Sri Lanka fodder study

Sri Lanka fodder study

Wim Houwers, Bram Wouters, Adriaan Vernooij

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Livestock Research Report 0000ISSN 0000-000

Sri Lanka fodder study

An overview of potential, bottlenecks and improvements to meet the rising demand for

quality fodder in Sri Lanka

Wim Houwers, Bram Wouters, Adriaan Vernooij

This research was conducted by Wageningen UR Livestock Research, commissioned and funded by the Ministry of

Economic Affairs, as part of the Koepelverplichtingen Sri Lanka 2014

Wageningen UR Livestock Research

Lelystad, December 2015

Livestock Research Report 924

Wim Houwers, Bram Wouters, Adriaan Vernooij 2015. Sri Lanka fodder study; An overview of

potential, bottlenecks and improvements to meet the rising demand for quality fodder in Sri Lanka.

Lelystad, Wageningen UR (University & Research centre) Livestock Research, Livestock Research

Report 924.

© 2015 Wageningen UR Livestock Research, P.O. Box 338, 6700 AH Wageningen, The Netherlands,

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are filed with the District Court of Zwolle.

Livestock Research Report 924

Livestock Research Report 924 | 3

Table of contents

Foreword 5

Summary 7

1 Introduction 9

2 Objectives and approach 10

3 Sri Lanka: summary overview of agro-ecological zones, dairy farming and feed

supply systems. 11

3.1 Sri Lanka basic information 11 3.2 Climate and agro-ecological Zones 11 3.3 Climatic zones and dairy production systems. 13

4 National Livestock Development Board farms: production potential and

constraints. 15

4.1 National Livestock Development Board (NLDB) Farms 15 4.2 Study of fodder production on NLDB farms. 16 4.3 Results of analysis of fodder production on NLDB Farms. 16 4.4 Other players in fodder improvement in Sri Lanka. 18

5 Options for improvement of the fodder situation 19

5.1 Feeding to potential: requirements for fodder in relation to milk production. A

theoretical background. 19 5.2 Current feed resources 21

5.2.1 General 21 5.3 Options to increase amount and quality of fodder production 24

5.3.1 Forage conservation. 24 5.3.2 By-products 25

6 Discussion 26

7 Conclusions 28

References 29

Appendix 1 Sri Lanka: Geographical features 30

Appendix 2 Land availability and suitability Soils 34

Appendix 3 Grass and fodder species 35

Appendix 4 Soil types of Sri Lanka 38

4 | Livestock Research Report 924


Foreword

Livestock production in Sri Lanka will be growing intensively in the coming years. More production of

animal proteins and a higher rate of self-sufficiency in milk production are the most important policy

goals for the near future.

The most indispensable and basic input for dairy production is feed with fodder as a major component.

At present the dairy industry in Sri Lanka primarily depends on natural pasture and fodder found on

road side, ravines, tank banks and uncultivated public and private lands. Very few farmers grow quality

pasture and fodder for the purpose of feeding their animals.

The almost non-availability of quality pasture and fodder and shortage of improved grasses (pasture

seed) and lands for grass cultivation is considered to be one of major bottlenecks in livestock

production in Sri Lanka.

The aim of the Sri Lanka government is to achieve self-sufficiency in milk production in the near future.

This also means that the demand for good quality fodder will grow strongly.

To determine what needs to be done to expand the fodder base, a study has been carried out to look

into the various issues relevant to developing and expanding fodder production in Sri Lanka.

Acknowledgements.

This fodder study is a continuation of the dairy sector study of 2014 and has been carried out as part of

the attention and interest of the Dutch government in the dairy sector of Sri Lanka, on request of, and

with support from the agricultural counsellor in New Delhi, his assistant at the Netherlands Embassy in

Colombo and other staff of the Embassy. This study combines some basic information on the fodder

situation in Sri Lanka with specific figures from the monitoring office and mr. Palitha Adikari (Assistant

General Manager) and farm staff in the Coconut Triangle and the Dry Zone of the National Livestock

Development Board . Especially with their assistance, ideas and input in availing and analysing this

data, this study has been made possible. We would like to thank all of them for their support in this

process.


List of acronyms

CP Crude Protein

DAPH Department of Animal Production and Health

DCS Department of Census and Statistics

DM Dry Matter

GDP Gross Domestic Product

N Nitrogen

NLDB National Livestock Development Board

OMD Organic Matter Digestibility

SWOT Strength, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats

VRI Veterinary Research Institute

List of tables, boxes and figures.

Table 1 Overview of climate, dairy and fodder production in Sri Lanka 13

2 Land utilization NLDB Farms 16

3 The minimum quality requirements based on genetic potential 20

4 Location and areas of natural grazing in Sri Lanka 22

5 Nut yield in grazed and un-grazed pastures under coconuts 23

6 Percentage of producer households accessing various cut and carry

fodder sources 24

Box 1 Characteristics of dairy production in Sri Lanka 14

2 Physical potential for milk production in Sri Lanka 26

3 Opportunities for Netherlands businesses in fodder production 28

Figure 1 Annual rainfall at different areas in Sri Lanka 12

2 Agro-climatic zones in Sri Lanka 12

3 CO-3 grass harvested at NLDB farm Menikpalana 18

4 Old hillside silage pits currently in use at Coconut Triangle and

Dry Zone farms 24


Summary

The dairy industry in Sri Lanka will be growing strongly in the coming years following the government

decision to raise self-sufficiency in milk production. Good quality dairy cows are imported as a new

genetic base to meet these new demands for locally produced milk. Improved fodder of good quality

and adequate quantities are the most important and fundamental base of any milk production systems.

Sri Lanka has all the basic elements to improve fodder production: the agro climatic circumstances

differ in various parts of the country but potential to grow fodder exists in each region, though irrigation

will be necessary in parts of the dryer zones.

Dairy cattle need a minimum quantity of good fibrous material for an optimum production of their

rumen. Intake of fodder depends on many factors, e.g. quality, digestibility, protein content, milk

production and the cow’s weight and rumen size. Tropical grasses usually have a lower digestibility as

compared to temperature grasses, due to their higher lignin contents. Different feeding regimes should

be applied through the lactation and dry periods. Cows with a high genetic potential should be fed high

quality fodder in combination with adequate quantities of concentrates.

Currently, most cattle in the country are fed from natural pasture and browse, which is low in

digestibility and protein, which can sometimes be compensated by protein rich browsing material. Often

by-products such as rice-straw are used as a base for cattle fed to complete the grasses, especially in

the dry season. Such a ratio can only sustain low milk yields. Options for good provision of fodder differ

between the various agro-climatic zones. Cattle keeping on coconut plantations is intensively practised

and does not compromise coconut yield.

Options to increase amount and quality of fodder production consist of various conservation methods:

drying (hay, straw) and silage making are the most commonly used strategies. Digestibility can be

improved by treating straw with urea, a commonly used method in many countries, also Sri Lanka.

Other agro-industrial by-products that can be fed are rice bran, coconut oil cake and brewers grain.

Theoretically Sri Lanka has the potential to produce good quality fodder for the production of eight

times the present production.



1 Introduction

Livestock production in Sri Lanka, focussing on dairy production, will be growing intensively in the

coming years. More production of animal proteins and a higher rate of self-sufficiency in milk production

are the most important policy goals for the near future. The non-availability of quality pasture / fodder

and shortage of improved grass (pasture seeds) and lands for grass cultivation is considered to be one

of the major bottlenecks in livestock production in Sri Lanka.

The largest number of cattle is found in the dry zones, where herd sizes are also the largest (see table

1). The relative distribution of cross bred dairy cattle is highest in the mid- and up-country as well in

the wet lowlands near Colombo. This can be attributed to the temperate climate conducive to the health

and performance of improved breeds.

The most indispensable and basic input for efficient dairy production is good quality fodder. At present

dairy industry in Sri Lanka primarily depends on natural pasture and fodder found on road side, ravines,

tank banks and uncultivated public and private lands. Very few farmers grow pasture and fodder for the

purpose of feeding their animals. The total land area utilized for livestock production in combination

with crops is estimated to be about 670,000 ha with an estimated 50,000 ha mainly natural pastures.

However 12,000 km2 of the total land area of 65,000 km2 is under grass cover (Premadassa, 1990),

showing a latent potential for improved fodder production.

The aim of the Sri Lanka government is to achieve self-sufficiency in milk production in the near future.

This also means a growing demand for fodder of good quality.

To analyse what needs to be done to expand the fodder base, a study has been implemented to look

into the various issues relevant to developing and expanding fodder production in Sri Lanka.

This study was commissioned jointly by the Netherlands Agricultural Counsellor in India, who is also

commissioned to Sri Lanka, and the Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in Sri Lanka.

This report describes the potential for production, analyses the situation on some of the larger farms of

the National Livestock Development Board, describes the theoretical requirements for fodder in relation

to milk production and raises a number of options for improvement of fodder.


2 Objectives and approach

The study was originally commissioned with the objectives to

-assess current acreage and level of fodder production in Sri Lanka

-make SWOT analysis of current systems of fodder production

-asses possibilities to improve production (both through extended acreage and intensification of

production)

-assess possibilities for public-private support activities from the Netherlands

-advice on the most appropriate steps to be taken to improve total production of fodder in Sri Lanka:

further integration of fodder crops in existing production systems

most appropriate types of fodder crops to be grown in the various climatic zones;

improving fodder growing husbandry including improvement of soil fertility.

