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7/27/2019 Speed & Measuring Equipments
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SPEED & ITS MEASURING EQUIPMENTSIn kinematics, the speed of an object is the magnitude of its velocity (the rate of change of
its position); it is thus a scalarquantity. The average speed of an object in an interval of time
is the distance travelled by the object divided by the duration of the interval; theinstantaneous speed is the limit of the average speed as the duration of the time interval
approaches zero.
Like velocity, speed has the dimensions of a length divided by a time; the SI unit of speed is
the metre per second, but the most usual unit of speed in everyday usage is the kilometre
per houror, in the USA and the UK, miles per hour. For air and marine travel the knot is
commonly used.
The Italian physicist Galileo Galilei is credited with being the first to measure speed by
considering the distance covered and the time it takes. Galileo defined speed as the
distance covered per unit of time. In equation form, this is
Where vis speed, dis distance, and tis time. A cyclist who covers 30 metres in a time of
2 seconds, for example, has a speed of 15 metres per second. Objects in motion often
have variations in speed (a car might travel along a street at 50 km/h, slow to 0 km/h,
and then reach 30 km/h).
In mathematical terms, the speed vis defined as the magnitude of the velocity v, that is,
the derivative of the position r with respect to time:
Ifs is the length of the path travelled until time t, the speed equals the time derivative
ofs:
In the special case where the velocity is constant (that is, constant speed in a
straight line), this can be simplified to v= s/t. The average speed over a finite
time interval is the total distance travelled divided by the time duration.
Instantaneous speedBy looking at a speedometer, one can read the speed of a car at any instant, or
its instantaneous speed.
Average speedDifferent from instantaneous speed, average speedis defined as the total distance covered
over the time interval.
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Tangential speedLinear speed is the distance travelled per unit of time, while tangential speed (or tangential
velocity) is the linear speed of something moving along a circular path.
Rotational speed(orangular speed) involves the number of revolutions per unit of time. All
parts of a rigid merry-go-round or turntable turn about the axis of rotation in the same
amount of time. Thus, all parts share the same rate of rotation, or the same number of
rotations or revolutions per unit of time.
Units
Units of speed include:
metres per second (symbol m s1 or m/s), the SI derived unit;
kilometres per hour(symbol km/h);
miles per hour(symbol mi/h or mph);
knots (nautical miles per hour, symbol kn or kt);
feet per second (symbol fps or ft/s);
Mach number(dimensionless), speed divided by the speed of sound;
in natural units (dimensionless), speed divided by the speed of light in vacuum
(symbol c= 299,792,458 m/s).
Measuring Equipments
1. Airspeed indicator
The airspeed indicatororairspeed gauge is an instrument used in an aircraft to display
the craft's airspeed, typically in knots, to the pilot. In its simplest form, an ASI measures the
difference in pressure between that which is generally around the craft and the increased
pressure caused by propulsion. The needle tracks pressure differential but the dial is marked
off as airspeed.
Diagram showing the face of a true airspeed indicator typical for a faster single engine
aircraft
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Operation
Airspeed indicator connections
Along with the altimeterand vertical speed indicator, the airspeed indicator is a member of
the pitot-static system of aviation instruments, so named because they operate by
measuring pressure in the pitot and static circuits.
Airspeed indicators work by measuring the difference between static pressure, captured
through one or more static ports; and stagnation pressure due to "ram air", captured through
a pitot tube. This difference in pressure due to ram air is called impact pressure.
Internal mechanism of an airspeed indicator
The static ports are located on the exterior of the aircraft, at a location chosen to detect the
prevailing atmospheric pressure as accurately as possible, that is, with minimum disturbance
from the presence of the aircraft. Some aircraft have static ports on both sides of
the fuselage orempennage, in order to more accurately measure static pressure
during slips and skids. Aerodynamic slips and skids cause either or both static ports andpitot tube(s) to present themselves to the relative wind in other than basic forward motion.
Thus, the alternative placements on some aircraft.
Icing is a problem for pitot tubes when the air temperature is below freezing and visible
moisture is present in the atmosphere, as when flying through cloud or precipitation.
Electrically heated pitot tubes are used to prevent ice forming over the tube.
The airspeed indicator and altimeterwill be rendered inoperative by blockage in the static
system. To avoid this problem, most aircraft intended for use in instrument meteorological
conditions are equipped with an alternate source of static pressure. In unpressurised aircraft,
the alternate static source is usually achieved by opening the static pressure system to theair in the cabin. This is less accurate, but is still workable. In pressurised aircraft, the
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alternate static source is a second set of static ports on the skin of the aircraft, but at a
different location to the primary source.
2. SpeedometerA speedometeror a speed meter is a gauge that measures and displays the
instantaneous speed of a land vehicle. Now universally fitted to motor vehicles, they started
to be available as options in the 1900s, and as standard equipment from about 1910
onwards.[1]Speedometers for other vehicles have specific names and use other means of
sensing speed. For a boat, this is a pit log. For an aircraft, this is an airspeed indicator.
