratories in schools, to improve ICT curriculum in

schools and colleges, the government to subsidize purchasing of ICT equipments, to improve

power supply, to improve ICT use in school schedule, to introduce ICT as a basic subject to all

students, proper maintenance and upgrading of ICT tools, use of Kiswahili computer

programme, providing training and seminar among teachers on ICT use, good use of ICT

teachers and establishment of reliable internet services.

5.4. Recommendations for the Study

i. The study recommends that ICT has got a lot of advantages to do with effective teaching.

Most students, teachers and head of schools agreed that ICT is crucial for effective teaching

and learning but generally the use of ICT is still low despite the fact that all schools own

basic ICT equipments including desktop and laptop computer, projector, photocopy machine,

scanner, camera and television. The researcher recommends public secondary schools to

make more efforts on the use of ICT since they do have basic equipments and they afford to

buy.

ii. The study also recommends that students, teachers and heads of public secondary schools

were interested to use ICT for teaching and learning. The researcher advice the school

64

authorities to take more efforts to make sure that ICT is applied for effective teaching. Some

schools are rich in ICT equipments but they have minimal use of ICT.

iii. The study so far recommends that there are several challenges facing the use of ICT for

effective teaching, the researcher recommend the public secondary schools to solve the

possible challenges by using internal and external resources. More effort is needed to diffuse

ICT use in public secondary schools.

iv. The study also recommends that there are several intervention measures to the challenges

facing the use of ICT for teaching. The researcher recommend public school authorities to

solve the possible challenges at their own since most head of schools showed no interest to

maintain the available computer technology. A number of challenges can be solved within

the school efforts.

v. The study recommends the government to review, design and implement the promotion of

ICT policy for secondary schools of the year 2003. This can be done by financing ICT

programmes in secondary schools.

5.5 Suggestions for Further Study

Based on the scope of the study, the following are the suggestion for the further studies.

(i) A study as to why ICT teachers are underutilized despite their professional to use ICT for

effective teaching and provision of quality education.

(ii) A study on the relationship between teaching by using ICT and the students’ academic

performance.

65

(iii) How the school administration in public secondary schools influence the use of ICT for

effective teaching.

66

REFERENCES

Ackermann, E. (2001). Piaget ‟constructivism, Papert ‟constructionism: What’s the difference?

New York, Future of Learning Group Publication.

Aesaert, K., & van Braak, J. (2015). Gender and socioeconomic related differences in

performance based ICT competences. Computers & Education, 84, 8-25.

Afshari, M, Abu Bakar, K., Luan, W. S., Abu Samah, B., & Fooi, F. S.(2008). School Leadership

and Information Communication Technology. The Turkish Online Journal of Education

Technology - Tojet, 7(4).

Alvermann, D.E. (2008). Why bother theorizing adolescents’ online literacies for classroom

practice and research? Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 52(1), 8–19.

Amin, M.E. (2005). Social Science Research Conception, Methodology, and Analysis. Kampala,

Uganda. And Student Achievement in High-Need schools.

Apple Computer, (2002).The impact of technology on students’ achievement. Available

ahttp://www.aple.com/education/research/index2.html Accessed on 10/11/2005 Bank

Institute.

Ary,D. (2010). Introduction to Research in Education (8th ed) USA, Wadsworth.

ASER (2014). Annual Status of Education Report (Rural). Facilitated by PRATHAM, Available:

www.asercentre.org

Borg, R, Gall, M, and Gall, J (2003). Education Research, An Introduction. New York: Longman

Publishers.8th Edition.

Brooks, J.G. and Brooks, M.G. (1999). In search of understanding: The case for constructivist

classrooms, Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Bruce, B.C. (2007). Diversity and critical social engagement: How changing technologies enable

67

new modes of literacy in changing circumstances. In D.E. Alvermann (Ed.), Adolescents

and literacies in a digital world (pp. 1–16). New York: Peter Lang.

Castells, M. (1996). The rise of the network society. Oxford: Blackwell Century. Nordic Journal

Coiro, J, Knobel, M., Lankshear, C., & Leu, D.J. (2008). Central issues in new literacies and

new literacies research. In J. Coiro, M. Knobel, C. Lankshear, and D.J. Leu (Eds.),

Handbook of research in new literacies (pp. 1–21). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Cresswell, W. (2003). Research design qualitative, quantitative and mixed method approaches.

2 Ltd. London, SAGE Publications.

Creswell, J. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches

(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Creswell, J. (2005). Educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating Quantitative

and qualitative research (2nd Ed) New Jersey, Pearson Education Ltd.