As later in 2014 an additional study was commissioned on emerging business opportunities in the dairy

sectors in Sri Lanka (Vernooij et al, 2014), this study only focusses on the technical aspects of the

fodder situation in Sri Lanka. Possibilities for public-private activities from the Netherlands have been

discussed in the report on business opportunities.

The following approach was followed to carry out this study. Available literature was studied; during

several visits to Sri Lanka in 2014 discussions were held with key resource persons on the fodder supply

situation in the country and together with the management of the National Livestock Development

Board (NLDB) a survey was held amongst the major dairy farms of the NLDB. This yielded very valuable

information on the fodder situation on these farms, as well as on the bottlenecks encountered to

improve the situation.


3 Sri Lanka: summary overview of agro-

ecological zones, dairy farming and

feed supply systems.

Chapter 3 gives a brief introductory summary of climatological features of the country and the

consequences dairy and fodder production. More detailed information can be found in annexes 1 and 2.

3.1 Sri Lanka basic information

Sri Lanka, formerly called Ceylon, is an island in the Indian Ocean, located in Southern Asia, southeast

of India. It has a total area of 65,610 km², with 64,740 km² of land and 870 km² of water. Figures on

the total potential grass cover are given in table 6. Its coastline is 1,340 km long. Sri Lanka's climate

includes tropical monsoons: the northeast monsoon (December to March), and the southwest monsoon

(June to October). Its terrain is mostly low, flat to rolling plain, with mountains in the south-central

interior.

Most of the island's surface consists of plains between 30 and 200 meters above sea level. In the

southwest, ridges and valleys rise gradually to merge with the Central Highlands, giving a dissected

appearance to the plain. Extensive erosion in this area has worn down the ridges and deposited rich soil

for agriculture downstream. In the southeast, a red, lateritic soil covers relatively level ground that is

studded with bare, monolithic hills. The transition from the plain to the Central Highlands is abrupt in

the southeast, and the mountains appear to rise up like a wall. In the east and the north, the plain is

flat, dissected by long, narrow ridges of granite running from the Central Highlands.

A coastal belt about thirty meters above sea level surrounds the island. Much of the coast consists of

scenic sandy beaches indented by coastal lagoons. In the Jaffna Peninsula, limestone beds are exposed

to the waves as low-lying cliffs in a few places. In the northeast and the southwest, where the coast

cuts across the stratification of the crystalline rocks, rocky cliffs, bays, and offshore islands can be

found

Sri Lanka's rivers rise in the Central Highlands and flow in a radial pattern toward the sea. Most of these

rivers are short. There are 16 principal rivers longer than 100 kilometres in length, with twelve of them

carrying about 75% of the mean river discharge in the entire country. The longest rivers are the

Mahaweli Ganga (335 km) and the Aruvi Aru (170 km). Once they reach the plain, the rivers slow down

and the waters meander across flood plains and deltas. The upper reaches of the rivers are wild and

usually unnavigable, and the lower reaches are prone to seasonal flooding. Human intervention has

altered the flows of some rivers in order to create hydroelectric, irrigation, and transportation projects.

In the north, east, and southeast, the rivers feed numerous artificial lakes or reservoirs (tanks) that

store water during the dry season. During the 1970s and 1980s, large-scale projects dammed the

Mahaweli Ganga and neighbouring streams to create large lakes along their courses. Several hundred

kilometres of canals, most of which were built by the Dutch in the 18th century, link inland waterways

in the south-western part of Sri Lanka.

3.2 Climate and agro-ecological Zones

Sri Lanka is in the north-equatorial tropical zone. The climate is tropical with high humidity and

temperature which vary with altitude. At a given altitude, temperature is constant throughout the year

and is not a limiting factor to crop production except at higher altitudes, where frosts occasionally

occur. Seasons are not determined by change of temperature, but by the rainfall distribution influenced

by convectional precipitation and two monsoons. The northeast monsoon in November – February is

locally called “Maha season” and the south-west monsoon from May – September “Yala season”.

Figure 1 shows the annual rainfall in Sri Lanka ( Premaratne and Premalal, 2006). In Annex 1 monthly

rainfall patterns in different parts of the country are presented more in detail.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaffna

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahaweli_Ganga

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aruvi_Aru


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands


Figure 1 Annual rainfall at different areas in Sri Lanka (source: Premaratne and Premalal, 2006)

Figure 2 Agro- climatic zones in Sri Lanka (source: National Breeding Policy, DAPH, 2010)


3.3 Climatic zones and dairy production systems.

Milk production takes place in all parts of the country. Whilst the largest cattle population can be found in the dry and intermediate zones, the wet mid- and upcountry areas are

the main milk production areas. Table 1 gives an overview of the relationship between climatological features and dairy production systems and fodder production

characteristics.

Table 1: Overview of climate, dairy and fodder production in Sri Lanka (adapted from Ibrahim et all, 1999b).

Up Country Mid country Low country

Wet zone Intermediate zone Wet zone Intermediate zone Wet zone Intermediate zone

Coconut Triangle

Dry zone

Elevation 1200 1200

450 - 1200 450 - 1200 0 – 450 0 – 450 0 – 450

Ambient temperature

0C 10 - 18 18 - 24 21 – 32 25 - 35 24 - 35 25 – 32 21 - 38

Rain fall ( mm) 2000

1750 - 2000 1875 - 5000 1750 - 2500 1875 – 2500 1000 - 1750 1000 - 1750

Relative Humidity (%) 58 – 75 58 – 75 55 – 75 75 – 90 60 - 90 60 – 80 70 - 85

Predominant type of

(dairy) farmers

Plantation workers Plantation workers /

mixed crop farmers

Homestead mixed

crop farmers

Homestead mixed

Crop farmers

Coconut land owners,

Homestead mixed crop farmers

Crop farmers

Dairy Farming system Zero grazing small

herds; some tethering

Zero grazing small

herds; some tethering.

Limited grazing.

Medium sizes herds

Limited grazing.

Cattle tethered under

coconut palms.

Medium sized herds

Free grazing large

nomadic herds.

Sedentary small herds

in irrigated schemes

Fodder area Road sides, ravines, patana, neglected land

or established pasture and fodder

Road sides,

established pasture

and fodder

Road sides, post-

harvest crop fields or

planted pasture and

fodder

Post-harvest crop

fields or planted

pasture and fodder

Pasture or fodder under coconut,

post-harvest crop fields or

established pasture

Post- harvest crop fields, tank

beds and scrub jungles

Grass and fodder

varieties

CO3grass? Brachiaria sp., Natural grasses?

Cattle Pure exotic and crosses; some zebu crosses

Crosses of exotic breeds. Zebu types. Indigenous animals

and crosses. Buffaloes

Indigenous cattle.

Zebu and crosses. Buffaloes

No of cattle 121,000 142,000 177,000 1,104,000

No of Buffaloes 21,700 37,300 73,000 518,900


Box 1: Characteristics dairy production systems Sri Lanka.

Smallholders dominate the livestock industry, with an estimated 3.5 million people (including

dependants) finding livelihood within the sector. The sector contributed 22.5 billion rupees to

the GDP (0.8 percent of the national GDP and 8.5 percent of the agricultural GDP ) in 2004.

Some 17.9 percent of households own livestock and approximately 70 percent of them own

cattle. The dairy animal population consists of 1.21 million cows (Department of Census and

Statistics, 2006).

Dairy farming is predominantly a smallholder, mixed crop–livestock operation. Animals are

mostly fed on natural grasses available in common lands, such as roadsides, railway banks,

fallow paddy fields, tank beds and other vacant lots, all maintained under rain-fed conditions

(Presidential Sub-Committee Report, 1997).

Currently, hundreds of thousands of smallholders operating at near-subsistence levels

dominate the local milk production in these systems. The number of dairy farmers is

estimated to be about 400 000, of which 200 000 provide milk to the formal sector.

Dairying is part of a partially closed, mixed farming system at the smallholder level. Some of

the waste of the dairy unit, such as dung, urine and wasted-feeding materials, are used as

manure for crop farming; some of the crops and crop wastes are fed to the animals. In

addition, the cultivation of forages has helped to control soil erosion and improve soil fertility.

Hence, dairying at the smallholder level is an environmentally friendly activity when it is

properly managed within the farming system.

A minimum of 15 litres daily production is needed to earn a reasonable income from dairy

farming at the smallholder level. Three-cow equivalents of upgraded dairy animals with an

adequate cattle shed and a fodder plot of more than 20 perches are needed to allow a

smallholder to make this profit.

However, the majority of smallholders do not have these minimum requirements. There is a

need to improve their dairy farms. On average, a minimum of 50 000 rupees ($500) of new

investment is needed for each smallholder. This is beyond the capacity of most farmers, due

to their subsistence living conditions. Although credit programmes are available in commercial

banks, farmers have to pay back the loans within three to four years, with an annual interest

of 18–20 percent. More concessionary credit programmes are needed that take into account

the prevailing returns and profit margins of smallholder farmers.

Furthermore, dairying is not the main source of income for most of the smallholders and, in

most instances, is not the activity of the husband in the family. In fact, housewives do most

of the dairy-related activities while also attending to their other family obligations. Although

nearly 40 percent of the members of registered dairy cooperatives are women, they are

rarely represented in the management or executive committees of these organizations.

