Sociological Research Chapter Two. Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Outline Why is Sociological Research Necessary? The Sociological

Sociological ResearchSociological Research

Chapter TwoChapter Two

Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson CanadaCopyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada

OutlineOutline

Why is Sociological Research Necessary?Why is Sociological Research Necessary? The Sociological Research ProcessThe Sociological Research Process Research MethodsResearch Methods Ethical Issues in Sociological ResearchEthical Issues in Sociological Research


Why is Sociological Research Why is Sociological Research Necessary?Necessary?

Five ways of Knowing the WorldFive ways of Knowing the World1. Personal Experience1. Personal Experience2. Tradition2. Tradition3. Authority3. Authority4. Religion4. Religion5. Science5. Science

Elements of ScienceElements of Science– Empirical: knowledge by direct, systematic Empirical: knowledge by direct, systematic

observationobservation



Elements of ScienceElements of Science– Scientific knowledge is systematic and publicScientific knowledge is systematic and public– Self-correction by creating hypotheses and then Self-correction by creating hypotheses and then

testing themtesting them– Objective: that biases and values do not affect Objective: that biases and values do not affect

their researchtheir research



Descriptive and Explanatory StudiesDescriptive and Explanatory Studies– Descriptive: to describe social realityDescriptive: to describe social reality– Explanatory: the attempt to explain relationships Explanatory: the attempt to explain relationships

and to provide information on why certain and to provide information on why certain events do or do not occurevents do or do not occur

The Theory and Research CycleThe Theory and Research Cycle– Theory: a set of logically interrelated statements Theory: a set of logically interrelated statements

that attempts to describe, explain, and predict that attempts to describe, explain, and predict social eventssocial events



The Theory and Research CycleThe Theory and Research Cycle– Two approaches:Two approaches:

DeductiveDeductive: Start with theory and then test it: Start with theory and then test it1. theories generate hypotheses1. theories generate hypotheses2. hypotheses lead to observations2. hypotheses lead to observations3. observations lead to generalizations3. observations lead to generalizations4. generalizations are used to support, modify, or to 4. generalizations are used to support, modify, or to

refute the theoryrefute the theory InductiveInductive: Start with observations and then generate : Start with observations and then generate

theorytheory



The Sociological Research ProcessThe Sociological Research Process

The Quantitative Research ModelThe Quantitative Research Model– Select and define the research problemSelect and define the research problem– Review previous researchReview previous research– Formulate hypothesesFormulate hypotheses

Key terms: independent and dependent variablesKey terms: independent and dependent variables Operational definitionOperational definition

– Develop the research designDevelop the research design– Collect and analyze the dataCollect and analyze the data– Draw conclusions and report the findingsDraw conclusions and report the findings



The Qualitative Research ModelThe Qualitative Research Model

ProcessProcess1. The researcher begins with a general approach 1. The researcher begins with a general approach

rather than a highly detailed plan rather than a highly detailed plan

2. The researcher has to decide when the 2. The researcher has to decide when the literature review and theory application should literature review and theory application should take placetake place

3. The study presents a detailed view of the topic: 3. The study presents a detailed view of the topic: fewer cases (maybe only one) and many fewer cases (maybe only one) and many variablesvariables


Research MethodsResearch Methods

I. ExperimentsI. Experiments

II. SurveysII. Surveys

III. Secondary Analysis of Existing DataIII. Secondary Analysis of Existing Data

IV. Field ResearchIV. Field Research

V. Feminist Research MethodsV. Feminist Research Methods


ExperimentsExperiments

Defined: a carefully designed situation in which the Defined: a carefully designed situation in which the researcher studies the impact of certain variables researcher studies the impact of certain variables on subjects’ attitudes or behaviour.on subjects’ attitudes or behaviour.

Key terms: experimental group; control groupKey terms: experimental group; control group Process: After persons with similar characteristics Process: After persons with similar characteristics

are selected and assigned groups, then:are selected and assigned groups, then:1. Both groups are pre-tested1. Both groups are pre-tested2. Exposed to a stimulus representing the independent 2. Exposed to a stimulus representing the independent

variablevariable3. Post-tested: to see if the independent variable had an 3. Post-tested: to see if the independent variable had an

effect on the dependent variableeffect on the dependent variable



ExperimentsExperiments

Strengths and Weaknesses:Strengths and Weaknesses:– Strengths: Strengths:

The researcher has control and can identify the key The researcher has control and can identify the key independent variableindependent variable

Experiments require little time and moneyExperiments require little time and money