The speedometer was invented by the CroatianJosip Beluiin 1888, and was originally
called a velocimeter.
Eddy current
A speedometer gauge on a car, showing the speed of the vehicle in kilometres per hour.
Also shown is the tachometer, which displays the rate ofrotation of the engines crankshaft.
The eddy current speedometer has been used for over a century and is still in widespread
use. Until the 1980s and the appearance of electronic speedometers it was the only type
commonly used.
Originally patented by a German, Otto Schulze on October 7, 1902,[2]it uses a rotating
flexible cable usually driven by gearing linked to the output of the vehicle's transmission. The
early Volkswagen Beetle and many motorcycles, however, use a cable driven from a front
wheel.
When the car or motorcycle is in motion, a speedometer gear assembly will turn a
speedometer cable which then turns the speedometer mechanism itself. A small permanent
magnet affixed to the speedometer cable interacts with a small aluminium cup (called
a speed cup) attached to the shaft of the pointer on the analogue speedometer instrument.
As the magnet rotates near the cup, the changing magnetic field produces eddy currents in
the cup, which themselves produce another magnetic field. The effect is that the magnet
exerts a torque on the cup, "dragging" it, and thus the speedometer pointer, in the direction
of its rotation with no mechanical connection between them.
The pointer shaft is held toward zero by a fine torsion spring. The torque on the cup
increases with the speed of rotation of the magnet (which is driven by the car's
transmission). Thus an increase in the speed of the car will twist the cup and speedometer
pointer against the spring. The cup and pointer will turn until the torque of the eddy currents
on the cup is balanced by the opposing torque of the spring, and then stop. Given the torque
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on the cup is proportional to the car's speed, and the spring's deflection is proportional to the
torque, the angle of the pointer is also proportional to the speed, so that equally-spaced
markers on the dial can be used for gaps in speed. At a given speed the pointer will remain
motionless and pointing to the appropriate number on the speedometer's dial.
The return spring is calibrated such that a given revolution speed of the cable corresponds toa specific speed indication on the speedometer. This calibration must take into account
several factors, including ratios of the tailshaft gears that drive the flexible cable, the final
drive ratio in the differential, and the diameter of the driven tires.
3. Tachometer
A tachometer(revolution-counter, Tach, rev-counter, RPM gauge) is an instrument
measuring the rotation speed of a shaft or disk, as in a motor or other machine. The device
usually displays the revolutions per minute (RPM) on a calibrated analogue dial, but digital
displays are increasingly common. The word comes from Greek , tachos, "speed",
and metron, "measure".
History
The first mechanical tachometers were based on measuring the centrifugal force, similar to
the operation of a centrifugal governor. The inventor is assumed to be the German engineer
Dietrich Uhlhorn; he used it for measuring the speed of machines in 1817. Since 1840, it has
been used to measure the speed of locomotives.
4. Tachymeter
A 'tachymeter' scale is a scale sometimes inscribed around the rim of an analog watch. It
can be used to compute a speed based on travel time or measure distance based on speed.The spacings between the marks on the tachymeter dial are therefore proportional to 1/t
where t is the elapsed time, and hence the tachymeter scale is logarithmic and noticeably
non linear.
The function performed by a tachymeter is independent of the unit of distance (e.g. statute
miles, nautical miles, kilometres, metres etc.) as long as the same unit of length is used for
all calculations. It can also be used to measure an industrial production process in units per
hour. A tachymeter is simply a means of converting elapsed time in seconds per unitto units
per hour.
5. VariometerThe term variometeralso refers to a type of variable transformeror an instrument for
measuring the magnitude and direction of a Magnetic field.
A variometer(also known as a rate of climb and descent Indicator (RCDI), rate-of-climb
indicator, vertical speed indicator (VSI), orvertical velocity indicator (VVI)) is one of
the flight instruments in an aircraft used to inform the pilot of the near instantaneous (rather
than averaged) rate of descent or climb. It can be calibrated in knots, feet per minute
(101.333 ft/min = 1 KN) ormetres per second, depending on country and type of aircraft.
In powered flight the pilot makes frequent use of the VSI to ascertain that level flight is being
maintained, especially during turning maneuvers. In gliding, the instrument is used almostcontinuously during normal flight, often with an audible output, to inform the pilot of rising or
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sinking air. It is usual for gliders to be equipped with more than one type of variometer. The
simpler type does not need an external source of power and can therefore be relied upon to
function regardless of whether a battery or power source has been fitted. The electronic type
with audio needs a power source to be operative during the flight. The instrument is of little
interest during launching and landing, with the exception ofaerotow, where the pilot will
usually want to avoid releasing in sink.
