SOCIAL ENGINEERING APPROACH TOAIR QUALITY CHALLENGE

The Case of Kathmandu

Ramesh C. Arya

Toward the end of the millennium, Nepal did show a noticeableconcem for environment and moved a few steps towards itsimprovement. Success does not come by introducing regulations andstandards but on its compliance by the people. The whole process andapproach may fail its purpose if government is not consistent upon itsefforts and the very issue is not seriously taken up by the implementingauthority or if its enforcement causes massive discomfort to the affectedpeople. But if its merit is accepted by the people at large, it may evenpersuade the govel11l11ent to adopt and implement such a regulation.

Complete displacement of a pal1icular Iype of vehicles from theKathmandu Valley is a successful test case of social pressure for betterenvironment where it was delayed and denied for a long time by the stateauthorities themselves. The air pollution control movement in Nepal didgo though faced several ups and downs from the government and thepractitioners, It did bring in the desired result when the social engineeringaspect was duly honoured. The present paper presents the measures takento mitigate the vehicular pollution and people's involvement therein.

Introduction

Until 1960, Kathmandu was a quiet and clean city. It was alsoone of the peaceful and beautiful cities of Asia. With the wake ofindustrialisation in the country. and establishment of a cement factorywithin the valley, it gradually got polluted. The increasing number ofvehicles added to the pollution. The number of vehicles surgedsignificantly in the later years.

Mr. Ramcsh C. Arya is an Engineer working at Waler and Energy Secretariat(WECS)

R. C AlJ'" 113

Unregulated import of old and new vehicles including thecamet of the tourists, resulted in a wide mix of vehicles in the valley. Thecountry has no limit on the life of old vehicles, while the growth rate ofvehicles is one of the highest in the region. With very little negligibleextension of the roadways in the valley, the traffic has been very slow.The city also introduced three-wheeler diesel vehicles (popular byVikram, a brand) with very poor emission perfonnance.

Government did impose a ban 011 registration of three-wheelerdiesel vehicles. But the beginning on regulating vehicle emission beganunder an external pressure. Later it set standards for petrol and dieselengines. The non-compliance of standards would keep them ofT theValley. Air quality has been a maHer that attracted international publicattention in 1994 with a feature emitled Gaodhye Sang!"ila in IheNewsweek that highlighted it as one of the most polluted cities.

But the government at times did get innuenced by the businessgroup. TIlis resulted in relaxing the control. At one time. it evenpennined running a few Vikrams on trial in the Pokhara townshipdespite the protests of the local people.

Vehicular Pollution

The valley falls within the Bagmati Zone. According to theZonal Transport Office vehicular population has increased from xx in1990 10 xx in 1998. The road nelwork has remained at 341 km. Twowheelers have grown significantly in the past two years. New luxurybuses are mostly registered in other zonal omces, mostly at Birgunj. Asthe long distance night buses have age restrictions, the old buses are lateroperated as day!city buses. There has been insign ificant growth in thenumber of these public transporl vehicles. The little addition over theyears is mainly due to the transfer! re-registration from other ZonalTransport Offices to the Bagmati Office.

There are 4,200 three-wheeler tempos, out of which 1200 arethe diesel ones. On an average tempos travel 125 to 150 km a day. Thediesel tempos ply on 42 routes, reaching the city iJ1leriors (I). Thesmaller vehicles are practically competing with the larger ones in nearlyall routes.

The First Emission Standards

The govemment came up seriously to control vehicularpollution through a project sponsored by the UNDP in 1992. Tests wereconducted on a number of vehicles with regard to their emission andimprovement through repair and maiJ1lenance and other corrective

114 Occr..)itmal Paper R. CAry'. 115

measures. Based on the tests, a technical committee maderecommendations for the vehicular emission standards made in 1994.The Environmental Protection Council, which is chaired by the PrimeMinister, made an ambitious change over the limits of emissions. Itaccepted three percent Carbon Monoxide by volume for petrol engines,but prescribed stricter limit of65 Hartridge Smoke Unit (HSU) for dieselengines in place of 75 HSU as suggested by the committee. Thestandards, that were applicable for all vehicles plying in the KathmanduValley, came into effect through a gazette notification on xx.