However, when housewives do have a role in managing household dairy activities and their

dairy cooperative, a substantial improvement can be seen in the economy of the family.

Source: Morgan, 2010.


4 National Livestock Development Board

farms: production potential and

constraints.

4.1 National Livestock Development Board (NLDB) Farms

The NLDB is a major player in livestock production in Sri Lanka. The para-statal operates 28 livestock

farms, the majority of these are cattle farms. The vision of the organisation is to be the best self-

sustaining organization in Sri Lanka to produce quality breeding material, livestock and agricultural

products to enhance the Socio-Economic standards of our people (source:

http://www.nldb.gov.lk/service.html ). The services rendered are supply of quality breeding material

(cattle, pigs, poultry, buffalo, goats, sheep, rabbits, quails) to farmers, supply of fresh milk and quality

farm products and the supply of quality pasture/fodder grass cuttings.

The National Livestock Development Board (NLDB) was established in 1973 under the State Agricultural

Corporations Act No.11of 1972. The NLDB is presently managing 30 livestock & integrated farms,

covering a total extent of around 14,000 ha, with 2 training centres. Its mission is to run a self-

sustaining chain of livestock and crop integrated farms in different agro-ecological zones. The activities

carried out by the NLDB are:

● To develop livestock activities within a reasonable time period to issue the requirement of

breeding animals continuously to farms with the objective to making the country self-sufficient

in livestock and dairy products.

● To develop livestock and agricultural products with new technology with the participation of the

private sector to increase the output and profitability of the organization.

● To cultivate cash crops in selected farms to support the cash crop production programme in the

country.

● To achieve optimum productivity levels in livestock and agricultural sector.

● To obtain maximum productivity from livestock and crop integrated farming systems and follow

eco-friendly cultivation practices.

NLDB plans to play an important role in further development of the dairy sector and to contribute to the

growing demand for milk. Four NLDB’s farms (Bopaththalawa, Menikpalama, Dayagama and

Ridiyigama) are equipped to manage a nucleus herd of 4,500 dairy heifers from Australia. A number of

the NLDB farms will be made available for joint ventures with other investors. Two other farms

(Ambewela and New Zealand Farm) have earlier been sold off to the Stassen Group.

Most senior staff within the NLDB has participated in training in the Netherlands. NLDB has a total of

almost 8,900 ha of land suitable for pasture or fodder, of which about 4,000 ha can be mechanized.

Currently 9,000 cows and heifers are kept. With an intensive fodder and feeding management this could

probably be raised to 25,000 animals of which 15,000 milking cows producing 5,000 to 8,000 litres per

cow per year.

An overview of all NLDB farms can be found at http://www.nldb.gov.lk/FarmMap.html.

http://www.nldb.gov.lk/service.html

http://www.nldb.gov.lk/FarmMap.html


4.2 Study of fodder production on NLDB farms.

The NLDB has a well performing farm monitoring system, which gathers a variety of data on farm

management issues, including fodder production. These data (table 2)have been used for this study and

for a few farms additional data were collected and further analysed with support from NLDB staff.

4.3 Results of analysis of fodder production on NLDB Farms.

The largest number of NLDB farms with monocultures of pasture and fodder grasses are located in the

Dry Zone. Currently NLDB farms are experimenting with hybrid Napier grass (CO-3 type), maize and

sorghum. By a rough estimation about 5,000 ha allocated for fodder production and harvesting could be

mechanized: 50 % of the pasture land in the Coconut Triangle, and all the area currently planted with

fodder. The Up-Country farms are located in hilly areas, which makes it difficult to mechanize the

fodder cultivation and harvesting. Most of the fodder has to be harvested by hand and carried in

bundles to trailers ( figure 3). In future, at higher wages, this will be too expensive.

Table 2 present the current land utilisation of NLDB farms in different climatic zones. Area for replanting

means reverted pasture lands to be replanted.

Table 2. Land Utilization - NLDB farms 2014 (in ha)

Co

co

nu

t

Tria

ng

le

Dry Z

on

e

Mid

Co

un

try

Up

Co

un

try

To

tal

Mono fodder

Pasture 279.6 772.3 7.5 272.6 1332.1

Fodder (Grasses) 45.1 224.5 1.8 288.1 559.5

Fodder Sorghum 2.4 12.0 0.0 0.0 14.4

Fodder Maize 4.1 12.5 0.0 0.0 16.6

Area for replanting 10.3 597.1 0.4 23.5 631.3

Tree fodder 4.0 27.2 0.1 0.0 31.4

Natural Pasture 277.5 1158.4 0.1 16.5 1452.5

Deniya + Pathana 0.0 0.0 0.0 174.0 174.0

Sub Total Mono Fodder 623.1 2804.0 9.9 774.7 4211.8

Mixed Crops

Pasture Under coconut 1946.8 0.0 34.8 0.0 1981.6

Fodder Under coconut 108.2 0.0 21.6 0.0 129.8

Tree fodder Under coconut 176.7 347.0 9.1 0.0 532.8

Pasture with other crops 12.5 0.0 12.5

Fodder with other crops 2.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.0

Area for replanting 11.2 0.0 15.7 0.0 26.9

Sub Total mixed 2257.4 347.0 81.2 0.0 2685.6

Scrub Jungle 0.0 0.0 0.0 108.0

Area to be developed 75.1 750.2 23.1 122.1 970.5

Sub Total 75.1 750.2 23.1 230.1 970.5

Grand Total 698.2 3554.2 25.5 732.2 7867.8

Options to improve the fodder situation

NLDB farms have land for pasture and fodder cultivation, whilst many natural areas (“jungle”) are left

undisturbed. According to the rules and regulations in the country jungles cannot be cleared without

permission. This will be allowed only in special cases like Ridiyagama farm which has to grow large

amounts of quality fodder to cater for the imported heifers from Australia. Several farms have enough

land which can be developed for the pasture or fodder cultivations without damaging the natural


environment. At Polonnaruwa e.g. farm this is implemented by maintaining natural pasture land with

large trees such as Maila (Bahunia Racemosa) in the pasture land, and developing pasture and fodder in

between. In the Coconut Triangle NLDB is experimenting with fodder cultivation between coconut trees.

It is expected that also the coconut palms will benefit from the fertilisations and increase of organic

matter. A negative aspect could be that harvesting of coconuts will be more difficult at high and dense

growing fodder like Napier sp.

The natural pasture and area for replanting can be utilized for improved grass varieties and fodder. Tree

fodder is mostly Gliricidia planted in fences. In the dry zone Maila trees are used for shade, while also

leaves are browsed or fed to cattle.

In coconut plantations where enough space and sunlight are available pasture lands can be developed

with some effort, if suitable soils & water is available, preferably with the possibility of irrigation.

On sloping surface lands drum-mowers or cutter bars can be used for grass cutting, but collection must

be done manually. This is the major problem in upcountry farms where large trailers cannot be used.

On flat lands harvesters and trailers can be used, which will make it suitable for large scale harvesting

and conservation by silage pits or wrapped bales.

Some more detailed information was gathered from the dry zone farms Pollonaruwa Farm and

Nikawaratiya Farm and from Menikpalana Farm, an Up-Country farm with recently imported cattle from

Australia.

Both farms are specialized livestock farms, with an experience in mechanisation and large scale fodder

conservation. Old forage harvesting machines are still there, but often not in working state, and

depending on experienced mechanics to function. Both have wide grazing area with Brachiaria sp., but

do not use rotational grazing because fences are knocked down by elephants and labour is still

reasonable cheap. Maila (Bahunia Racemosa) is a widely grown shade tree with leaves and fruits which

is also browse by cattle, and branches with leaves and fruits are cut during the dry season to feed

cattle. At Polonnaruwa Farm 12 % of the land is covered by Maila trees.

One of the main constraints are the wild elephants moving through the farms, and destroying paddock

fences and fodder fields. The current practice to stop them by electric fences is not sufficient because

elephants use tree trunks to put down the wires. Another problem is invading cattle herds from

surrounding villages.

At another dry zone farm Ridiyigama in the South 1500 Friesian x Yersey heifers from Australia are

imported. Ridiyagama has a total of 680 ha. under development, of which 160 ha of sorghum has been

planted and the remaining is natural or improved pasture. In preparation of receipt of the animals 4000

Mt. of sorghum silage been made and some hay.

At Up-Country farm Menikpalana with annual rain fall of 1750-2250 MM and altitude of 1350 m

imported 864 dairy cattle, including 150 young stock, are kept of which 690 are in milk with a daily milk

production of 12,500 l. The farm has 320 ha of land in use; 161 ha under pasture and 159 is planted

with fodder varieties. The expected future herd development is for 1000 cows in total and 850 cows in

milk, 450 heifers a bull rearing unit.

Present system of roughage supply natural pasture, improved pasture with Kikuyu, Brachiaria sp. and

Napier and CO3. This is supplemented by brewers grain, dahl husk and paddy straw. Pasture is

managed by rotational grazing: fertilization, grazing system, bush control with a gyro mower, and

fertilizing with 125kg urea per acre. Fodder crops are managed by planting, fertilization basal 150

kg/acre. N.P., cutting management) and cutting interval 60days. Estimated production is 4 cuttings per

year and 15 Mt per cut on 150 acres (12000mt). Costs of production per ton of fresh product are Rs

6500 /Mt.