Description
Schematic drawing of the internals of a classic aircraft variometer
Variometers measure the rate of change of altitude by detecting the change in air pressure
(static pressure) as altitude changes. A simple variometer can be constructed by adding a
large reservoir (a thermos bottle) to augment the storage capacity of a common aircraft rate-
of-climb instrument. In its simplest electronic form, the instrument consists of an air bottle
connected to the external atmosphere through a sensitive air flow meter. As the aircraft
changes altitude, the atmospheric pressure outside the aircraft changes and air flows into or
out of the air bottle to equalise the pressure inside the bottle and outside the aircraft. The
rate and direction of flowing air is measured by the cooling of one of two self-
heating thermistors and the difference between the thermistor resistances will cause a
voltage difference; this is amplified and displayed to the pilot. The faster the aircraft is
ascending (or descending), the faster the air flows. Air flowing out of the bottle indicates that
the altitude of the aircraft is increasing. Air flowing into the bottle indicates that the aircraft is
descending.
Newer variometer designs directly measure the static pressure of the atmosphere using a
pressure sensor and detect changes in altitude directly from the change in air pressure
instead of by measuring air flow. These designs tend to be smaller as they do not need the
air bottle. They are more reliable as there is no bottle to be affected by changes in
temperature and less chances for leaks to occur in the connecting tubes.
The designs described above, which measure the rate of change of altitude by automatically
detecting the change in static pressure as the aircraft changes altitude are referred to as
"uncompensated" variometers. The term "vertical speed indicator" or "VSI" is most often
used for the instrument when it is installed in a powered aircraft. The term "variometer" is
most often used when the instrument is installed in a glider or sailplane.
An "Inertia lead" VSI or ILVSI compensates for relative "g" forces experienced in a turn
(powered aircraft) and provides appropriate mechanical compensation to remove otherwiseerroneous indications of climb or descent.
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6. Radar gun
A radarspeed gun (also radar gun and speed gun) is a device used to measure the speed of
moving objects. It is used in law-enforcement to measure the speed of moving vehicles and
is often used in professional spectator sport, for such things as the measurement of the
speed of pitched baseballs, runners and tennis serves.
A radar speed gun is a Doppler radarunit that may be hand-held, vehicle-mounted or static.
It measures the speed of the objects at which it is pointed by detecting a change in
frequency of the returned radar signal caused by the Doppler Effect, whereby the frequency
of the returned signal is increased in proportion to the object's speed of approach if the
object is approaching, and lowered if the object is receding. Such devices are frequently
used forspeed limit enforcement, although more modern LIDAR speed gun instruments,
which use pulsed laser light instead of radar, began to replace radar guns during the first
decade of the twenty-first century, because of limitations associated with small radar
systems.
History
The radar speed gun was invented by John L. Barker Sr., who developed radar for the
military during World War II. After the war, he tested radar on the Merritt Parkway. In 1947,
the system was tested by the Connecticut State Police in Glastonbury, Connecticut, initially
for traffic surveys and issuing warnings to drivers for excessive speed. Starting in February
1949, the state police began to issue speeding tickets based on the speed recorded by the
radar device. In 1948, radar was also used in Garden City, New York.
Mode of Operations
Doppler EffectSpeed guns use Doppler radarto perform speed measurements.
Radar speed guns, like other types of radar, consist of a radio transmitterand receiver. They
send out a radio signal in a narrow beam, and then receive the same signal back after it
bounces off the target object. Due to a phenomenon called the Doppler Effect, if the object is
moving toward or away from the gun, the frequency of the reflected radio waves when they
come back is different from the transmitted waves. From that difference, the radar speed gun
can calculate the speed of the object from which the waves have been bounced. This speed
is given by the following equation:
Where cis the speed of light,fis the emitted frequency of the radio waves and f is the
difference in frequency between the radio waves that are emitted and those received
back by the gun. This equation holds precisely only when object speeds are low
compared to that of light, but in everyday situations, the velocity of an object is directly
proportional to this difference in frequency.
By rearranging terms we can see that f is proportional to the velocity:
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Stationary radarAfter the returning waves are received, a signal with a frequency equal to this
difference is created by mixing the received radio signal with a little of the
transmitted signal. Just as two differentmusical notes played together create a beat
note at the difference in frequency between them, so these two radio signals aremixed to create a "beat" signal (called a heterodyne) and an electrical circuit then
measures this frequency using a digital counterand displays the number on a digital
display as the object's speed.
Since this type of speed gun measures the difference in speed between a target and
the gun itself, the gun must be stationary in order to give a correct reading. If a
measurement is made from a moving car, it will give the difference in speed between
the two vehicles, not the speed of the target relative to the road, so a different
system has been designed to work from moving vehicles.
Moving radarIn so-called "moving radar", a gun receives reflected signals from both the target
vehicle and stationary background objects such as the road surface, nearby road
signs, guard rails and streetlight poles. Instead of comparing the frequency of the
signal reflected from the target with the transmitted signal, it compares the target
signal with this background signal. The frequency difference between these two
signals gives the true speed of the target vehicle.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct-conversion_receiverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_notehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beat_(acoustics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beat_(acoustics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterodynehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_counterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_displayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_displayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_displayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_displayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_counterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterodynehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beat_(acoustics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beat_(acoustics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_notehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct-conversion_receiver