The project did not go long. But the notification was definitely apositive step towards curbing the vehicular pollution. The governmentdecision to set stricter em ission standards than those recommended byihe technical personnel may be a reflection of its seriousness. Thegovernment did not wan I Nepal to be a dumping ground for the oldervehicles. Nepalese standards were kept in par with that of India. Thegovernment had even banned the import of second-hand and "re­conditioned" vehicles older than five years.

The government, though legally should not have allowedrunning the sub-standard vehicles to ply on road, was not serious onimplementing the legal provisions. In stead of the valley the movementof polluting vehicles was prohibited only in the confines of SinghDurbar, the central secretariat of His Majesty's Government.

There was a wide protest of the "impractical" standards.Smelling the lack of seriousness of the implementing agency, fewervehicles tlIrned up for emission tests. In the first Iwo years, only 12,000and 6.500 vehicles reported for Ihe test. This was much below the vehiclepopulation of the valley.

A New Beginning

A full-nedged Ministry of Population and Environment wasformed in 1995. Environment Protection Act came two years later. Butthere are no limits prescribed to the polluting activities. Prevalentemission limits for vehicles were prescribed under a clause of theTransport Management Act. 1990.

The Ministry took up the vehicular pollutionl11inimisation as itspriority programme. It stal1ed with implementing the existing rules andregulations organised. It appealed people to help fight air pollution, bykeeping the vehicles in fit conditions. It launched a vehicle-testingprogramme from June 5, 1996, coinciding with the World EnvironmentDay. It invited people to voluntary appear for the test within a schedulefor difTerent categories of vehicles such as buses/minibuses. ta"is, private

am tourist veh icles and the three-wheelers. The vehicles failing the testswce asked to repair their vehicles and re-appear for the test. It alerted thepe.:::ple in advance that the non-compliance to the standards l1light resultin -estrictive actions. It deliberately put the Vikrams in the last of the testsclodule.

It made a novel beginning. The testing program wasinaJgurated with the emission testing of the Prime Minister's vehicles.Th: whole process was transparent, where press and people could watchtheentire testing procedure including the readings of the teat equipment.Th' transparent approach was widely accepted by the people. A recordnumber of vehicles were tested. In a six-month period October 1996­March 1997, 1l10re than 16.000 vehicles came lip for the test. The overallfailure rate was 33 percent.

Meeting the emission standards and getting the "Green Sticker"of fitness became a matter of social prestige. specially for the richersection of the Nepalese society - the private vehicles owners. Almost allthe Vikrams failed the emission test. It gave a great pleasure to the publicwho had been pointing at them as the polluting vehicles and were provedas the culprits. But a few of them managed to get the green stickers. Thepublic pooh-poohed the Tramc Police for their hand in gloves ina\\'3rding the green stickers. It only proved that the Vikrams were owneddirectly or indirectly by the police personnel. At the pressure of thepublic cry against the greening of the Vikrams, these vehicles were re­tested and the green stickers were removed.

The Traffic Police also asked the Sajha Yatayat to come for thetest. And when the organisation, boasting of being a semi-governmentorganisation and close to the Ministry of Works and Transport, defied,the police detained it for the non-compliance.

Restriction Imposed

After six months orits introduction of tile testing programme, itannounced certain areas out of bounds for the vehicles not meeting theemission standards. At a later phase. other impol1ant areas were alsocovered.The First Notice

The area restriction was imposed from Oct 1996, nearly fourmonths after the emission test started. Ram Shah Path and TribhuvanInternational AirpOl1 (TIA) Complex beyond the Ring Road was open roronly "green sticker vehicles". The restriction notice was issued by theDepartment of Transport under the Ministry of Works and Transport.

116 Occasiollal Paper R. C. A')la 117

Though the Ramshah Path stretch was a short stretch (of about700m), it had a wide "basin". The "dirly" vehicles would not ply on theBag Bazaar section, Dill Bazaar section and the Kamaladi section thatwanted to use the Ram Shah Path. The restriction at the TIA was morefor a welcome gesture to the international tourists.

