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HISTORY AND CONTEXT:MEXICAN SPANISH

• Texas War of Independence, 1836

• Mexican-American War, 1848

• Mexican Revolution, 1910-1920

• ‘Bracero’ Programme, 1942

CUBAN SPANISH

• Spanish-American War, 1898

• Cuban Revolution, 1959

• Mariel boatlift, 1980

• ‘Balseros’, 1994

PUERTO RICAN SPANISH

• Spanish-American War, 1898

• 50,000 immigrate to US mainland, 1945-1955

CENTRAL AMERICA POLITICAL TURMOIL , 1980S• E.g. El Salvador Civil War

DEMOGRAPHICS OF THE UNITED STATES (FOCUSING ON ITS HISPANIC POPULATION):

A LITTLE BIT OF HISTORY…Earliest origins of the language date back to the 16th/17th centuries with

colonization efforts

Many Southern states, especially in the SW, were under the Spanish Empire,

and there were efforts to conquer areas of the United States further north

Mexico gained independence from Spanish Empire in 1821

Treaty of Guadalupe signed in Feb 1848

Spanish Influence still clearly visible in these parts

Puerto Rico 1898 (Citizenship in 1917)

Large immigration movement from Mexico, Cuba, etc. to America since

19TH CENTURY

MEXICAN CESSION: TREATY OF GUADALUPE HIDALGO

LASTING EFFECTS & CONSEQUENCES

Arizona

California

Colorado

Florida

Montana

Nevada

New Mexico

Texas

Utah

Spanglish

• Various areas of some US cities

have an exceptionally high Hispanic

population, with areas such as

Washington Heights (NY) and Little

Havana (Miami)

• Common enough site in cities but

these places, among others, are

noted for having Spanish signs

RECENT POPULATION TRENDS

http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-02.pdf

http://www.census.gov/geo/www/mapGallery/images/hispanic.jpg

http://popcenter.uchicago.edu/census_conference/Research-News.shtml

FEW INTERESTING NOTES FROM THE 2002 CENSUS

66.9% Mexican, 8.6% Puerto Rico, 3.7% Cuba, 14.3% other C&S America,

6.5% other Hispanic

“Hispanics are more likely than non-Hispanic Whites to live inside

central cities of metropolitan areas”

45.6% of Hispanics, compared to 21.1% of non-Hispanic whites

Just 8.7% of Hispanics live outside metropolitan areas, compared to

22.1% of non-Hispanic whites

The concentration within cities can help them to raise awareness and

keep visible so that the Spanish language naturally gains

prominence form State authorities

http://www.globalvillage.us/census2002.pdf

THE FUTURE OF SPANISH IN THE USA

1. If migration of Spanish speakers will continue, the

status of Spanish as the USA’s second language (first

in some places) will be guaranteed.

2. Ethnic and linguistic assimilation to Anglo American

culture will continue to increase.

Table with row headers in columns A and column headers in row 3. Hispanic population in the United States:

1970 to 2050

Source of Data and

Year

Hispanic Population (in millions)

Percent Hispanic of

the total population

Census 1970 9.6 4.71980 14.6 6.41990 22.4 9.02000 35.3 12.5

Projections    2010* 47.8 15.52020* 59.7 17.82030* 73.0 20.12040* 87.7 22.32050* 102.6 24.4

Footnote:*Projected population as of July 1

SOURCE: U.S. Census Bureau, 1970, 1980, 1990, and 2000 Decennial Censuses; Population Projections, July 1, 2010 to July 1, 2050.Internet Release Date: February 08, 2008

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‘SPANGLISH’

• Code-switching / lexical borrowing

• Ambiguous connotations

“Spanish characterized by numerous borrowing from English.”

American Heritage Dictionary

“A type of Spanish contaminated by English words and forms of expressions, spoken in Latin America.”

Oxford English Dictionary

• Can be use positively as a badge of bicultural identity

• Can be used to disparage US Latinos

SPANISH IN THE MEDIA

• Significant presence in the media

730 radio stations; 200 television station; 1851 print publications

(2007)

• In some places Spanish televisions and radio has a greater

audience than English counterparts.

• Demand for information in Spanish regardless of fluency in

English

LINGUISTIC LEGISLATION IN THE USASPANISH AS A MINORITY LANGUAGENATIONAL LEGISLATION

April 27, 1981

Proposing an amendment to the Constitution of the United States establishing English as the

official language of the United States.