Major challenges and constraints are to improve fodder production on the farm soil PH, fertilizing,

fencing for wild animals and land steepness. Experiences with past initiatives to improve fodder

production were increasing soil PH from 4.7 to 5.3. Organic fertilizer, slurry application, gave better

result in yield, micro elements and higher dry matter content. There are plans for fodder conservation

mixing maize and Napier. Specific problems experienced are low solar radiation, heavy rainy season,

enable to use machinery and shortage of labour for grass cutting,


As part of this study, a first overview of the available data and potential for fodder production on the

NLDB farms was made. The scope of the study did not allow for further analysis and developing

improvement strategies for the NLDB farms. The lessons however that could be learned from the NLDB

farm experiences in intensification of fodder production are very valuable and should be made better

available for the dairy farming community at large in Sri Lanka.

4.4 Other players in fodder improvement in Sri Lanka.

Department of Animal Production and Health (DAPH) of the Ministry of Livestock and Rural

Development and the Veterinary Research Institute.

There is a National Committee for forage development, the Pasture Development Committee, under the

DAPH. The main emphasis is on hay-making as a fodder conservation strategy. Sri Lanka is not

successful in silage making because airtightness during storage is difficult to achieve in small scale

situations.

Fodder sorghum is stimulated at larger scale dairy farms, to bridge the dry season that lasts from

October to January. Annual fodder or legumes could be planted under paddy before harvesting to make

use of remaining moisture in the soil.

Current fodder production however is mainly natural habitat. Mechanisation is new and needs to be

stimulated according to the DAPH. Commercial good quality fodder production is not a priority with

most farmers in the country.

Import of seeds is controlled by the Agricultural Department.

Existing regulations do not allow to cut coconut trees without replanting. Many coconut plantations do

not like to grow fodder under coconut because nuts will be missed at harvesting (due to the tall

grasses) and the fodder will prevent tractors to move between the coconuts, negatively affection

mechanisation opportunities in the plantation.

At the VRI, there is a special department on pasture and fodder crops (http://www.vri.lk/pf.php). The

latest information available on the website is on research topics of 2011, in which’ year the VRI

undertook research into digestibility of various feed stuffs.

Figure 3 CO-3 grass harvested at NLDB farm Menikpalana

http://www.vri.lk/pf.php


5 Options for improvement of the fodder

situation

5.1 Feeding to potential: requirements for fodder in relation to

milk production. A theoretical background.

Dairy cattle need a minimum quantity of fibrous material (grass, forage, crop residues, hay, silage) in

their daily ration for an optimum functioning of the rumen. Fodder contains a high level of fibrous

material, while concentrate mixtures hardly contain any fibre. On a dry basis (dry matter basis) a

minimum of 40% of the ration should consist of roughage or fodder while the other 60% could be

compound concentrate feed, low fibre by products etc. Low amounts of roughage in the daily ration can

result in digestive disturbances like poor digestion, rumen acidosis, low milk quality (low butter fat,

total solids), health problems as a result of rumen acidosis like hoof problems but also displaced

abomasum.

Feeding enough roughage, which means ad libitum, is the most important aspect of feeding dairy cattle.

The quantity of roughage is often too limited compared to the dairy cattle needs and one of the major

factors causing rumen acidosis. Milk production based on regionally grown fodder is in general more

economic than milk production based on high concentrate feed rations.

Digestibility and feed intake

Intake of roughage depends on many factors but quality of fodder, expressed in organic matter

digestibility (OMD) is a main determinant of intake. Digestibility of the roughage is a major factor while

protein content (crude protein) can also be major factor if no supplementation is practiced. A very low

protein content in the fodder can be corrected by feeding a supplement with a high protein content.

Roughage intake capacity is also determined by the cow’s weight and rumen size. Heavier cows will be

able to eat more, but will also need more feed to maintain their body weight. Crossbred cows with a

lower body weight will have a lower feed intake capacity, partly compensated by their lower need for

maintenance. Buffalo’s will digest feed of lesser quality better. Studies carried out in Philippines,

Indonesia and Thailand indicate that buffaloes are able to digest and utilise dietary fibre, (especially in

rice-straw based diets) approximately 5 - 7 % more efficiently than cattle (in Ibrahim et al., 2001).

The quality of roughage in terms of digestibility has two effects on dry matter intake and potential milk

production. A higher digestibility of the forage results in a higher dry matter intake because of a faster

digestion in the rumen and as a result a higher passage rate. This means that for example the

maximum intake of for example rice straw with a very low digestibility is about 50% of that of a

roughage with a high organic matter digestibility. Besides the higher intake, a higher digestibility of a

roughage results also in a higher energy content per kg dry matter (higher nutrient density). Both

factors: higher intake combined with a higher nutrient density result in a much higher milk production

per cow per day for roughage with a high digestibility in comparison with very poor quality roughage

like rice straw.

In general tropical grasses have a much lower digestibility in all stages of growth compared to

temperate grasses. This is due to greater lignification of the plant leaves, which is a mechanism they

have developed to minimise water loss (transpiration), which increases their survival in hot summer

conditions (Boschma et al, 2010) and the coarse nature of tropical grasses, containing more stems,

genetic difference with temperate grasses). The average difference in digestibility (organic matter

digestibility) between tropical a temperate grasses amounts to 10%.

The higher the potential for milk production of the dairy cattle, the higher the requirements for the

roughage quality. In a dairy cow’s ration, low quality roughage can be supplemented with good quality

concentrate feeds especially for protein. Because of the requirement that 40% of the ration needs to be

in the form of roughage, this compensation has limits. Table 3 shows the minimum requirements in

terms of digestibility of the roughage for dairy cattle with different genetic potential for milk production.

If low quality roughage (low in digestibility and low in protein) is fed, it always needs to be

supplemented with good quality concentrate feed or good quality by-products; also in the case of low


productive animals. If less concentrate is fed (e.g. 2 kg) then the roughage is insufficient for

maintenance and concentrate with a higher level of protein has to be fed. It can be in general concluded

that the higher the potential milk production, the higher the requirements in terms of the quality of the

roughage.

Table 3. The minimum quality requirements expressed as digestibility of the

organic matter (OMD %) for different classes of dairy cattle (different

potential milk production based on genetic potential. Type of dairy cattle (genetic background) Potential

Average kg milk/cow/ day

Potential

lactation yield kg/cow/year

Required

roughage quality (OMD %)

Local zebu, 250 lactation days 5 1250 min OMD 45%

Crossbred (Zebu* Friesian), 50% ,

300 lactation days 9 2700 min OMD 55%

Crossbred (Zebu* Friesian), 75% ,


import cows -100% Friesian,


Import cows -100% Friesian,


Another factor which needs to be considered is the difference in roughage intake during the lactation.

The intake of roughage at the time of calving is rather low at the end of the dry period and beginning of

the lactation (about 75% of maximum intake) and reaches its maximum about 3 months after calving.

Milk production however reaches its peak already 2 months after calving. This means that cows need

also different quality roughage during the different stages of the lactation. Roughage of much better

quality at the beginning of the lactation compared to the first part of the dry period. This applies to all

the different genetic classes of dairy cows. Most of the problems related with poor functioning of the

rumen are due to lack of good quality roughage and feeding of relative high amounts of concentrates

occur in the first part of the lactation.

Based on the above mentioned considerations, the following can be concluded related to the quality of

forage required at a dairy farm:

Dairy cattle with a high genetic potential will require at all lactation stages but particularly

during the first part of the lactation forage of a good quality. This means grazing of young

tropical grass or feeding in a cut and carry system forage (tropical grasses cut at a young

stage) or good quality silage (for example maize silage);

Dairy cattle in the beginning of the lactation (also of cows with a lower genetic potential) need

ad libitum forage of good quality in order to achieve maximum roughage intake and to avoid

rumen acidosis when feeding high quantities of concentrate feed. This means the production of

young tropical grass and/or silage (see above).

For dairy cattle with a lower genetic potential (50/50% crossbred or less) or cows at the end of

the lactation and first part of the dry period production (at the end of the lactation) can be fed

with roughage of moderate quality with in addition some concentrate feed to balance for

protein;

Production of high quality grass (cutting a younger stage) will result in a lower total dry matter

production than production of grass cut at an older stage. This lower dry matter production can

be compensated by more and better (N) fertilization which will results in more cuts per year.

The most economic strategy (fertilization and cutting of grass at a young stage versus cutting

at an older stage) has to be evaluated for each case based on milk production level one likes to

achieve with this herd and farming system. This will be determined by economic calculations

(response in quantity and quality of grass in relation to fertilizer application, availability and

costs of concentrate feed supplements, adaptation and genetic potential of the cows.


A forage strategy for large and small scale dairy farms in Sri Lanka could be to develop a fodder

production strategy for high and low yielding cattle (including dry cows).

High yielding cows

Production of high quality fodder for dairy cattle with a high genetic potential and/or cows in the

beginning of the lactation. This will be fed in combination with relative high quantities of

concentrate feed (supplementation of protein, minerals, vitamins). This could be achieved by:

1. Introduction of quality grasses which are more leafy than elephant grass (Pennisetum

purpureum) or its hybrids (CO-2 and CO-3) grass. Brachiaria hybrids (Mulatto II and

others) could be compared with existing forage species.