The immediate effect of the restriction was that Vikram temposcould not move over these areas as all of them failed to meet the emissionstandards. A significant propor1ion of the petrol three-wheeler (the Bajajtempos) too failed the lests.The Second Ineffective Notice

Six months later, Durbar Marg and the New Road weredeclared the restricted areels. But a week earlier 1O its implementation, therestriction was sllspended for carrying out "further studies".The Third Notice

The third notice was brought out on the World EnvironmentDay, 1998. It became effective from the first day of Ashadh, 2055 BS(June 16, 1998). Ir included the areas declared by the second notice thatwas later sLlspended. It restricted movement on major city roads, the NewRoad, rhe Durbar Marg, the Tri Devi Marg (opposire the SAARCsecretariat), and the densely populated Indrachowk-Thamel section of thecity, besides the three Durbar Squares in the three cities of theKathmandu Valley.

Tile Administrative Inaction

At times, it has been questionable if at all the ndministrativemachinery was serious on implementing the government decision.

The EV operators were asking for a I:oute. They were denied forseveral months. They were not allowed to operate on the route, Vikramswere running. The Vikrams were, however, running competitivelyrunning on the same routes offered to buses and mini~bllses. Beingsmaller vehicles~ they would often pick up passengers fi·om the largervehicles. They were not assigned stands on the approved routes. Theoperators of EVs often complained that rhe traffic police did not allowthem stand facilities and at times, the Vikram owncrs routed them out.But things gradually improved. In the newly developed stands by theRoyal Nepal Airlines Corporation, where only the Vikrams and touristbuses were assigned stands, a section was later offered to the EVs.

The police delayed its implementation on the excuse that thesections needed sign posts. The demand was partly true. But as thepeople were well informed, the traffic police could have stopped theirmovements. At the worst case, the resistance would have been for a week

and gradually the vehicle owners would have learnt the restricted zone.While there were insufficient number of No Entry traffic signs during thefirst notification, restriction had been successfully regulated by theTraffic Police.

Tile Allti- Vikrll/1l Momentum

The notice to the effect came from the Ministry of Works&Transport. The entire homework was done and recommended by acommittee co-ordinated by the Ministry Population and Environment.The committee had representations from the Department of Transport,Traffic Police, Federation of Nepal Chamber of Commerce andIndustries, Nepal Chamber ofComl1lerce, Federation of Nepal Transpol1Entrepreneurs, Nepal Oil Corporation etc. At impol1ant meetings. itsought rcpresentations from the Ministry of Tourism, Royal NepalAcademy of Science and Technology etc as wel1.

The Ministry of Population and Environment expressed itsdetermination to expand its restrictive approach denying the acceptanceof dirtier vehicles into the government premises and later at the non­government organisations. It was matching with the spirit of testing (hegovernment vehicles 'first Government organisations such as theMinistl)' of Works and Transport at SabaI' Melhal, Ministry of ForeignAffairs at Maharajgunj, Ministry of Finance at Tripreshwor, Ministry ofGeneral Administration at Harihar Bhavan, Menistl)' of Education at TriDevi Marg supported the Ministry of Population and Environment andextended the No Eno'y Zone beyond the Singh Durbar Complex, cerraingovernment agencies. Later, at the appeal of the Ministry of Populationand Environment, other semi-government and constitutional bodies suchas the Royal Nepal Airlines Corporation, Nepal Rastra Bank, NepalBeema Sansthan, the Supreme Court, Department of Industries etc.denied entry to the polluting. vehicles within their premises. The peoplefully co-operated the ministry.

Different non-governmental organisations (NGOs) Incollaboration with several business organisations as well as the Ministryof Population and Environment conducted training programmes onvehicle testing techniques and regular maintenance practice and generaltalks and seminars. At such seminars, the audience frequently questionedthe fairness in awarding the green stickers by the Traffic Police, whichwas solely assigned the task of caflying out the tests. The ministrypersonnel frankly admitted its limitations and appealed public co­operation against malpractice, if any, on the part of the testing authorities.The Traffic Police spokesmen also said the same when so charged.

I 18 OccasiOlUlI Paper R. CAl:!," 119

In December 1998. while the government had announced goingfor the general election, it relaxed {he restriction on three wheclers byinviting 500 new petrol three·wheelers. The invitation was made to fulfilthe vacuulll resulting from the phasing out of the Vikrams. The call wasmade before the government brought out any time specific plan orphasing out the very Vikrams. The Kathmandu Metropolitan City hasbeen requesting the Department of Transport Management for such aplan. Though agreed for Februaryl March 1998. the govcl1lmcnt turnedvolte-face and decided to withhold any action until the general elections.Obviously. the governmcJ1l did not wallt to displensc thcir voters: thetransport operators and the commuters.