`Article --

`Section 1. The English language shall be the official language of the United States.

`Section 2. Neither the United States nor any State shall make or enforce any law which requires the use of any language other than English.

“English Only” ? “Language of Government” ?

“English Language Empowerment Act of 1996'‘

`Sec. 161. The official language of the Federal Government is English.

Sec. 165. (a) Fluency.--It has been the longstanding national belief that full citizenship in the United States requires fluency in English. English is the language of opportunity for all immigrants to take their rightful place in society in the United States.

`Sec. 167. ``(1) to prohibit a Member of Congress or an employee or official of the Federal Government, while performing official business, from communicating orally with another person in a language other than English; …(4) to discourage or prevent the use of languages other than English in any nonofficial capacity.

Source: The Library of Congress, Thomas

MOST RECENT LEGISLATIVE ATTEMPTS (1)

“National Language Act 2011”

March 17, 2011

To amend title 4, United States Code, to declare Englishas the official language of the Government of the UnitedStates, and for other purposes.

‘‘Sec.‘‘161. Declaration of official language.‘‘162. Official Government activities in English.‘‘163. Preserving and enhancing the role of the official language.

[…] no person has a right, entitlement, or claim to have the Government of the United States […] act, communicate, perform or provide services, or provide materials in any language other than English.

(does not apply to voting rights, education or religious context)

Source: The Library of Congress, Thomas

MOST RECENT LEGISLATIVE ATTEMPTS (2)

“The English Plus Resolution”: Concurrent Resolution

January 7, 2011 (High Congress Resolution 8)

Whereas multilingualism promotes greater cross-cultural understanding between different racial and ethnic groups in the United States;

Whereas there is no threat to the English language in the United States;

Whereas “English-only” measures, […], would violate traditions of cultural pluralism, divide communities along ethnic lines, jeopardize the provision of law enforcement […] to those whose English is limited;

Whereas such “English-only” measures […]contradict the spirit of the 1923 Supreme Court case Meyer v. Nebraska, “The protection of the Constitution extends to all; to those who speak other languages as well as to those born with English on the tongue” …

Now, therefore be it

That the United States Government […] –

(1) Encourage all residents of this country to become fully proficient in English […];

(2) Conserve and develop the Nation’s linguistic resources by encouraging all residents of this country to learn or maintain skills in languages other than English;

(4) Continue to provide services in languages other than English as needed […];

(5) Recognise the importance of multilingualism to vital American interests and individual rights, and oppose “English only” measures and other restrictionist language measures.

Source: The Library of Congress, Thomas

Advantages of “English Plus”

• Increases number of citizens with multiple language skills• Aids U.S. trade, diplomacy, and national security• Shifts focus off a disability of immigrants to speak English, and encourages them to maintain their native tongue in order to teach it to the monolingual population

How is the “English plus” resolution unsuccessful?

• Many native-born Anglo-Americans are monolingual• Some organisations have focused more on the English, and others more on the Plus: tension between advocating a second-language and of defending language rights• Some critics maintain that English Plus fails to acknowledge the role that minority groups themselves must play in developing language policies that affect their own communities

Source: Crawford, J.

States with “English Plus” Resolutions

New Mexico (1989)Oregon (1989)Rhode Island (1992)Washington (1989)

STATE LEGISLATION

Since 1981 25 states have adopted various forms of Official English legislation

Hawaii is officially bilingual

Alaska tried to implement an English-only initiative - been declared unconstitutional

There are 27 states with active Official English laws. 

These measures are unrelated to the amendment of the U.S. Constitution.

Statute – Arkansas (1987), Georgia (1996), Idaho (2007), Iowa (2002), Indiana (1984), Kansas (2007), Kentucky (1984), Mississippi (1987), Missouri (1998), Montana (1995), New Hampshire (1995), North Carolina (1987), North Dakota (1987), South Carolina (1987), South Dakota (1995), Tennessee (1984), Utah (2000), Wyoming (1996), Virginia (1981; 1996)

Constitutional amendment – Alabama (1990), Nebraska (1923), Oklahoma (2010)

Constitutional amendment adopted by voter initiative –, Arizona (2006),California (1986), Colorado (1988), Florida (1988)

IIllinois (1969) – statute repealing a 1923 declaration of "American" as the official state language and adopting English

Source: Baron, D.