2. Intensification of use of the forage species which are used locally like CO-2 grass which

are adapted to the climate. Intensification of the management and use could be

achieved by cutting at a young stage in combination with more intensive fertilization

(use of manure and artificial fertilizer). This will also apply to grass grown for grazing.

Grassland which is grazed rotationally should be fertilized more in order to achieve a

higher dry matter production and quality. A higher quality and prevention of losses can

be achieved by grazing at a young stage (shorter grazing intervals). Extension of

grazing time and/or grazing at night under hot weather conditions will increase grass

intake. Cows grazing only by day need to be supplemented with fodder during the

night to achieve maximum intake.

3. Growing and ensiling whole crop maize or Sorghum hybrids to be used during the dry

season or for supplementation in addition to grazing. Silage making is an expensive

and laborious process with often relative high losses if not managed well. Therefore

feeding of silage should have a positive effect on milk production in order to be

economic.

Low yielding cows

Production of moderate quality fodder for dairy cattle with a lower genetic potential low producing

animals and dry cows and feed it in combination with limited quantities of concentrate feed

(protein, mineral, vitamin supplementation):

4. Lower quality fodder (forage grasses cut at an older stage) in combination with crop-

residues like rice straw to be fed as basic ration in combination with a relative high

protein supplement

5. For dry season feeding: optimizing the feeding of small amounts of green forage in

combination with crop residues. Urea treated rice straw could be a basis for feeding

during dry season. The most important will be to achieve a maximum intake of

roughage. This means that roughage should be available at lib during day and night.

Feeding costly good quality silage might be not economic for low yielding dairy cattle.

5.2 Current feed resources

5.2.1 General

In their appraisal study Ibrahim et al., 1999b, reported that the predominant feed resources from which

the domestic milk supply is produced, are natural pasture and browse. This natural vegetation,

especially the grasses, is low in digestibility and crude protein, and dry matter production is low in the

dry months. While the areas of natural pasture available nationally are large and their sources varied,

the low nutritive value of the grasses, is compensated somewhat by the availability of browses of higher

protein content, limits daily take of digestible OM. Consequently the resultant productivity of cattle and

buffalo is low, especially amongst the improved (crosses and purebred) dairy cattle. Similar limitations

of poor quality (low nutrient density) reduce the utility, especially for lactating cows, of the large

quantities of crop residues available for feeding of cattle and buffalo (table 4).

Rice straw (1.82 million tons), maize stover (0.09 million tons), and other straws such as cowpea,

millet, black gram and soy bean are the principal crop residues available to smallholder dairy farmers as

substitutes for the natural pasture and browse or to complement their seasonality (Ranawana 1994,

cited by Ibrahim et al., 1999b ). In addition there are an estimated 0.24 million tons of sugar cane tops


and the same quantity of banana pseudo-stems. From the conclusion that buffalo’s (Lapitan et al.,

2008) have a higher performance on low quality roughage diet than Brahman grade cattle, we can

expect that water buffalo’s will produce more from rice-straw.

These crop residues and natural pastures, fed alone or with minimal concentrate feeds (e.g. coconut

poonac and rice bran), can only sustain low daily milk yields (4-6 litres) from crossbred dairy cows, and

less in the dry months. Yet in combination with good quality fodder and higher levels of concentrates,

natural pasture and crop residues can be efficiently utilised as the basal feeds for sustaining and

increasing Sri Lanka’s smallholder dairy production (Ranawana 1994, cited by Ibrahim et al., 1999b).

Table 4: Location and areas of natural grazing in Sri Lanka (Ibrahim et al., 1999b)

Location Hectares

Dry Zone (non-irrigated) 400,000

Coconut Plantations 140,000

Hill Country patana lands 55,000

Fallow paddy fields 30,000

Homestead gardens 20,000

Road sides/ Railway Embankments etc. 5,500

Others 5,000

Total Area 655,500

Sri Lanka has a total of 1,859,458.5 ha of agricultural land, of which 34.7 % is arable land, 49.2 %) are

under permanent crops and 16.1 % is other land (DCS, 2014). The total area covered by coconut palm

in Sri Lanka is almost 395,000 ha, by rubber 120.000 ha (Department of Census and Statistics) Both

can be under cropped with grasses or forage.

The dry zone.

In the dry zone communal grazing areas are dominant which are shared by wildlife and cattle. A non-

negligible aspect are wild elephants moving through the dry zone, often along very old tracks. This

raises a conflict between agricultural activities and wild life protection. Premaratne and Premalal (2006)

state that the natural grasslands are multifunctional with importance for livestock, wildlife use and

other domestic uses, each of which generates marketed and non-marketed outputs. Researchers and

policy makers should pay much more attention to extract these uses and outputs, integrating the

fundamental, social and socio-economic issues into the design and implementation of development

interventions through a multidisciplinary manner. The key policy question is how to increase total land

productivity in a sustainable way while minimizing degradation.

Premaratne and Premalal (2006) suggest that at national level review and mapping of the status of

present grassland cover of the country is urgently needed, and participation of pastoralists must be

encouraged during development and implementation of strategies. Pastoralism in wildlife protected

areas must be gradually proscribed and discouraged to develop communal grasslands in adjoining

public localities. Issues such as development of water resources, extension and education must be

considered in addition to basic grassland principles.

The Coconut Triangle.

In this area, which forms most of the peri-urban dairy system around Colombo, there is wide variation

in level of integration of crop and livestock and in level of intensification. The system is relatively

extensive, with landholdings reported at about 4 acres/household (Ibrahim, 2000). Cattle and buffalo

form an integral part of farming systems, helping in weed control and providing manure in coconut

lands.

Option to increase fodder production under coconuts

Land under coconut can be planted with grasses for grazing except for a 1 m circle around the stem.

Tall forages like maize, CO-3 and sorghum will not be popular in coconut estates because it will hamper

the access to the trees. However it will not be impossible to compromise, meaning that only 50 % of

the land will be used for fodder. New coconut plantation cannot be grazed until the trees are about 5


years old and coconut trees will be productive for about 30 years. Forage can be produced at 80% of

the land under coconut and at farms of over 20 ha fodder harvesting and conservation will be

mechanised. Contractors could also provide services on harvesting and ensiling at smaller farms.

In Sri Lanka the recommendation for Brachiaria pastures is to broadcast a mixture of 100 kg sulphate

of ammonia and 50 kg each of saphos phosphate and muriate of potash per acre per year in two split

doses at the beginning of each monsoon season. For fodder grasses, such as Guinea and Napier, half of

this dose is recommended immediately after each cut.

When improved pastures are first established there is likely to be a slight initial depression in coconut

yields due to soil/root disturbance and the nutrient demands of the sown pasture. However, provided

that soil moisture and nutrient levels are adequate, as long as sufficient nutrients are applied in the

form of fertilizer to match the expected offtake of pasture where soil fertility is low, and assuming that

adequate stocking rates are used, then coconut yields should be unaffected or may even increase.

There is also evidence that on some heavy soils where compaction is a problem, that cultivation

actually increases yields. The farmer, however, should not expect to sustain high pasture and nut

production with only low inputs. For high offtake a high input system will be required. Factors which

may influence coconut yields include: soil moisture levels; use of fertilizer; pasture species; grazing;

grazing system and stocking rate; legume use in pastures; cultivation; weed control method and nut

collection system. With good management coconut trees on fertilized improved pastures are likely to

out yield those on non-fertilized local pastures by more than 20 percent. Clearing and improving these

areas may significantly increase nut yields simply by increasing the pick-up percentage.

Data from Philippines (Moog and Faylon, 1990) confirmed that the growing of forages and grazing

livestock under coconuts can have a significant positive effect on nut yields (see Table 5).

Table 5. Nut yield in grazed and ungrazed pastures under coconuts (Moog and

Faylon, 1990)

Treatment Nut Yield Tree-1 yr-1

Ungrazed 10–30

Grazed + unimproved pasture 30–50

Grazed + improved pasture 80–100

Up Country perspective

The Up Country area is characterized by high altitude and sloping land surface, with few opportunities

to mechanize.

The 203,020 ha of tea will only be available for fodder production to a limited extend. Tea generally is

grown on terraced area. Currently lemon grass, Guatamala (Tripsacum andersonii) and Guinee A is

grown along the estate roads and edges to prevent soil erosion.

At present, tea cultivation has expanded to the extent of 203,020 hectares of which 120,955 hectares

(59%) are contributed by the tea small holding sector. Further, 72,684 hectares (36%) are owned by

20 Regional Plantation Companies and 9,381 hectares (5%) are managed under the government

institutions (Ministry of Plantation Industries, 2013).

Option to use of fallow tea land for fodder production

About 2 % of the tea land is replanted every year. Between removing the old bushes and planting new

seedlings usually the land is kept fallow for at least 2 years and planted with deep rooting grasses to

restore soil structure fertility and biological hygiene. Tea replanting subsidy and new planting subsidy

were in 2013 increased up to Rs. 350,000 per hectare and up to Rs. 250,000 per hectare respectively.

This means that on national level 4,000 ha would be available for fodder production for small scale

dairy units owned by estate workers, large scale units owned by tea estates or for out- growing to the

large farms in the area. Further scenario stakeholder and design studies with stakeholders could

provide blue prints for these scenarios. It will not need much fantasy to envisage the mutual benefit

and synergy for the tea estates and the cattle owner, regarding soil fertility, revenue, employment and

efficient use of infrastructure, machinery and human capacity. However also conflicts might arise on the

same issues.