The notice to the efTect appeared on His Majesty's [linhdaySpecial issue of the government-owned paper for only one dny againstthe nonnal practice of three insertions. By puning his application throughEnglish Weekly "A Citizen" demanded the Prime Minister to cancel thedecision within three weeks. He passed the letter to the media. There wasa big hue and cry against the "quiet" notice that had appeared withoutintergovernmelllal and public consultation. Similar protesls appeared innearly all the newspapers. The Prime Minister suspended the decisionafterwards.

At times. like the first gazette notice on standards. which set allambitious target with slack enforcement mechanism the implementingagencies, did show slackness at times. But they were always counteredby the people. A WlIlawarwl PrOf; Sachel Sall1llho (Group of theEnvironment Consciolls) wrote 10 the Department of Transport and theValley Tramc Police and pointed Ollt the violation or the prohibited loneat a section of the Ram Shah Path (under the f-irst notice) by allowing theVikrams which did not bear the green sticker of fitness. When theconcerned agencies did not react to the reminder of the violation, CI groupof about seventy persons (ranging from young children under 14 to theolder citizens over 75) marched on the prohibited road on the NationalDemocracy Day 1999 with a banners reminding that the road is aprohibited section. The roadside shopkeepers supported the move byagreeing to display the same information at their window panels.

The Vikram owners tried to convince that the EVs were morcpolluting than the Vikrams. The exaggerated the hanns of lend in thelead-acid battery was a very dangerous substance.

A case was filed at the Supreme Court against the Departmentof Transport Management, Ministry of Works and Transport. ValleyTraffic Police and the Ministry of Population and Envirollment. 11

claimed that the concerned agencies had neglected the prevalent rulesand regulations. The Vikrams are basically commercial vehicles. whichare required to meet certain standards as prescribed under the regulations.One of the regulations required it qualify the laid standards every si,'\months. How could the vehicles get the fitness certificate to pennit it I1I1l

beyond six months if they do not the 1101111S?

Several newspapers, including The Rising Nepal published by astate-owned corporation, strongly pointed alit the neglect on the part ofDepartment of Transport Management and the Valle)' Tramc Police onenforcing the government decision.

At several interaction programmes org[tllised by the NepalForum for Environmel1l Journalists. Reporters Club. Martin Chautari etc.the concemed officials were cOl11ercd for the neglect.

The Explore Nepal conducted a series of interaction programmewith the teachers and students of schools and colleges and people atdifferent wards of the metropolitan city. TIle people were graduallyaroused against the Vikrams. A group of the cinema m1ists also called forboycotting the Vikrams. The local residents of Chabahil. Maitidevi etctried to stop the movement of the Vikrams. The Vikram owners evensought govel11l11cnt protection for their movement. Sensing theaggressive people. the Department only said, the section of the road wasnot a prohibited one. In other words. they were helpless if the peopleousted them olT the road.

Specially clue to the matters going to the Supreme COllrt. thegovernment could hardly provide any logic for the violations of theexisting regulalions on meeting the government regulati(llls. It was hightime when government could anllounce a ban 011 the movement of theVikrams.Tile FO/lrlll Notice

The [OUI1h NOlice came in July 1999 that announced a completeban on the movement of three-wheeler diesel tempos wilhin theKathmandu Valley and later a complete ban on the illlPOl1 of two stroketwo wheelers.

It may be the culmination of the vehicular pollution controlmovement started in the year 1996. During the period. the governmenthad all the popular SUppOI1 for discouraging the movement of dirtyvehicles. And naturally, the dinicst should go out first. Encouraged by itssuccess, the Ministry of Population and Environment is planning toremove the others too.

120 Occasional Paper R. C Aryll 111

Revised Emission Standards

Six years later the Ministry of Population & Environment wasasked by the Ministry of Works & Transport for review and revision ofthe standards. The technical Committee (headed by the author), thecommittee presented a recommendation within a week, as mandated. Itsuggested a short and long-term strategy.

