Sociology 2:Class 14: World Society

Theory

Copyright © 2013 by Evan Schofer

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Announcements• Announcements:

• Midterm grading still underway

• Today’s Class: • In the news…• More theories of globalization

Review: Theories of Globalization

• General perspectives on the economy• Adam Smith• Marx• Keynesianism

• Sociological theories• Modernization theory• World Systems Theory / dependency theory• World Society Theory / neo-institutional theory

• Political Science• Realism• Institutionalism (Political science) /

Interdependence.

Review: Modernization Theory

• Argument: All societies naturally pass through certain stages of development

• All societies start out as “traditional” economies– Based on subsistence farming, hunting/gathering, etc

• Then, they have an “industrial revolution”• Eventually, they become “modern” high-tech

societies

• Modernization involved multiple shifts:• Economy: Shift to higher levels of industrialization• Institutions: Rise of modern government, legal

systems, education systems, etc.• People: Creation of “modern” persons

– Shift away from “traditional values”, toward science, etc…

Review: Modernization Theory

• Criticisms:– 1. It is very “Eurocentric” / Western-centric

• Assumes that the West represents the ideal• De-values other societies, cultural traditions

– 2. Modernization theory focuses on a single country, ignores global dynamics• Assumes that success/failure is due to internal

factors– Rather than relation to others: domination & competition

– 3. Modernization theory is unable to explain the persistent poverty found in many countries.

Review: World-System Theory

• Key Definitions:• Core: the rich, developed countries

• Also: west; metropolitan countries; developed world

• Periphery: poor, dependent nations• Also: underdeveloped countries; satellites;

dependencies

• Semi-periphery: semi-industrialized countries

• Dependency: The vulnerable state of being exploited by core countries

• They depend on the core for trade, investment, loans, technology, etc. (related term: underdevelopment).

Review: World-System Theory• World-System Theory: We need to study the

entire global economy as a world system• We can’t understand the fate of a single country, without

understanding how it fits into the overall system• Countries are rich or poor because of their position

relative to others in the global capitalist system.

• Argument: Europe (the “core”) was able to prosper by exploiting resources from other places

• The great success of Europe and the failures in the non-West weren’t just a coincidence…

• Europe became wealthy by maintaining economic & military dominance over other nations

• Exploited nations will never “modernize” as long as they are oppressed by Western nations.

World-System Theory• World-System theorists criticize the idea that

trade is “win/win”• Classical economic theory (Ricardo) predicts win/win• If you grown bananas efficiently, focus on that…

– Criticism #1: Specialization in low-tech production short-term profit but long-run costs

• Low tech specialization countries fail to develop industry and technology that could lead to greater profits in the future

• See Rodrik: “Poor Countries in a Rich World”– Argument: In the long run, countries would be better off

developing high-tech industry, rather than growing bananas…

World-System Theory• World-System theorists criticize the idea that

trade is “win/win”– Criticism #2: trade relations are asymmetrical

• Rich countries don’t need bananas badly– And, they can buy them from many sources

• But, poor countries critically depend on trade to get technology & machinery to develop their economies

– So, poor countries are dependent on rich• The rich countries have all the leverage in global

trade…

World-System Theory• World-system theorists also criticize foreign

direct investment & capital flows• Which free-market economists think is a good thing

– 1. “Core” capitalist countries &MNCs tend to extract profits from the periphery

• Local business is more likely to “reinvest” locally

– 2. Foreign investment doesn’t really help a society industrialize

– Foreigners build plantations and mines to extract resources– They build roads & ports to extract; not to benefit the country– In sum: They don’t build useful industrial infrastructure

– 3. Risk of currency/debt crises…

Review: World-System Theory• Question: How does WST differ from

other analysis of economic globalization?

• Both agree that economics = important– But, economists often view the world

economy positively (or neutrally)• Ex: Ricardo thought trade was overall beneficial• Ex: Many economists think globalization reduces

poverty compared to a world without trade

– WST scholars draw upon Marx’s criticisms of capitalism• Argue that the global economy perpetuates

inequality.

World-System Theory• What should peripheral nations do?

– According to world-system scholars?

• 1. Peripheral countries must avoid exploitive economic relations with the core

• Beware of trade and foreign investment, which can lead to exploitation and foreign control

• 2. Try to nurture domestic industries• Don’t sell coffee and rely on others for high-tech• Try to develop advanced industries locally• Concept: “Import substitution” – developing local

industries to avoid importing products.

World-System Theory• What should peripheral nations do?

– According to world-system scholars?

• 3. Band together with other poor nations to fight against the power of the Core…

• Trade with each other– Perhaps create cartels to bargain with the Core

• And some argue: start a global anti-capitalist revolution.

World-System Theory• How does World System Theory view

international organizations (like the WTO)?• Answer: They reinforce the fundamental

economic positions of core and periphery• Claim: Most IGOs and INGOs are created by core

countries, and will never fundamentally undermine the dominance of the core

– IGOs and INGOs tend to perpetuate core dominance– Example: WTO has not given big concessions to

periphery

• The only thing that could help would be organizations representing the peripheral countries against the core!