Creswell, J. and Plano, C. (2007). Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods, London: Sage

Publications Ltd.

Creswell, J.W. (2012). Educational Research Planning Conducting and Evaluating Quantitative

and Qualitative Research. Fourth Edition. New Jersey, Pearson (Edition) Publication.

Creswell, J.W. (2014). Educational Research Planning Conducting and Evaluating Quantitative

and Qualitative Research. Fifth Edition. New Jersey, Pearson (Edition) Publication.

Dzidonu (2010). The Role of ICTs to Achieving the MDGs in Education: An Analysis of the Case

of African Countries, Accra Ghana.

Erstad, O. (2010b). Educating the Digital Generation: Exploring media literacy for the 21st C.

European Commission. (2007). Key competences for lifelong learning: European reference

framework. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.

Farrell, G, & Isaacs, S. (2007). Survey of ICT and Education in Africa. A Summary Report,

68

Based on 53 Country Surveys. Washington, DC.

Farrell, G, & Isaacs, S. (2007). Survey of ICT and Education in Africa. A Summary Report,

Based on 53 Country Surveys. Washington, DC: infoDev/ World Bank.

Ferrari, A. (2012). Digital Competence in Practice: An Analysis of Frameworks. Seville:

European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Prospective Technological

Studies. From www.acacia.org.

Gance, S. (2002) 'Are Constructivism and Computer-based Learning Environments

Incompatible?’, Journal of the association of History and Computing, vol. 5, no. 1.

Gilankjani,A. (2013) Factors Contributing to Teachers use of Computer Technology in the Class

Room. Universal Journal of Education Research. Vol. 1(3), p 262-267

Gould, J.S. (1996) 'A Constructivist Perspective on Teaching and Learning in Language arts', in

New York, NY: Teacher College Press.

Gredler, M. (2000) Learning and Instruction: Theory into Practice, New York City, NY:

Prentice-Hall.

Grisham, D.L., & Wolsey, T.D. (2009, April). A constructivist view of podcasting: Students

create the media. Paper presented at the annual conference of the American Educational

Research Association, San Diego, CA.

Hammand, (2004) Teacher Certificate Teachers College Record Volume 106, pp-1936-1966

Hammersley, M. & Traianou, A. (2012). Ethics and Educational Research, British Educational

Research Association on-line resource. Available on-line t http://www.bera.ac. Uk /

resources/ ethics- and- educational-research [accessed 26/6/2011]

Hare, H. (2007). Survey of ICT in Education in Burundi. Washington DC.

Hatlevik, O. E., & Throndsen, I. (Eds.). (2015). Learning with ICT Pupils' digital skills and use

of ICT in School. Oslo, Universitetsforlaget.

69

Higgins, S. & Moseley, D. (2011) Teachers‟ Thinking About ICT and Learning: Believes and

Outcomes. Journal of Teacher Development 5 (2) 191-210 http://dx.doi.org.

Howe, K.R. and Berv, J. (2000) 'Constructing Constructivism, Epistemological and

Pedagogical', in Phillips. National Society for the Study of Education IL Chicago

internasjonaltlys (Vol. 10/2014). Oslo: NIFU.

Janssen, J, Stoyanov, S., Ferrari, A., Punie, Y., Pannekeet, K., & Sloep, P. (2013). Experts' Views

on Digital Competence: Commonalities and differences. Computers & Education.

Prentice Hall Inc

Jonassen, D.H., Peck, K.L. and Wilson, B.G. (1999) Learning with Technology; A

constructivist Perspective, 2nd edition, Upper Saddle, NJ: Prentice Hall Inc.

Jones, R., & Kozma, R. (2003). Local and National ICT Policies In Technology, Innovation, and

Educational Change: A global perspective: International Society for Technology in

Education. Washington DC.

Jupiter Images Corporation. (2009). New Literacies and 21st Century Technologies. International

Reading Association. Delaware USA.

Kafai, Y. and Resnick, M. (1996) Constructionism in Practice: Designing, Thinking and

Learning in a Digital World, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.

Kanuka, H. and Anderson, T. (1999). 'Using Constructivism in Technology-Mediated Learning;

Constructing Order Out of the Chaos in the Literature', In Radical Pedagogy, vol. 1, no.

2, p. 11.

Kawooya, D. (2004). Universal Access to ICT and Lifelong Learning: Uganda’s Experience

New Library World, 105(1206/1207).