Under the long-term strategy, it suggested the announcement ofthe revised standards for 2000 AD a year in advance. This would benefitthe dealers and buyers of the new vehicles. A committee in the meantime should carry out at home study for the same. For the short termmeasure, the emission standards for diesel vehicles manufactured on orbefore 1994 would be 75 HSU (in place of 65 HSU) while for the petrolvehicles manufactured on 1980 or earlier, it was 4.5 percent CO. Therelaxed limit for petrol engines also applied to the three-wheelersmanufactures till 1991. Two wheelers were also required to meet the 4.5percent emission standard. The committee also suggested introducing thestandards to the Bagmati Zone rather than the valley and a phase-wiseintroduction of the restriction of movement of polluting vehicles.

The government accepted the recommendation for relaxedstandards for older vehicles effective ITom Jan 15, 1998, but did notspeak out the long ternl strategy neither did it start any work in thisregard.

GOJlef/,mel1t Seriousness

Attempt to curb vehicular emission has several politicalcomplications. Those at the seat of governance take decisions that maygo for public welfare. The decision may sometimes be a part of indirectpressure from the international organisations.' But it would risk go forcellain welfare moves but branded as "unpopular" decisions that maydispleasing its vote banks that may root them out. The assessment of thechoice of the vote banks is itself a complicated question. At times it maybe just a powerful lobby that has been utilised for acquiring the much-desired popular support. .

It may not be purely incidental that the restrictions mentionedabove were imposed when the country had a majority government Atone point in time, when there was a minority government in the countryand a district level elections were close by, the government suspended itsdecision on expanding the restricted area a day before it had to beeffective.

Autos are lifetime assets for an average owner. In absence ofthe regulation it can't be phased out. There are all kinds of veh icles onroads. Government, through a ministerial decision, had put a ban on theregistration of three·wheeler petrol/diesel vehicles in the KathmanduValley effective from 1991. The transport administration is very muchinfluenced by the private operators. These have syndicated in the numberof vehicles operating on all routes, whether city services or the longdistance ones. At times, they have pressurised the government foryielding to their demands by creating public inconvenience throughresorting to chakkajam (suspcnsion of all vehicles movements) or Nep~1Bundh (closure of all business activities in the kingdom). TheIrstronghold in influencing the government decision could be very wellunderstood when they unilaterally hiked the passenger fare up by 20percent for just 10 percent rise in the price of diesel in 1997.

But by this lime the people were fully aroused on environmentalmatters. They would not tolerate any concessions given to the pollutingvehicles.

The Promotioll A'1eflslIres

Back in 1991, the government had decided to SlOp registrationofany three-wheelers in the valley. But the restriction was relaxed for thethree-wheeler Electric Vehicles (EVs) and later for three-wheelersrunning on Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG). The EVs are zero emissionvehicles, for the LPG vehicles, though accepled as low emission vchicles,there should have been some emission standards prescribed. Custom dutyand other taxes on the imporL of such vehicles or their component forlocal manufactures were significantly reduced. Rules restricting anychanoe in the reoistercd vehicles were relaxed for those changing to EVs.a a .

A number of international agencies have come up WIthprogrammes that have directly or indirectly suppol1ed the activitiesaimed at promoting better air q.uality in the kingdom. The USAI~

sponsored Global Resources Institute (GRI) for three-wheeler eleclncvehicle program.

The Danish Agency for Intemational Development (DANIDA)carne up with a small fund for converting the diesel three-wheeler intoEVs and some battery-charging stations. It also sponsored a monitoringprogram, which periodically tested air pollution as selected sites andinfolllled the public aboul the level of pollulion. Danish governillentprovided a grant which could be used as revolving fund to facilitateconversion ofVikrams into EVs with a SUppOlt of as much as 90 percentof the conversion cost at a nominal interest rate. The estimated cost of

122 OC('asioual Paper

conve,ting a TW into EV is US$ 4,290 (Rs 290,000) that includes twosets of battery.

People were willing to pay more for cleaner means of transport.According to a survey, more than 80 percent commuters prefer EVs ifavailable and about 52 percem are willing to pay more for the service (2).

The Swiss Development and Co-operation (SOC) also provideda small grant to Pollution Control for Environment and Research(PCER), a local NGO consisting of graduate engineers. for carrying outstudies on bringing down the emission level of such three-wheeler dieselvehicles. It concluded that the present Vikrams couldn't meet even therelaxed limit of75 HSU.