Source: Crawford, D.

STATUS OF SPANISH IN THE USA

Americans who speak a language other than Spanish at home - 55,076,078

Number of those who are Spanish speakers - 34,183,747 http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/thomas]Table 2.

Population 5 years and older Who spoke aLanguage other than english at home by selectedhispanic origin and race group: 2009 [U.S. Census Study]

Hispanic Origin and race Percent

Total Population 5 years and older

20.0

Not Hispanic or Latino 10.0

Hispanic or Latino 76.2

White Alone; not Hispanic or Latino

14.5

Black or African American Alone

7.9

American Indian and Alaska Native Alone

29.0

Asian Alone 77.1

Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander Alone

42.5

Two or More Races 19.6Source: US Census 2010

LANGUAGE CONCENTRATION IN THE USA

In 2007, with 34.5 million speakers, Spanish is by far the most commonly spoken non-English “minority language”

For Spanish speakers, three states (Texas, California, and New Mexico) had the highest percentage, but the southwest corridor of the United States also had a sizable percentage of thepopulation speaking Spanish

Concentration by State Metropolitan/Micropolitan ConcentrationLarge metro areas such as New York (9.5%), Los Angeles (12.8% Spanish), and Chicago (4.3% Spanish) generally had large proportions of foreign-language speakers because of the economic opportunities in these places or because they act as gateway points of entry into the country.

Concentration of Spanish Speakers by State

Source: US Census 2010

EXAMPLES

Puerto Rico

Spanish is the native tongue of the vast majority of Puerto Ricans.

English is taught in the island's schools: less than 20 percent of its residents have learned to speak, read, and write English fluently (est.)

English Only legislation has become a cause for alarm in Puerto Rico

1991: congress voted to repeal Puerto Rico's official bilingualism and replace it with Spanish as the sole official language

1993: statehood advocates regained the upper hand - Puerto Rico's legislature reinstated the policy of official bilingualism.

Despite the fact that it is a predominantly Spanish-speaking state, Spanish still does not hold precedence over English in legislation

New Mexico Has a high number of Spanish speakers

State declarations of Official English produced a counter-trend

It became the first state to adopt an English Plus resolution followed by Oregon and Washington State

In many states where English is the official language, and there is a high percentage of (monolingual) Spanish speakers immigration is also an issue.

Thus, the language conflict of the area is associated the issue of illegal immigration

Eg. Prince William County, Virginia http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wSVQAT3TSdE&feature=plcp&context=C45eb6b1VDvjVQa1PpcFP38fSI81qfHIaPERetKpcnvteFCoHQVcw%3D&fb_source=message

Entrance to Puerto Rico: dual flags

Source: Crawford, J.

IS SPANISH A MINORITY LANGUAGE?

In the above table, it is clear to see that a high number of Spanish-speaking citizens cannot understand or speak English.

This means that with English as the dominant language, they will have difficulties with language on a day-to-day basis.

Spanish appears to be growing in the states more due to high numbers of immigration rather than the passing

on of native language from generation to generation

It is difficult to place Spanish as a minority language in the USA.

It is, however, spoken by a minority group in given areas; would it therefore be accurate to say that Spanish is a minority language in the United States?

Obviously, Spanish, though a minority language in the US, is not a minority language on an international level

It is only a minority language on the basis that it is spoken by a minority of the US population, and the language does not possess the same rights to speak their language as English

‘ENGLISH ONLY’ MOVEMENT

• 1981: Senator Samuel Hayakawa of California proposed an English Language Amendment.

1. A common language can unify, whereas separate languages can fracture a society.

2. Learning English is the major task of each immigrant.

3. Only by learning English can an immigrant fully participate in our democracy.

• This amendment failed, but these themes would spark the movement. The publicity it achieved led to the creation of the organisation ‘US English’ in 1983.

• None of these proposals have been successful, but the English Only movement continues to lobby vigorously, for a change of language policies at both federal and state levels.

• However, they have had considerable success at state level.

• California’s Proposition 63, passed in 1986 – declared English as the official language of the State of California.

• Since then, 23 states (and 40 cities) have adopted English as their official language.