70

Keengwe, J. & Onchwari, G. (2011) Computer Technology Integration and Student Learning:

Barriers and promise, Journal of Science Education and Technology 17(2011) 560-570

http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10956- 008-9123-5.

Kothari, C.R. (2004). Research Methodology, Methods and techniques: Second Revised

Edition New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers.

Kothari, C.R. (2011). Research Methodology, Methods and techniques: Reprinted Second

Revised Edition New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers.

Kothari, R.C (2014). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques.-Revised Edition - New

Delhi: Wishwa Prakashan.

Krishnashnaw, O.R. (2007). The Methodology of Research in Social Sciences. Himalaya

Publishing House, New Delhi, India.

Leach, J., McCormick, R., Harrison, D., and Hills, L. (2003). Professional Development and

ICT: The Teachers’ Experience. Paper Presented at the British Educational Research

Association (BERA) Annual Conference, Herriott Watt University, Edinburgh.

Learning Theories Knowledgebase-Constructivism at Learning-Theories.com,[Online],

Available:"http://www.learning-theories.com/constructivism.html"http://www.learning

theories.com/constructivism.html [23 March 2009].

Lei, J. & Zhao, Y. (2007). Technology Uses and Student Achievement: A longitudinal study.

Computers & Education, 49(2), 284.

Leu, D.J., Kinzer, C.K., Coiro, J., & Cammack, D. (2004). Towards a theory of new literacies

emerging from the Internet and other ICT. In R.B. Ruddell & N. Unrau (Eds.),

Theoretical models and processes of reading (5th ed., pp. 1570–1613). Newark, DE:

International Reading Association.

Meyers, E. M., Erickson, I., & Small, R. V. (2013). Digital Literacy and Informal Learning

Environments: An introduction. Learning, Media and Technology, 38(4), 355-367.

71

Ministry of Education and Research. (2006a). Knowledge Promotion. Oslo Ministry of

Education and Research.

Ministry of Education and Research. (2013). Stipulation of Curricula for Secondary Teacher

Education Programme for Grades 8-13]. Oslo: Ministry of Education and Research.

Mugenda, O, and Mugenda, O. (2003). Research Method: Quantitative and Qualitative

Approaches. Nairobi. Nairobi African Center for Technology.

Ndibalema, P. (2014). Teachers’ Attitudes Towards the Use of Information Communication

Technology (ICT) as a Pedagogical Tool in Secondary Schools in Tanzania: The case of

Kondoa district. International Journal of Education and Research, 2(2), 1-16.

Ndidde, A. N., Lubega, J., Babikwa, D., & Baguma, G. (2009). PanAfrican Research Agenda on

the Pedagogical Integration of Information and Communications Technologies . Ottawa.

Ndidde, A., Lubega, J., Babikwa, D., and Baguma, G. (2009). Pedagogical Integration of ICTs

in Ugandan Education Institutions. Makerere University.

Nyirenda, M. (2013, December 2). Planning for ICT literacy in public schools in Tanzania. The

Guardian. Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania. Retrieved on 12 December 2015 from http://www.

ippmedia.com/frontend/?l=62206

Ogunsola, L.A. (2005). Information Communication Technologies and the Effects of

Globalization: Twenty-first century “Digital Slavery” For Developing Countries

Electronic Journal of Academic and Special Librarianship 6 (1- 2) 1-10.

Olatunji (2016), Inadequate Facilities of ICT Equipments in Nigerian Secondary Schools: North

Cyprus.

Orodho, A.J. (2009) The Technique of Writing Research Proposals and Reports in Education

and Social science 3rd edition. Kenya-Nairobi: Kenezja HP Enterprises Nairobi.

72

Ottestad, G., Throndsen, I., Hatlevik, O. E., & Rohatgi, A. (2014). Digital skills for everyone.

Oslo.

Pangrazio, L. (2014). Reconceptualising Critical Digital Literacy. Discourse: Studies in the

Cultural Politics of Education, 1-12.

Papert, S. & Harel, I. (1991). Situating Constructionism. Constructionism, Ablex Publishing

Corporation: 193-206.

Peeraer, J, & Petergem, P. (2011) ICT in Teacher Education in an Emerging Developing

Country: Vietnam‟s Baseline Situation at the Start of the Year of ICT. Journal of

Computers & Education 56 (2011) 974-982 http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/ j. compedu .2010

.11 .015

Piaget, J & Inhelder, B, (1969). The Psychology of the Child, London, Routledge and Kegan

Paul. Watt University, Edinburgh

Plomp, T. (2013). Preparing Education for the Information Society: The Need for New

Knowledge and Skills. International Journal of Social Media and Interactive Learning

Environments, New Delh.