A Japanese organisation came indirectly by sliPPOlling tht:'Leaders Nepal. It conducted seminars and displayed simple devices thatcould show the level of air pollution. Leaders Nepal conductcd pcriodicair quality tests on selected sections of the roads in Kathmilndu. It alsoundertook awareness program in schools where. wilh simple kitsprovided from Japan, they could get a comparative picture of the amountof Total Suspended Pa'ticulate (TSP) and NOx and SOx contenl in airand rain water.

Asian Development Bank (ADS) offered a technical assistanceon air quality as a component of the institutional strengtheningprogramme to the MinistlY ofPopulatiol1 and Environment.

Nepal Electric Vehicles Industry (NEVI) and a numbcr orbusiness companies came up in the local assembly of EVs. Th~se

companies have already marketed more than 200 EVs.

REFERENCES

Arya, Ralllesh C. The Lilliputinns Protest PolJulion, Thl: E:"\plllr~ Nl:pal. Apr/3./999The Three-Wheelers: Yes nnd No: Till: E.xplon.: Nepal. Fe/} 16, '99Time Running out for Vikrams. Th~ I{ising N~pal. Aug 16. 1999,Alternatives to Viknllns, Alay -,Friday Crowing Concern for AirQU:llity: The Rising Nepal. Apr 22, 1999Vehicular Pollution: Promises and Pitfalls: '111C Rising Nepal. I·'e/} 16./999

PoudeJ. Sudccp and Bikash Man Shrestha Project Report on COl/versionof "ikram Tempos to Electric rehicles. Sudcep. School ofManagement. Kathmandu University. 1997.

Royal Danish Embass) Component Descriptiol/ Document for Air I)olllllionControl Alanagemell1 in tlze Kathmandu' alley:. Ma) 1997

"""

FACULTY OF THE DEPARTMENT

I. Rishikeshab Raj Rcgmi. Professor and Chairperson. Department ofSociology/Anthropology: Ph.D. (Anthropology), University orCalcutta.

2. Kailash Nath Pynkuryal. Professor and Former Chairman and Dean,Instilute of Agriculturc and Animal Scicnces; Ph.D. (Rural Sociology),Michigan tat~ Univcrsit).

3. Chaitanya Mishra. Professor and Former Chairman: Ph.D.(Sociology). University of Florida.

4. Ganesh Mnn Curung, Profcssor and Former Chairman: Ph.D.(Sociology). Banaras Hindu University.

5. Ram Bahadur Chhetri, Reader: Ph.D. (Anthropology), University ofHawaii.

6. Kirnn Dutra Upadhaya. Reader: M.S. (Rural Sociology). University orPhilippines.

7. Krishn:l Bahadur Bhntt:lchan. Lecturer and Former Chairman: Ph.D.(Sociology), University of California. Berkeley.

8. Pndnm Lnl Dcvkota. LeclUrer: Ph.D. (Amhropology) Delhi University.9. Om Gurung. Lecturer and Former Chairman: Ph.D. (Amhropology).

Cornell University.10. Phltdindreswor Paudcl. Lecturer: M.A. (Sociology) Bhagalpur

University.II. Prabhakar Lal Oas. Lecturer: M.A. (Sociology): BanflnlS Ilindu

University.12. Bhanu Bhal<ta Timsina. Lecturer: M.A. (Anthroplllogy). rribhuvall

Univcrsity.13. Laya Prasad Uprcty, Lecturer; M.A. (Anthropology). J'ribhuvan

University. M.S. (Social Development), Aleno Dc Manilfl University.Philippines.

14. Tulsi Ram Pandey, Lecturer; M.A. (Sociology). Tribhuvan University:M.S. (Social Development), Ateno Dc Manila University. Philippines:Currently Enrolled in a Ph.D. Program in Sociology at Delhi Universit).

15. Yuba Raj Luintel. Lecturer: M.A. (Sociology). Tribhuvan University.Currently Enrolled in M.S. Program in Population Studies at Institute ofSocial Studies, Netherlands.

16. Surendra Mishra, Lecturer: M.A. (Sociology). Tribhuvan Universit).17. Saubhagyn Shah. Lecturer: M.A. (Sociology). Tribhllvan University.

Enrolled in a Ph.D. Program in Anthropology at Ilar\'ard Univcr:sit).18. Pratibha Gaulam. Lecturer: M.A. (Allthropology). Tribhllvan

University (On Deputation in Padma Kanya Campus).19. Bindo Pokhnrel. Lecturer: M.A. (Anthropology). Tribhuvan

University.