World-System Theory• Criticisms of World System Theory:• 1. Research findings are mixed at best

• Some of the specific WST predictions about sources of global inequality/poverty have been wrong

• It is true that there is horrible poverty in the world…

– But: Are people worse off than if there was no global economy? That is less clear.

World-System Theory• 2. Reverse causality

– World system theory argues: Countries that are dependent on the core of the world capitalist system will remain poor

– BUT, maybe it works the other way around• Poverty produced “dependent” relations in the

first place• Poor countries can’t produce high-tech goods,

so they trade commodities (e.g., bananas)• But, this doesn’t necessarily mean that trading

bananas made those countries poorer or “trapped” them into poverty.

World-System Theory• Question: Is world-system theory “right”?

• W-sys is a big-T theory. There is no simple answer

• 1. Analysis of Latin America is generally thought to be compelling

• 2. Rapid industrialization in Asia (S. Korea, Taiwan, etc) is a major exception to w-sys

• 3. Evidence on foreign/trade investment = mixed, often contradicts world-system theory

• Some studies find effects consistent with w-sys– See examples in Rodrik (“Poor Countries in a Rich World”)

• But, overall, many do not (See Chirot optional reading)

World-System Theory• My advice: World-system theory is a useful

theory that has some predictive power• Rodrik highlights some key predictions…

• BUT: don’t become a conspiracy theorist• It is easy to spin a story of “core country power” to

explain any set of events• Better to make specific predictions that can be tested

with evidence…

World Society Theory • A very different theory of the global system…

• Emphasizes culture, not economy• Also called “world polity theory”; a kind of institutional

theory (NOT “Interdependence/Institutionalism”)

• World Society Theory was also a response to modernization theory

• The expectation that countries will march through stages of development…

• Key observation: While countries differ a lot in their level of development, many aspects of their governments look quite similar…

• World Society Theory argues that this conformity reflects the existence of a common global culture…

– Which shapes how elites set up their governments, societies.

World Society and World Culture

• We are familiar with the idea that European/Western forms of consumption have spread around the globe:

• And, popular culture has spread across the world. (Short video, if time allows)

Globalization and World Culture

• Issue: Perhaps other kinds of culture and ideas are spreading around the globe:

• Ideas about:• How to set up governments• How to organize the economy• How to organize school systems• How to protect the environment• How to raise children• That could be “culture”, too…

Globalization and World Society

• World society theory argues that we now have a world society with a global culture– World Society = organizations, associations, &

culture in the international sphere• Observation: There is no strong world “state”• Rather, there are associations (IGOs, NGOs)

– Observation: Participants in the international system share a common culture

• IGOs and NGOs are typically run by people educated in Western-style tradition, believe in common things

• Example: Democracy, economic growth, education, etc.

World Society Theory • Digression: Thinking about culture and action

• Question: Why do people vote?• Let’s think about individuals, rather than states

• Conventional Answer: They want to maximize their power and interests…– Realism is an “interest-based” theory of action

• Thus, they go and vote for candidates that will enact favorable policies

• Is that what is going on in people’s heads?• Do they really think: “Heh, heh, heh… I’ll be rich!”?• In fact, a single vote rarely matters… why do people

bother?

World Society Theory • One alternative to “interest-based” action:

• Action is governed by culture and social norms

• A very different view: People vote because they are “supposed to”…

• We live in a society in which voting is highly valued• Example: Some of the biggest predictors of voting

include: whether friends or parents vote– If you are surrounded by voters (and pro-voting norms) you

are more likely to vote.

World Society Theory • How does culture affect us?

• 1. By providing norms• Norms indicate proper behavior in a given situation• You could come to class wearing scuba gear… but

norms discourage it. • In fact, we rarely consider actions that are against

norms.

World Society Theory • 2. By providing scripts

• Scripts are taken-for-granted “recipes” for behavior that we share and understand

• Example: If you are interested in courting someone, you ask them on a date

– You do not show up at their house with a dowry gift and ask their father’s permission to marry

• People in a common culture generally follow similar scripts.

World Society Theory • 3. By providing cognitive models

• “Cognitive models” or “maps” are mental frameworks or blueprints that people share

• Example: Suppose you were chosen to set up a new school… How would you design it?

• How many grades? What subjects? How big would classes be? When would the school year be?

Rational actors vs stage actors

• One common image in social science is that countries are rational “strategic” actors

• World society theory offers an alternative image

• More like stage actors following scripts…

World Society Theory • Note: Most ideas are drawn from a familiar

“model” of the school• Would you teach by apprenticeship? Keep boys and

girls separate? Teach classes on astrology? Probably not!

– In the language of social psychology: We all possess a similar “cognitive model” or “map” of a school

• It is that which we “take for granted”.

School: Nigeria

School: Cameroon

School: Tajikistan

School: Colombia

School: Guatemala

World Society Theory• What do theories predict about schools?