Pope, A., & Walton, G. (2009). Information and Media Literacies: Shaping our Vision in the 21st

century. Santa Rosa, CA: Informing Science Press. pp. 16-23.

Ravizza, S. M., Hambrick, D. Z., & Fenn, K. M. (2014). Non-Academic Internet Use in the

Classroom is Negatively Related to Classroom Learning Regardless of Intellectual

Ability. Computers & Education, 78, 109-114.

Rebecca, W. & Marshall, S. (2012). A new Face of Education: Bring Technology into the

classroom in the developing world, Global Economy and Development, Brookings.

Roblyer, M.D. and Edwards, J. (2000) Integrating Educational Technology into Teaching, (2nd

edition),Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Inc.

73

Roken. (2016), Preparing Future Teachers to Teach with ICT. An Investigation of Digital

Competence Development in Student Teachers in a Norwegian University of Science and

Technology. Faculty of Social Sciences and Technology Management.

Rubagiza, Denley and Sutherland (2007) The Formation of ICT Policies For East Africa. CCE.

Report Sciences 3rd edition. Kenya. Nairobi: Kenezja HP Enterprises Nairobi.

Scuotto, V., & Morellato, M. (2013). Entrepreneurial Knowledge and Digital Competence: Keys

For a Success of Student Entrepreneurship. Journal of the Knowledge Economy,

4(3),293-303.

Selwyn, N. (2013). Distrusting Educational Technology: Critical Questions for Changing Times.

London: Routledge.

Shradha, H. (2016). Issues and Challenges in Bringing ICT Enabled Education To Rural India.

International Journal of Scientific Research and Education Vol.4. Issue 01 pages 4749-

4766.

Traxler, J. (2009). Making Good Use of Mobile Phone Capabilities.UNESCO.

Taber, K.S. (2006) 'Beyond Constructivism: The Progressive Research. New York

Tamim, R. M., Bernard, R. M., Borokhovski, E., & Abrami, P. C., (2011). WhatForty Years of

Research says About the Impact of Technology on Learning: A second order.

Tanzania Ministry of Education and Vocational Training (MoEVT). (2007). Information and

Communication Technology (ICT) Policy for Basic Education. Retrieved from http:/

/planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/upload/Tanzania%20UR/Tanzania_ICT_Policy_for_Basic

Education.

Tanzania Research and Analysis Working Group, (2008). Tanzanian Children's Perceptions of

Education and Their Role in Society. REPOA, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

74

Tchombe, T. M.S., Maiga, M., Toure, K., Mbangwana, M. A, Diarra, M. L., & Karsenti, T.

(2008). Gelling ReadyJar Higher Education: Role of ICT in Secondary Schools. Paper for

the ADEA Biennale in Maputo, Mozambique.

Telecommunications Development Bureau of ITU. (2009). Measuring the Information Society:

The ICT Development Index: International Telecommunication Union.

Tella, A.,Toyobo, O., Adika, L. O, & Adeyinka, A.(2007). An Assessment of Secondary School

Teachers Uses of ICTs: Implications for Further Development of ICT's Use in Nigerian

Secondary Schools. Online Submission, 6(3). The World Bank. (2008). Curricula,

Examinations, and Assessment in Secondary Education in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Washington: World Bank.

Thijs, A, Almekinders, R., Blijleven, P., Pelgrum, W. J., & Voogt, J. (2001). Learning Through

the Web: A literature study on the potential uses of the web.

UNESCO. (2011). UNESCO ICT competency framework for teachers (ICT CFT) (2 ed.). Paris.

Van der Merwe, C. (2003). African Information Revolution in Wireless. Retrieved from

www.accacia.org.

Vekiri, I. (2010). 'Boys' and Girls' ICT Beliefs: Do Teachers matter?' Computers and Education,

no. 55, Pp.16-23.

Vibe, N, Aamodt, P. O., & Carlsten, T. C. (2009). Being a Lower-Secondary School Teacher in

Norway. Oslo: NIFU-STEP.

Weiten, W. (2002). Psychology: Themes & variations, 5th edition, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth

/Thomson.

Woolfolk, A.E. (2006). Educational Psychology, 10th edition, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Allyn &

Bacon.

Yusuf, M. O (2005). “Information and Communication Technology” Analyzing the Nigeria

National Policy for Information Technology in International Educational Journal (3)

PP 316-321.