20. Kcshab Kumar Shresth:t, Lecturer: M.A. (Anthropology). TribhuvanUniversity.

21. Samira Luitcl, Lecturer: Ph.D. (Sociology), Edminton University.Canada.

OCCASIONAL PAPERS PUBLICATIONS

PART-TIME FACULTY

22. Dilli Ram Dahal. Professor: Ph.D. (Anthropology). Universil) ofIlawaii (Pan Time from CNAS).

23. Sunita Upreti (Bastola). M.A. (Sociology). Tribhuvan Univcrsit):M.I\. (Sociology). Michigan State University.

24. Dambar Dhoj Chemjong, Assistant Lecturer: M.A. (Anthropology).Tribhuvan University (Part Time from Tri-Chandra Campus)

25. Janak Rai. Assistant Lecturer: M.A. (Anthropology). TribhuvanUniversity (Part Time from Tri-Chandra Campus)

26. Uddhav Rai. M.A. (Anthropology). Tribhuvan Universit), M.S.(Applied Social Research). University of Manchestcr. London.

27. Suresh D1mkal. M.A. (Anthropology), Tribhuvan University. M.Phil..University of Bergan. Norway

28. Pasang Lama, Assistallt Lecturer; M.A. (Sociology). Tribhuv<lnUniversity (Part time from Trichandra Campus)

29. Man Bahadur Khatri: M.A. (Anthropology). Tribhuvan University.M.Phil. University of Bergan. Norway.

ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF

1. Sulochana Thapa - Assistant Administrator2. Pn.:m Shrestha - Accountant3. Krishna Karki - Office Assistallt4. Ram Bhakta Karki - Peon

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epal School of Sociology/AnthropologyDor Balutdur BistaSociology and Anthropology Curriculum rmd the Needs orNepalKrishna Bahadur Blutttachan"Romanticism" and "Development" in Nepalese AnthropologyJames F. FisherMigration. Adaptation. and Socio-Cultural Change: The Case of theThakalis in PokharaRam Balwdllr Chhetl'iNati\e Strategies for Resource ManagementOm Prasad GlmmgNatural Causes and Processes of Poverty in Micro SCllingsTuls; Ram PandeyFactors Accosiated with Occupational Socialii'ation in Rural NepalKiron DuUo UpadIJyayDevelopment and Underdevelopment: A Prclimin"lry Sociolog.icalPerspectiveelwitanya ,\lishra

Sociolog) and Anthropu!og): An Emerging Fidd of Stud) ill NepalOm GlIrllllgThe Past and Future ofSociolog) in NepalBishnu lihandariSome Sociological Rel1ections on Development in the EasternHimalayasCopo! Singh A'epa!iEconomic Modernization in a Chepang Village in NepalCanesh Man Curlingculture and Resource Management for Subsistence: AnAnthropological PerspectiveBlwnu TimseenaA Socia-economic profile orthe Porters in the Celltral Mid-I IBis ofNepalKiron Dutta UpadhyoyEmplo)'ment Working Conditions and Mode of Living : The C~lse

of Nepali Watchmen in Bomba)PhOllindreslnvor Pal/de!Television and the Child in Nepal: An Assessment ofVic\... ing

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DYfill8araiMercantilism and Domestic Industry in West-Central Nepal:Significance for Anthropological Study of the CommuilyStephen L. Mikesell Gnd Jamuna Shrestha

Forestry and Farming S)stem in the Mid-! lilts of NepalKiron Dutra UpadhyaySocia-Economic and Cultural Aspects of Aging in NepalRisltikesllab Raj RegmiReligion. Society nnd State in NepalDipak No) PanlCommunity Dcvclurmcill as Strategy to Rural DevelopmentKallash Pyakur),olNational Integration ill NepalGanesh Alan Gllnmg & Bis/mll BhandariThe Failure of Contidenee MechanismTuts; Ram PandeyBuilding a New American Academic AlllhropologyTom CoxAfro-American Sociologists and Nepali EthnographyStephen L. MikesellCase Studies on Domestic Servants: Reflection on Rural PovertySallbhagya Shah