– Weaknesses: Weaknesses: Problem of reactivity: The tendency of participants to change Problem of reactivity: The tendency of participants to change

their behaviour in response to the presence of the researchertheir behaviour in response to the presence of the researcher Not representative of others not in the experimentNot representative of others not in the experiment Too much control by the researcher…does not allow input by Too much control by the researcher…does not allow input by

the participantsthe participants



SurveysSurveys

SurveySurvey: a number of respondents are asked : a number of respondents are asked identical questions through a systematic identical questions through a systematic questionnaire or interviewquestionnaire or interview

RespondentsRespondents: people who provide data for : people who provide data for analysis through interviews or analysis through interviews or questionnairesquestionnaires

QuestionnaireQuestionnaire: a research instrument : a research instrument containing a series of items to which containing a series of items to which subjects respondsubjects respond


Types of Surveys

Telephone

•More honest and less threatening

•Greater control over the data

•Problems: Some people not accessible to researchers

Self -Administered

Questionnaires

•Simple and inexpensive

•Respondents are anonymous

•Problems: low response rates

Interview

•Personal and direct contact

•Face to face Respondents

•Problems: Major cost and time


SurveysSurveys

Sampling ConsiderationsSampling Considerations:: Survey research involves some type of samplingSurvey research involves some type of sampling From a population (those persons we want to find From a population (those persons we want to find

out about)out about) Sample: People selected from that populationSample: People selected from that population Representative Sample: A sample that is like the Representative Sample: A sample that is like the

populationpopulation Random Sample: Persons are selected by chance Random Sample: Persons are selected by chance

or randomlyor randomly


Secondary AnalysisSecondary Analysis

Using data that has already been gathered Using data that has already been gathered by someone elseby someone else

Example in the text (Sorokin’s study):Example in the text (Sorokin’s study):– Records from a radio show that collected Records from a radio show that collected

stories of “good neighbours” and found that stories of “good neighbours” and found that women were more altruistic then menwomen were more altruistic then men

– Records of Saints of the Catholic Church from Records of Saints of the Catholic Church from about 3090 sources: here, men were more about 3090 sources: here, men were more likely to be saints than womenlikely to be saints than women


Secondary AnalysisSecondary Analysis

Strengths:Strengths:– InexpensiveInexpensive– Opens the doors to historyOpens the doors to history– Can look at longitudinal dataCan look at longitudinal data– Rich and deepRich and deep

Weaknesses:Weaknesses:– Restricted to what is recordedRestricted to what is recorded– May be inaccurateMay be inaccurate



Field ResearchField Research

Field research is the study of social life in its Field research is the study of social life in its natural setting: observing and interviewing people natural setting: observing and interviewing people where they live, work, and playwhere they live, work, and play

Use of qualitative dataUse of qualitative data Varieties of observation:Varieties of observation:

– Complete: observes but does not participateComplete: observes but does not participate– Participant: collecting information while participating in Participant: collecting information while participating in

the life of the peoplethe life of the people Most participant observation is done in a “Case Study”: an in-Most participant observation is done in a “Case Study”: an in-

depth, multifaceted investigation of a single person, event, or depth, multifaceted investigation of a single person, event, or social groupsocial group



Field ResearchField Research

Unstructured Interviews:Unstructured Interviews: ““An extended, open-ended interaction between an An extended, open-ended interaction between an

interviewer and an interviewee”interviewer and an interviewee” From this kind of inductive research, one may From this kind of inductive research, one may

create a theorycreate a theory Strengths:Strengths:

– Very in-depth beyond surface dataVery in-depth beyond surface data

Weaknesses:Weaknesses:– Cannot generalize beyond this one case study Cannot generalize beyond this one case study


Feminist Research MethodsFeminist Research Methods

Much of the research has been Much of the research has been “andocentric”“andocentric”

Sexist languageSexist language More likely to use qualitative methodsMore likely to use qualitative methods Uniqueness:Uniqueness:

1. Women’s experiences are different from men’s1. Women’s experiences are different from men’s

2. Explanations in order to change2. Explanations in order to change

3. Not a “value-free” methodology3. Not a “value-free” methodology



Ethical IssuesEthical Issues

A long history of the development of A long history of the development of guidelines to protect the integrity, privacy, guidelines to protect the integrity, privacy, and honour of the people being studiedand honour of the people being studied

Elements of the Canadian Sociology and Elements of the Canadian Sociology and Anthropology Association:Anthropology Association:– Participation must be voluntaryParticipation must be voluntary– No harm to themNo harm to them– To protect confidentiality and anonymityTo protect confidentiality and anonymity– Issues: the Humphreys and Ogden researchIssues: the Humphreys and Ogden research

Documents

Sociological Research Chapter Two. Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Outline Why is Sociological Research Necessary? The Sociological