• Statutes and amendments vary significantly from state to state, but generally speaking, they want:

• English to be the official language of the state• In most cases, English to be the only language of government activity.

• These laws are generally popular.

‘ENGLISH ONLY’ MOVEMENT

1. Adopt a constitutional law establishing English as the official language of the US.

2. Repeal laws mandating multilingual ballots and voting material.

3. Restrict federal funding of bilingual education

4. Strengthen the enforcement of English-language civic and immigration requirements for naturalisation.

• These are not particularly new concerns – similar objectives were seen in the ‘Americanisation Movement’ for example, at the time of WWI.

• What is distinct about the present English Only movement is its national profile and organisation (and its support from the American public).

KEY OBJECTIVES OF THE ENGLISH ONLY MOVEMENT:

FOUR SIGNIFICANT PROBLEMS OF THE ENGLISH ONLY MOVEMENT:

• As defined by May:

1. The historical inaccuracy that characterises many of their arguments about the role of English (and by implication other languages) in the US.

2. Explicit link made between a lack of English-language facility and subsequent educational failure. Also misrepresentation of bilingual education.

3. Inherent nativism of much English Only rhetoric – i.e. language is used as a convenient proxy for maintaining racialised distinctions in the US.

4. The assumption that speaking English is a unifying force, whilst multilingualism is by definition destructive of national unity.

• ‘Historical amnesia’ and the myths on which the English Only movement is based (May, 2008, p.207).

PROPOSITION 227 IN CALIFORNIA

• Entitled ‘The English Language Education for Children in Public Schools Initiative’

• Passed in 1998

• Significantly changed the way that LEP (limited English proficient) students were taught in California.

• Controversial, given its relation to race and immigration.

BEFORE THE PROPOSITION...

• 70% of all LEP students in California received some sort of help to aid them in their studies.

• 40% were taught in English, but using class materials and teaching methods specially for students who do not speak English well.

• 30% were taught at least partly in their home languages.

• LEP students would receive special help until:• they could read, write and understand English to the same level as

that of average students in the same grade.• until they could participate equally with fluent English-speakers in

the class (they may have received special help over several years).

AFTER THE PROPOSITION...

• Ended the possibility of bilingual education programs for LEP students.

• Replaces this with an English immersion program.

• Requires California public schools to teach LEP students in special classes that are taught nearly all in English.

• This would eliminate "bilingual" classes in most cases.

• Shortens the time most LEP students would stay in special classes.• LEP students should move from special classes to regular classes

when they have acquired a good working knowledge of English.• These special classes should not normally last longer than one

year. This would eliminate most programs that provide special classes to LEP students over several years.

TEN YEARS LATER...

• Mixed opinions about how effective the changes have been.

• But... test scores of LEP students are said to be higher, and averages of all students together also higher.

• Since then, several other states have attempted to follow California's lead with mixed results.

• Voters in Arizona approved an English immersion education law in 2000 and Massachusetts approved one in 2002.

‘All reputable research in bilingual education, as should be clear by now, suggests that this submersion English-only approach, with only short-term specialist support, represents the worst of all possible worlds for

such (predominantly Hispanic) students.’ (May, 2008, p.221)

BIBLIO

GRAPHY

Arizona Department of State, http://www.azsos.gov/election/2006/Info/PubPamphlet/english/Prop103.htm, [Accessed 18.03.2012]

Baron, D. Language Laws and Related Court Decisions, http://www.english.illinois.edu/-people-/faculty/debaron/essays/langlaw.htm [Accessed 17.03.2012]

Crawford, J. (1997-2008: Last updated 01.02.2012), http://www.languagepolicy.net/archives/langleg.htm [Accessed 16.03.2012]

May, S. (2008) Language and Minority Rights, New York: Routledge

Thomas: The Library of Congress, http://thomas.loc.gov/home/thomas.php [Accessed 16.03.2012]

United States Census 2010, http://2010.census.gov/2010census/ [Accessed 18.03.2012]

BIBLIO

GRAPHY

Spanish in the United States: Linguistic Contact and Diversity

Ana Roca, John M. Lipski

Walter de Gruyter 1999

Varieties of Spanish in the United States

John M. Lipski

Georgetown University Press

Language Diversity in the USA

Kim Potowski

Cambridge University Press

On so-called Spanglish

Ricardo Otheguy, Nancy Stern

International Journal of Bilingualism