– Modernization theory predicted that poor, agricultural societies would be different from “modern” ones

• Example: Agricultural societies should have schools focused on farming/agriculture

– World system theory predicts that peripheral economies are subordinated by “core countries”

• Schools should be organized to produce workers; more efficient capitalist exploitation

– World society theory predicts that schools will be similar everywhere

• The result of a common global culture

World Society Theory• Key observation: Over the past 50 years

societies have become more similar in terms of government and policies

• Called “isomorphism”• Ex: Poor agricultural countries DIDN’T create different

educational systems– They adopted systems similar to rich Western countries

• Ex: Countries also adopted similar legal systems, population and health policies, environmental laws, etc…

– The kind of policies everyone is “supposed to” have

World Society Theory • World Society Theory suggests that states

govern on the basis of cognitive models• Cognitive models come from world society• Associations, IGOs, NGOs, and other states essentially

define “appropriate” behavior for governments

– IGOs and NGOs convey models of how to govern• Example: World bank conveys models of economic

governance; UNESCO suggests educational advice; Amnesty International suggests human rights policies.

World Society Theory • “Worldwide models… define appropriate

constitutions, goals, organization charts, ministry structures, and policies… Nation-states are imagined communities drawing on models that are lodged at the world level.”

• Meyer et al. 1997

• Island example: What if a new territory were discovered?

• How would IGOs, INGOs, & global culture reshape it?

Trends in Environmental Protection

Source: Frank et al. 2000

World Society Theory • The (partial) success of global

environmentalism is seen as evidence in support of World Society Theory

• Nations appear to conform to new global “norms”• “Interest-based” theories (world-system theory &

realism) have more difficulty explaining global environmentalism.

World Society Theory • Question: How does World Society

Theory view international organizations?• They play a key role: sustaining and promulgating

a common culture to nations around the world• Greenpeace, UNEP, and other international

organizations convey norms about what nations should do to protect the environment

– Note: International organizations don’t have “power”. They can’t force states to do anything• Nor does every single country obey the norms• But, over time norms, scripts, cognitive models

have a major effect on behavior.

IGOs/INGOs & Global Norms• International organizations: a source of

norms

IGOs/INGOs & Global Norms

Ex: World Society Theory Research

• Issue: Which countries have pro-environmental policies?

• The most developed?• The ones with the worst pollution?

• Answer:– 1. Pretty much all countries have begun to

enact similar environmental laws… • An example of conformity or “isomorphism”

– 2. Countries that are most connected to international organizations conform faster• Those “linked” to the world Society are more

exposed to global norms/culture…

World Society Theory• Issue: Is World Society Theory “right”?

• World Society theory is a new theory, but growing

– 1. World Society research on isomorphism in government policy is considered compelling• Convincing evidence that states are remarkably

similar in many areas– Despite large differences in level of development and

other factors that make similarity “surprising”

• World Society Theory research finds isomorphism in many areas

– Evolutions of education systems around the world– Understanding the success of the environmental

movement– Also, lots of work on trends regarding human rights.

World Society Theory• Issue: Is World Society Theory “right”?

– 2. World Society Theorists were first to realize the importance of INGOs in driving social change• Other perspectives tended to ignore them…

– 3. The ideas behind World Society Theory have garnered support in other areas

– Called “neo-institutional theory”

• Especially the study of organizations• This suggests potential… so people are working

to apply its ideas to global issues.

World Society Theory• Criticisms of World Society Theory• 1. It doesn’t address power

• This is intentional: World Society Theory represents a “corrective”, emphasizing the influence of norms and culture

– “the social sciences are reluctant to acknowledge patterns of influence and conformity that cannot be explained solely as matters of power or functional rationality.”

• But, colonial relations were historically important in defining Western ideas as the dominant ‘world’ culture

• Also, current global trends reflect US hegemony– World Society Theory scholars point out that US doesn’t always

benefit » e.g., when countries conform to US models of education

– But, still it seems like power may be important.

World Society Theory• Criticisms of World Society Theory• 2. It doesn’t sufficiently address actors

or “agency”• Again, this is an intentional goal of the theory…

which has come under criticism• Theory implies we are all controlled by a wider

culture– Builds on Durkheim’s ideas of ‘collective

consciousness’

• Where is room for agency? How can it explain variability in the world?

World Society Theory• Criticisms of World Society Theory:• 3. World Society Theory explains

government policies… but not life “on the ground”

• Conformity to world culture may be strategic (e.g,. to garner foreign aid) or very “thin”

• Ex: China may pretend to conform to global norms… but in fact that is just a façade

– Interests, rather than culture are really driving behavior

• World Society Theory scholars have begun responding to this criticism… but the issue is still being debated…

World Society Theory• Bottom line:• World Society Theory is a fascinating theory

– offers a whole new lens to view the world• A very useful lens that explains some things that

other theories can’t• Also very useful for understanding organizations…

– May be helpful if you start working for a big company

– But, people interested in power/inequality find it very frustrating

– It doesn’t directly address the issues they care most about

• Plus, it is a newer perspective… more evidence needed to fully evaluate it.