In Up-country teas estates Guatamala (Tripsacum laxum) grass is recommended for terrace hedge

rows, mulching in tea estates and building up organic matter for replanting. Much depends on the

frequency of cutting because the heavy stems become very fibrous with maturity; generally low in


protein relative to digestible carbohydrate if not managed and fertilised. Stays green during moderate

dry season. With adequate N fertiliser, crude protein of leaf remains high even at late maturity. Said to

be poorer quality than Pennisetum purpureum, but this would depend on relative stages of growth.

Berahino (1992) reported on mixed farms in Burundi a milk production of 3,5 kg per day by Sahiwal x

Ankole crosses on for the most part Guatemala grass, yielding 64 tonnes of green matter per ha,.

Use of fodder in cut and carry systems (small scale dairy production)

Indigenous grasses are by far the largest cut-and-carry fodder input into dairy production in Sri Lanka

(Zemmelink et al, 1998). Table 6 shows that most of this type of fodder was cut from the bovine

keeper’s own farm, along roadsides and on others’ farms. These areas were also important sources for

the supply of improved grasses, e.g., Panicum sp., legume forages, e.g., Centrosema sp., and tree

leaves, e.g., Gliricidia sepium, which grows wild in Sri Lanka. The source (own land; others’ land;

purchased) of paddy straw was not identified in the survey. That most fodder was cut-and-carried by

household labour was indicated by the few reports of fodder purchases (Ibrahim et. al, 1999b).

Table 6: Percentage of producer households accessing various cut-and-carry fodder

sources

Indigenous

grasses Improved grasses Legumes Rice straw Tree leaves

Own farm 36 52 41 40 42

Roadsides 37 12 39 1 30

Purchased 2 4 0 3 0

Other farms 25 28 19 57 28

Rented land 0 4 1 0 0

A number of improved grasses have been studied as forages for ruminants. If managed well and cut at

the right stage of maturation, they produce good forage for dairy cows and buffaloes. It has been

reported that some 50,000 ha of improved pasture are in production and there is considerable scope for

farmers to increase this area, particularly in the coconut triangle, if market incentives stimulate this

investment. Research by the Coconut Research Institute shows clearly that grazing livestock under

pasture does not compromise coconut yields.

5.3 Options to increase amount and quality of fodder production

5.3.1 Forage conservation.

Forage conservation is common in rice straw (dry straw), but compacting into bales to make more

efficient transport possible like baling is not widely developed to make far transport feasible. In the dry

zone straw is widely used and the cattle are fed this fodder, but only low milk yields are possible when

feeding rice straw in combination with supplements. Urea treatment of rice straw is an easy option to

improve the digestibility. At Ridiyigama Farm there is experience with ensiling chopped fodder sorghum

in surface bunkers.

On small scale there is experience with hay making from Brachiaria sp. and Kikuyu sp. Some larger

farms have equipment to mow, wither and bale hay. General experience with silage making is not good,

because it is not possible to cut and collect large quantities in a short period, and moreover it is not

possible to maintain enough feeding speed when feeding out

Generally silage is made on a high silage pit like in figure 4 with sometimes a height of up to 2 m.

These old silage hillside bunkers are found on several livestock farms in Sri Lanka. The pits are sloping

strongly towards the back and have a gutter near the back wall to drain the fluid coming from wet

fodder. Above the gutter the silage normally is moulded. Probably this because gutter is not closed and

air will come in. Also cracks in the wall might cause moulds. Moulds will also occur at the second part of

the feeding when the height of the silage increases and not enough feeding space can be maintained. In

this example the bunkers are 4.5 m wide, 12 m long. Side walls are 1.5 m at the front and 3 m at the

back side. Above the side walls a roof is constructed at 1.5 m height. The advantage of these pits is


that only a limited amount of polyethylene is needed. However also surface silage (without side walls),

provided it is protected from the rain, birds and rodents, could be tailor made according to the expected

daily feed intake of the animals. At Oya Maduwa Farm (near Anuradhapura) there is experience making

silage and fed to neat cattle producing 8-10 litres of milk.

Figure 4 Old hillside silage pits currently in use at Coconut Triangle and Dry Zone farms

5.3.2 By-products

The main by-products suitable for cattle feed produced in Sri Lanka are rice-bran, coconut poonac and

brewers grain. The dairy sector however has to compete with alternative usage, like poultry and pig

industry, fertilizer and industrial activities like distilleries.

Rice bran, coconut poonac and molasses are the main sources of concentrates used in dairy production

to supplement the generally poor quality (low nutrient density) fodder basal diets. It has been

estimated that there are 70-90,000 tons of rice bran produced annually. 100 kg of paddy rice will

generate approx. 5 to 10 kg of bran. The annual production of rice in Sri Lanka of 3,380,780 MT ( DCS,

2015). However much of this is wasted mainly due to inefficient methods of milling, that do not

separate the rice hulls, which have virtually no nutritional value (digestibility of 12%), from the

valuable bran. As a result, only 25,000 tons of rice bran are suitable for animal feed.

Coconut poonac is the only medium protein source; on average some 40,000 tons are available

annually. In 2014 9,685 MT was exported (Coconut Development Authority, 2015). The price varies

regionally, ranging from Rs. 7.00 to 16.50/kg. Imported oil seed meals such as cotton seed meal, spent

liquor from alcohol distillers, soya bean hulls from soya bean industry are also available as concentrate

feeds. A neglected concentrate source is poultry manure, although its usefulness to smallholders will

depend on the cost of transport from the large-scale intensive poultry units, generally located in peri-

urban areas, which are its principal sources.

The expansion of the sugar industry has resulted in relatively inexpensive molasses, but the

establishment of distilling industries and the opening up of potential markets in Europe has diverted the

molasses from animal feeding. Because of this, it is unlikely that molasses will be available in Sri Lanka

for cattle feed or for molasses urea block manufacture in the foreseeable future. This is confirmed by

Pelwatte Dairies who does not receive molasses or other sugar cane by-product although they have the

same owner and at the same premises.


6 Discussion

Currently most of the cows are kept on free or communal, but limited available roads side and barren

land with natural grasses and tree forage. In the Mid-Country, cows are either tethered on road sides or

barren land or grass is cut and fed. In the Dry Zone cows are herded in large herds on post-harvest

paddy land or in scrub jungle when the paddy is grown.

Improved grasses if managed well and cut at the right stage of maturation produce good forage for

dairy cows and buffaloes. There is a considerable scope for farmers to increase fodder output,

particularly in the coconut triangle, if market incentives stimulate this investment. Grazing livestock on

pasture under coconuts does not compromise coconut yields.

For Sri Lanka to become self-sufficient in milk, a much larger amount of fodder will have to be

produced. At the moment the productive large scale farms are in the Up-Country, where there is little

opportunity to expand because most available land is utilised and the hilly terrain restricts further

mechanisation. Currently the large quantities of fodder are hand-cut and transported by small trailers.

This will cease when labour costs will rise and labour will be less available. There is already a growing

shortage of labour in various areas, as many especially young people seek employment in the Gulf

States.

The following box 2 provides a theoretical overview of the physical potential for milk production in Sri

Lanka (Vernooij et al, 2015).

Box 2: Physical potential for milk production in Sri Lanka.

Physical potential for milk production in Sri Lanka.

Facts: Total Area of Sri Lanka 65.610 km2. 30 % hereof is suitable for agriculture = 19683 km2 . Of

these 19683 km2, 70 % (13.778 km2) is used for crops , remaining 30 % for mixed farming and pure

livestock keeping = 5905 km2

Assumptions: Out of the 5905 km2, some 50 % can be used for fodder production = 3542 km2 =

354.200 ha.

Annual DM production per ha for actual and potential crops such as Panicum maximum grasses and

maize silage can averaged at 12 and 15 tons/ha. Assume an overall average of 12 tons DM/fodder

crop/ha/year.

354.200 ha x 12 ton/ha DM = 4.250.400 tons annually : 365 = 11.645 tons DM (from green fodder

crops) daily.

A cow weighing 500 kg (most dairy cows, certainly with Jersey blood will weigh less), with a

production of 15 litres daily, will need a daily intake of approx. 14 kg of DM

Assume 10 kg DM daily from fodder, the rest from concentrates and agro by-products such as rice

straw: 11.645.000 kg daily DM production: 10 kg/cow = 1.164.500 dairy cows that can be fed.

In theory, Sri Lanka has the potential to feed approx. just over 1.1 M dairy cows. However, when

taking fodder needs for young stock and bulls into consideration, which will consume about

¼ of the total fodder production, there will be enough fodder left for approx. 800.000 dairy cows.

If these 800.000 dairy cows all produce 15 kg daily, with a lactation length of 280 days, total annual

production will be 4200 litre per cow x 800.000 = 3.360.000.000 litres annually.

This amount is thrice the current annual target and approx. eight times current production.


Potential scenarios of livestock development in different climatic zones:

Up Country: Large farms can produce well because the climate is favourable. The young stock and dry

cows can be sent for grazing in the steep areas as much as possible and the available flat land will be

used for forage that can be mechanically harvested. In this area cultivation of Rye grass is possible,

provided seed can be imported. Health treats are parasites, leeches, ticks and mechanical damage to

hooves and legs. Shortage of labour will have a high impact on the forage management. This problem

could be met by out-growing of fodder at tea-estates and the dry zone.