75

APPENDICES

APPENDIX I

Questionnaire for Teachers

I am Gustav. A. Myonga conducting a research about the influence of ICT on effective teaching

in secondary schools. This is in partial fulfillment of the requirement for master’s degree of

Education Management.

Kindly you are requested to provide answers to these questions as honestly and precisely as

possible. Responses to these questions will be treated confidential.

Section A: Demographic Information

Please tick [√] where appropriate or fill in the required information on the spaces provided.

1. Gender

Male [ ] Female [ ]

2. What is the highest level of education?

Diploma Bachelors Degree Masters

Others (Specify)………………………………………………………

3. Indicate your professional experience in years

1-5 years [ ] 6-10 years [ ], 11-15 years [ ], 16 years and above [ ]

4. Designation

Second master/ mistress [ ], Academic Master/mistress [ ], Head of department [ ]

Class teacher [ ]

Section B:

Kindly indicate the statement whether you strongly disagree-1, disagree-2, undecided-3,

agree-4, strongly agree-5, by ticking the number that corresponds to the statement

S/N Items 1 2 3 4 5

Advantages of using ICT in teaching.

1. I am encouraged to make use of ICT in my teaching.

2. I am encouraged to use internet in search of teaching material.

3. ICT helps me to know new things.

4. I believe that ICT makes the lesson more interesting and systematic.

5. I believe that ICT can really improve my teaching practice.

76

Teacher’s perception in the use of ICT.

6. I am confident to use ICT in my teaching.

7. I am motivated to use ICT in teaching and non teaching school task.

8. I normally get professional development in the use of ICT.

9. I have sufficient training in ICT pedagogy/use of ICT for teaching.

10. I own personal computer, smart phone for internet use.

Challenges facing the use of ICT in teaching.

11. Lack of trained teachers.

12. Shortage of time in school schedule affects the use of ICT.

13. Resource related issues and internet.

14. Language and content used in ICT technology is a problem.

15. Issues of maintenance and upgrading.

16. Lack of technical support.

17. Shortage of equipments.

Mention other challenges which you know ………………………………......................................

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

To identify the intervention measures (remedial measures) (solutions) to challenges facing

the use of ICT in teaching.

What do you think should be done to improve the effective use of ICT in teaching?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Thank you for participation, wishing you all the best in your work.

77

APPENDIX II

Questionnaire for Students

I am Gustav.A. Myonga conducting a research about the influence of ICT on effective teaching

in secondary schools. This is in partial fulfillment of the requirement for master’s degree of

Education Management.

Kindly you are requested to provide answers to these questions as honestly and precisely as

possible. Responses to these questions will be treated as confidential.

Demographic Information

Please tick [√] where appropriate or fill in the required information on the spaces provided.

1. Gender

Male [ ] Female [ ]

Kindly indicate the statement whether you strongly disagree-1, disagree-2, undecided-3,

agree-4, strongly agree-5, by ticking the number that corresponds to the statement

S/N Items 1 2 3 4 5

Advantages of using ICT in teaching.

1 I am encouraged being taught by using ICT.

2 I am encouraged to use internet in search of learning material.

3 ICT helps me to know new things in school and at home.

4 I believe that ICT makes the lesson more interesting and systematic.

5 I believe that ICT can really improve my learning practice.

Student’s perception in the use of ICT.

6 I am confident to use ICT in my studies.

7 I am motivated to use ICT in lessons and non school task.

8 I have knowledge in the use of ICT.

9 I have sufficient knowledge with the use of ICT.

10 I own mobile phone for internet use/ or any other digital tool.

Challenges facing the use of ICT in teaching.

11 Lack of trained teachers.

12 Shortage of time in school schedule affects the use of ICT in learning.

13 Resource related issues and internet.

78

14 Language and content used in ICT technology is a problem in ICT use.

15 Shortage of ICT equipments.

Mention other challenges which you know ………………………………......................................

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

To identify the intervention measures (remedial measures) (solutions) to challenges facing

the use of ICT in teaching.

What do you think should be done to improve the effective use of ICT in teaching?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Thank you for participation, wishing you all the best in your studies.

79

APPENDIX III

Sample Interview schedule for Heads of School

1. Which ICT tools does your school have?

2. How do teachers use ICT in teaching and learning process?

3. What do you think are the advantages of using ICT?

4. What are the challenges of using ICT for teaching and learning in your school?

5. What are the solutions to challenges facing the use of ICT for teaching and learning?

80

APPENDIX IV

Permission Letter

81

APPENDIX V

Introduction Letter

82

APPENDIX VI

Data Collection Request Letter