The Coconut triangle: There is a considerable scope to grow more quality forage in the coconut

triangle. There are a large number of estates that will be able to mechanize fodder production and

conservation. Because of the relatively short dry period only limited conservation will be needed when

cattle are grazed. Fodder sorghum and fodder maize will be the best option for ensiling.

In the dry zone area a gradual increase of crossbred and buffalo milk production by local farmers can

be expected based on local grasses and rice straw. Some larger farms with access to enough water

and energy will be able to modernize, irrigate and keep medium to large sized herds.


7 Conclusions

Fodder production and dairy husbandry can be increased considerably by improving

production on the currently used fodder area, increasing the fodder area at tea, coconut

and rubber estates and unused land.

Conservation of fodder at the right moment, out- growing and feed formulation will

make year round feeding possible.

Furthermore, a forage strategy for all farms could be to develop fodder production

strategies for high and low yielding cattle (including dry cows).

For each climatic zone and farming system tailor made structures and techniques will be

needed to meet social and cultural constraints and climatic and soil conditions.

Upscaling and transitions in farming systems to offer required quality of production and

mechanisation will not be avoided, and will cross boundaries of current land in use by

paddy farmers, semi-pastoral herds and wildlife. Therefore these developments should

be embedded in local, regional and national development policies.

Netherlands companies can participate in in the technical aspects of forage production in

Sri Lanka like grass and fodder seeds production, mechanisation, fodder conservation

and training and education.

Box 3: Opportunities for Netherlands businesses in fodder production in Sri Lanka

Opportunities for Netherlands businesses in fodder production in Sri Lanka:

Grass and fodder seeds production, e.g. Mulatto II grasses, Sorghum varieties.

Mechanisation: mowing and cutting equipment, tractors, equipment for grass

transport.

Ensiling material/systems

Education and training on fodder production and ration balancing based on

quality fodder crops.


References

Boschma, S., Lollback, M., Rayner A., 2010: Tropical perennial grasses – pasture quality and livestock

production. Primefacts for profitable, adaptive and sustainable primary industries, New South Wales

Government.

DAPH, 2010. The National Breeding Policy; Guidelines and strategies for Sri Lanka. Ministry of Livestock

and Rural Community Development, Department of Animal Production and Health and , Peradeniya,

53 pp

DCS 2014. Department of Census and Statistics Sri Lanka. . Extent, Production and Cost of Production

(COP) of Tea, Rubber and Coconut: 1994 – 2009.

http://www.statistics.gov.lk/agriculture/data/TeaCoconutRubberTotal.htm

DCS, 2015. Department of Census and Statistics Sri Lanka. Paddy Statistics.

http://www.statistics.gov.lk/agriculture/Paddy%20Statistics/PaddyStats.htm

Edirisinghe 2014: Tea replanting subsidy scheme for the corporate sector & private sector estates more

than 10 acres. http://www.plantationindustries.gov.lk/dwnlds/plantation/2012%20-

%20Statistical%20Information%20on%20Plantation%20Crops.pdf

http://www.cri.gov.lk/web/images/stories/statistics/satistics_on_coconut_oil_palm.pdf

Ibrahim M.N.M. , S.J. Staal, S.L.A. Daniel and W. Thorpe. 1999a. Appraisal of the Sri Lanka Dairy

Sector Volume 1: Synthesis Report. Dept. of Animal Science, University of Peradeniya. 51 pp.

Ibrahim M.N.M. , S.J. Staal, S.L.A. Daniel and W. Thorpe. 1999b. Appraisal of the Sri Lanka Dairy

Sector Volume 2: Main Report. Dept. of Animal Science, University of Peradeniya. 1 pp.

Lapitan R.M, Barrio A.N. Del, Katsube, O., Ban-Tokuda, T., Orden, E.A., Robles, A.Y., Cruz, L.C., Kanai,

Y. and Fujihara, T.,2008. Comparison of fattening performance in Brahman grade cattle (Bos

indicus) and crossbred water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) fed on high roughage diet. Animal Science

Journal (2008) 79, 76–82

Jackson A. Kategile, S. Mubi, 1992. Smallholder dairy on-farm research in Burundi. Future of Livestock

Industries in East and Southern Africa: Proceedings of the Workshop Held at Kadoma Ranch Hotel,

Zimbabwe, 20-23 July 1992

Ministry of Plantation Industries, 2103 – Progress Report 2013,

http://www.plantationindustries.gov.lk/dwnlds/plantation/Final%20English%2027.11.2013.pdf

Monthly temperature and rainfall, http://www.weather-guide.com/Sri-Lanka/Mannar-Weather.html

Moog, F., Faylon, 1990: Pasture-cattle-coconut systems. FAO.

Morgan, N. (edit), 2010: Smallholder dairy development: Lessons learned in Asia. FAO.

National Livestock Development Board, 2013: Physical performance for the past five years. Sources at:

http://www.nldb.gov.lk/Doc/Physical_Performance.pdf

National Livestock Development Board, 2014:Annual Report 2013. Sources at:

Premadassa MA, 1990. Tropical grasslands of Sri Lanka and India. Journal of Biogeography. 17:395 –

400

Premaratne, S., and G.G.C. Premalal. 2006. Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles Sri Lanka. FAO.

22 pp

Simons, A., and J.L. Stewart. 1998. Gliricidia sepium - a Multipurpose Forage Tree Legume. In: Forage

Tree Legumes in Tropical Agriculture, Eds.: Ross C. Gutteridge and H. Max Shelton.

http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/publicat/gutt-shel/x5556e07.htm


Vernooij, A., Houwers, W., Zijlstra, J., 2015: Old Friends, New Trends. Emerging business opportunities

in the dairy sector in Sri Lanka.

Zemmelink, G., Premaratne, S., Ibrahim, M.N.M. and P.H. Leegwater. 1999. Feeding of dairy cattle in

the Forest-Garden farms of Kandy, Sri Lanka, Tropical Animal Health and Production, 31(5), 307-

319

http://www.statistics.gov.lk/agriculture/data/TeaCoconutRubberTotal.htm


http://www.weather-guide.com/Sri-Lanka/Mannar-Weather.html

http://www.nldb.gov.lk/Doc/Physical_Performance.pdf

http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/publicat/gutt-shel/x5556e07.htm



Sri Lanka: Geographical features Appendix 1

Sri Lanka, formerly called Ceylon, is an island in the Indian Ocean b, located in Southern Asia,

southeast of India. It has a total area of 65,610 km², with 64,740 km² of land and 870 km² of water.

Its coastline is 1,340 km long. Sri Lanka's climate includes tropical monsoons: the northeast monsoon

(December to March), and the southwest monsoon (June to October). Its terrain is mostly low, flat to

rolling plain, with mountains in the south-central interior. Sri Lanka has three major harbours in

Colombo, on the west coast, Galle on the south western coast and one of the world's best natural

harbours at Trincomalee on the northeast coast

Most of the island's surface consists of plains between 30 and 200 meters above sea level. In the

southwest, ridges and valleys rise gradually to merge with the Central Highlands, giving a dissected

appearance to the plain. Extensive erosion in this area has worn down the ridges and deposited rich soil

for agriculture downstream. In the southeast, a red, lateritic soil covers relatively level ground that is

studded with bare, monolithic hills. The transition from the plain to the Central Highlands is abrupt in

the southeast, and the mountains appear to rise up like a wall. In the east and the north, the plain is

flat, dissected by long, narrow ridges of granite running from the Central Highlands.

A coastal belt about thirty meters above sea level surrounds the island. Much of the coast consists of

scenic sandy beaches indented by coastal lagoons. In the Jaffna Peninsula, limestone beds are exposed

to the waves as low-lying cliffs in a few places. In the northeast and the southwest, where the coast

cuts across the stratification of the crystalline rocks, rocky cliffs, bays, and offshore islands can be

found

Sri Lanka's rivers rise in the Central Highlands and flow in a radial pattern toward the sea. Most of these

rivers are short. There are 16 principal rivers longer than 100 kilometres in length, with twelve of them

carrying about 75% of the mean river discharge in the entire country. The longest rivers are the

Mahaweli Ganga (335 km) and the Aruvi Aru (170 km). Once they reach the plain, the rivers slow down

and the waters meander across flood plains and deltas. The upper reaches of the rivers are wild and

usually unnavigable, and the lower reaches are prone to seasonal flooding. Human intervention has

altered the flows of some rivers in order to create hydroelectric, irrigation, and transportation projects.

In the north, east, and southeast, the rivers feed numerous artificial lakes or reservoirs (tanks) that

store water during the dry season. During the 1970s and 1980s, large-scale projects dammed the

Mahaweli Ganga and neighbouring streams to create large lakes along their courses. Several hundred

kilometres of canals, most of which were built by the Dutch in the 18th century, link inland waterways

in the south-western part of Sri Lanka.

Climate Agro-ecological Zones

Sri Lanka is in the north-equatorial tropical zone. The climate is tropical with high humidity and

temperature which vary with altitude. At a given altitude, temperature is constant throughout the year

and is not a limiting factor to crop production except at higher altitudes, where frosts occasionally

occur. Seasons are not determined by change of temperature, but by the rainfall distribution influenced

by convectional precipitation and two monsoons. The northeast monsoon in November – February is

locally called “Maha season” and the south-west monsoon from May – September “Yala season”. The

following figure shows the annual rainfall in Sri Lanka ( Premaratne and Premalal, 2006). In Annex 1

monthly rainfall patterns in different parts of the country are presented.

Topography plays a major role in the pattern of rainfall distribution. While the northeast monsoon rains

are island wide, the mountains intercept the southwest monsoon. Thus the country can be divided into

three climatic zones:

a) The highlands ‘Up Country’ and the southwest ‘Low Country Wet Zone’ receiving both monsoons are

the “Wet zone”. This is the most intensively exploited zone with 67% of its area under permanent

agriculture. The Wet Zone receives relatively high mean annual rainfall over 2,500 mm without

pronounced dry periods. The figure below give an example of the rainfall in Nuwara Elya, the

central town in the ‘Up Country’.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trincomalee

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaffna

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aruvi_Aru


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands


Rainy days and maximum temperature in Up Country town Nuwara Eliya.

b) The Northern and Eastern lowlands receiving only the Northeast monsoons are the “Dry zone”. This

zone covers two thirds of the island. It is the most favoured area with regard to radiation levels. But lack of rainfall during February – September is a major constraint to crop production. With irrigation, yield potential for field crops is high in the zone. The Dry zone receives a mean annual rainfall of less than 1,750 mm with a distinct dry season from May to September. The next figure shows the maximum temperature and rainfall pattern in Dry Zone town Batticoloa.

Rainy days and maximum temperature in Dry zone town Batticoloa

c) A narrow strip of land fringing the highlands to the North and East lies between the two zones and is the “Intermediate zone”. It is dominated by coconuts along the Western Coastal region, where dairy production has a long tradition. Intermediate zone receives a mean annual rainfall between 1,750 to 2,500 mm with a short and less prominent dry season. This is illustrated in the figure underneath, presenting the maximum temperature and number of rainy days for each month in Mid Country Intermediate zone town Kandy


Rainy days and maximum temperature in Mid Country Intermediate Zone town Kandy

Sri Lanka has a heterogeneous agro-ecological environment. A particular agro-ecological region represents fairly even agro-climate, soils and terrain conditions and would support a particular farming system with a certain range of crops and farming practices, including forage cultivation and livestock farming.


Annual rainfall at different area

in Sri Lanka (from Premaratne

and Premalal, 2006)

Agro- climatic zones in Sri

Lanka (from National Breeding

Policy, DAPH, 2010)


Land availability and suitability Appendix 2

Soils

In general, Sri Lankan soils do not pose a major problem for forage and other crop production. The

major soil groups and their extents are given in the following table underneath. The physical properties

of major soil groups viz; Reddish Brown Earths, Red Yellow Podzolic, Red and Yellow Latosols, Reddish

Brown Latasolic are favourable for wide-ranging agricultural purposes. The fertility of wet zone soils is

poor because these soils have been extensively leached due to high rainfall. The CEC values of most of

the soils are low. Therefore, special fertilizer management practices on these soils are required. The

base saturation of the dry zone soils remains at a higher range. Solodized solonetz, Bog and Half Bog

soils are the major groups of problem soils found in the country ( Premaratne and Premalal, 2006).

Extent of the major soil groups in Sri Lanka

Major Soil Group Area (ha)

1. Reddish Brown Earths and Immature Brown Loams; rolling, hilly and steep terrain

2 683 705

2. Non-calcic Brown soils, soils on old alluvium and Solonetz; undulating terrain

132 788

3. Red-Yellow Latosols; flat to slightly undulating terrain 263 380

4. Calcic Red-Yellow Latosols, flat terrain 35 152

5. Solodized Solonetz and Solonchaks; flat terrain 149 963

6. Grumusols; flat terrain 14 094

7. Soils on recent marine calcareous sediments; flat terrain 26 675

8. Alluvial soils of variable drainage and texture; flat terrain 501 978

9. Regosols on recent beach and dune sands; flat terrain 153 249

10. Red-Yellow Podzolic soils with semi-prominent A1 horizon; hilly and rolling terrain

1 525 906

11. Reddish Brown Latosolic soils; steeply dissected, hilly and rolling terrain

62 326

12. Immature Brown Loams; steeply dissected, hilly and rolling terrain

54 088

13. Bog and Half-Bog soils; flat terrain 57 423

14. Latosols and Regosols on old red and yellow sands; flat terrain 54 607

15. Alluvial soils of variable drainage and texture; flat terrain 51 892

16. Regosols on recent beach sands; flat terrain 7 852


Grass and fodder species Appendix 3

The most common grass in Sri Lanka is Panicum Maximum, Guinea A, which is found along road sides,

home gardens and unused land. This grass is either grazed by cattle tied where the grass is or cut,

carried in bundles to the stall kept cows and fed. Most popular grass varieties planted are Brachiaria

species Decumbence, Brizantha, Ruziziensis and CO-3. Since 2 years Fodder Sorghum is introduced and

planted at several larger farms to be used for silage or direct feeding in the dry season. Most popular

legume tree is the Gliricidia.

The following picture shows a farm road with on both sides Gliricidia trees. Gliricidia usually used as a

carrier for creeper crops like pepper

and the stem is allowed to grow 3 m

high. If used for fences and cattle

feed the stem id cut at about 1,50

to prevent cattle directly foraging

the leaves and to facilitate easy

hand cutting of the branches with

the leaves.

Following picture shows Gliricidia

and CO-3 grass being chopped with

a electricity powered manually fed

chopper. This type is commonly

used in Sri Lanka and now imported

from India.

In coconut estates Brachiaria

varieties like the Decumbence is

planted 3 feet from the coconut

stem. These 3 feet is used to fertilize

the trees and to put a mulch of

coconut husks. Guinea or Napier

varieties are not popular to use

under coconut because they hamper

te logistics at fertilizing and

harvesting the coconuts.

A Gliricidia fence is commonly used in cattle farms

A bundle of Gliricidia and grasses chopped with an electricity powered manually fed chopper

Brachiaria decumbens under coconuts


In the dry zone the Maila tree, botanical name Bauhinia Racemosa, is common as a shade tree in the

grazing field. Adult trees have a foliage diameter of average 12 m. They grow spontaneously from

seeds but seedlings are controlled at a mutual distance of about 30 m. to allow enough sun light to the

pasture or fodder. Pods and leaves are browsed by cattle. In the dry season they herdsmen cut

branches and feed these to the cattle. Yield is estimated at 50 kg DM per tree per year. Nutritional

value: Leaves & leaves stems 40.1% Dry Matter (DM), T.D.N. 304 gr/kg DM, D.CP. 46 gr/kg DM, Ca 4.1

gr/kg DM, P 0.08 gr/kg DM.

Pods and leaves of a Maila tree, botanical name Bauhinia Racemosa


Common forages and their yields under different management conditions. Sources: Various research publications in Sri

Lanka (mainly Premaratne and Premalal, 2006)

Forage type (species, varieties etc.) Yield (Dry or fresh as mentioned below)

Hybrid Napier (Var. CO-3 and Bana) (Pennisetum

purpureum x P. americanum)

Fresh yield: 5-8 kg / Plant at 45d cutting interval and 1 x 1 m

spacing under good management

Dry Matter Yield: 40,000 – 75,000 kg/ha/yr at 45d cutting

interval and 1 x 1 m spacing under good management

Napier grass – (Common Napier)(Pennisetum

purpureum)


interval and 0.75 x 1 m spacing under good management

Napier grass – (Clone -13)

(Pennisetum purpureum)

Fresh yield: 3-5 kg / Plant at 45d cutting interval and 1 x 1 m

spacing under good management


interval and 1 x 1 m spacing under good management.

Guinea Grass (Ecotype – A)


interval and 0.60 x 0.75 m spacing under good management


interval and 0.60 x 0.75 m spacing under normal management

Dry Matter Yield: 8,000 – 10,000 kg/ha/yr at 45d cutting interval

Panicum maximum)under roadside and natural grassland

conditions

Guinea Grass (Var. 435, Hamil, TD-58)

(Panicum maximum)


interval and 0.5 x 1 m spacing under good management


interval and 0.5 x 1 m spacing under normal management

Setaria (var. Kazungula)

(Setaria sphacelata)


interval and 0.5 x 0.75 m spacing under good management

Brachiaria spp.

Signal Grass –B. brizantha

Ruzi Grass - B. ruziziensis


interval, and under full sunlight and good management


interval, and under coconut and good management

Kikuyu

(Pennisetum clandestinum)

Dry Matter Yield: 12,000 kg/ha/yr at 40 d cutting interval, and

good management

Perennial Rye

(Lolium perenne)


interval and good management

Gliricidia

(Gliricidia sepium)

Fresh Yield: 2-3 kg/plant/cut at 75 d intervals as 2 yr old

hedgerows and 30 cm spacing

Ipil-Ipil

(Leucaena leucocephala)

Fresh Yield: 1.5-2 kg/plant/cut at 75 d intervals as 2 yr old

hedgerows and 30 cm spacing

Maila

(Bauhinia Racemosa)

DM Yield: 50 kg/plant/yr. Controlled spontaneous growth from

seeds at ca. 30 m, mutual distance, foliage diameter ca. 12 m.


Soil types of Sri Lanka Appendix 4

Rapporttitel Verdana 22/26Maximaal 2 regelsSubtitel Verdana 10/13Maximaal 2 regels

Namen Verdana 8/13Maximaal 2 regels

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