Anthropology. Developmellt and Public PolicyGerald D. Berrel1lol/Development' IS::iues Raised during the "People's Movement" of1990Krishna B. BlwuachollAnthropological Perspectives on Grassroots Development in NepalPadam La! DcvkotaDeforestation and Rural Socil.:ly in the Nepalt:se TcraiRishikeshab I?aj IlegmiThe Currenl Socio·economic Slatus of Unlollchablcs in NepalThomas CoxGroup Process for People'S Participation in Rural Nepal: Rcllcctiollsfrom a Micro Level Study)'ouba Raj LllitelSherpa Buddhists on a Regional PiJgrimage: The Case of MaratikaCave a HalaseEberhard BergBook ReviewHemam Hilmar J!U1

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Ethnicity and Nationalism in the Nepali ContextA Perspective from EuropeUwe Kieve/itzThe Issue of National Integration in NepalAn Ethnoregional ApproachKrishna B. BhallachanKai/ash N. Pyakllrya/Bheja as a Strategic Cultural ConventionCommunity Resource Management in the Barha MagaratSlIresh Dhaka/The Rajbanshis of RajgadhCommunity Adaptation in the Environment of Eastern TeraiHari P. BhallaraiKurma, Kola, and Kuri as Community ConceptsPatrilineage, Deities, and Inside-Outside Dichotomy amongthe Rana TharuGanesh M. GlIrungTave C. Kille/san

AN OBITUARY TO M.N. SRINIVAS

India's 1110st distinguished social anthropologistsMysore Narasimhachar Srinivas, popularly known as M.Srinivas (born Nov. 16. 19 J 6) died in Bangalore onNovember 30 from lung infcction. Hc was 84.

M. N. Srinivas is widely rccognized as onc of theleading social anthropologists of India through his seminalwork Religioll amI Sociely amollg lire Coorgs of SaulIrllltlia (/952). It was rcgarded as a path-brcaking study forse\ eral rcasons. viz., it \alidated fieldwork as an essentialmethodology of the discipline of social anthropology. Itoffered a ground view that challenged thc colonial notionof caste as a static and unchanging, and highlighted thenuid and dynamic esscnce of castc as a social institutionsthrough the terms such as "Sanskritization", "dominantcaste", "vertical (inter-castc) and horizontal (intra-castc)solidarity". Similarly, it rejected the idea of a rigid. pan­Indian caste systcm on thc basis of cmpirical sludics of theimportance of the regional dimcnsion of castc and theHlittle tradition" of Hinduislll.

His othcr major works include Afarriage alldFalllily ill Mysore (1942). The Relllelllbered ViI/age (1976)./Ildiall Society tlrrouglr persollal Writillgs (1998). Village.Casle. Gellder (fill/ Melhod (1998) etc.

Community of Sociologists and Anthropologists inNcpal also fcels a great loss from his demise. lie will beremembered long for his immense contribution in the studyof caste system. which is of great rclcvancc in the contcxtof Nepal, too. Departmcnt of Sociology/Anthropology.Tribhuvan University extends the hcart-felt condolencc I

NOTES TO CONTRIBUTORS

Occasional P:lIKI"'; III SOUOlllg) ,lIld I\nlhillrolng~ ruhll~hcs artlck.... utlg11l,,1rt:s~rch parer<;. research Tl.'pHrt!;. Tnic\\ 'lrlKh:S. ho.Xll.. fl.'\ 11.'\\'; l.11s"crtiJllnn ahslr,H:l~

pmf6sIollili announc('m~nb and olh~1 mllmll;ltlOn 01 1t1t~Ie'>1 III til..: ..r~;\s of lh... :->o":U1lul.!\and anlhropolog~ or ',,:p:l1 amI uth~'r 1I111l;11;l\;1Il r..:g.mns Bolh lht.' N":P,I!..:St: ;lod li)r\.'I~'1Ischol:lr!> rna} suhmil their articles

Material submllled should tX' in Lnglish or in Nepali Author.-; muslt,lkl' hilir<.'sponsl0111ty lor lhe originality. conlents. :1tlU Opinllltl <.':\prt:ss..:d III lhl'ir "rtlel<.'s I h<.'copyrighl<.'d material which is to t'll.' rl'[1mduccd ill lhe artid.:s must he SUll,lhha<.'knowk:dgcd

Contributors ar... r<.'lJll<.'sled 10 send. it pos!;ible. lheir m;lll.:rinl on computer110pp) disks using IBM cmnpallb1c \\ord processing progr:llns rhe). ma). hO\\CWI.!><.'nsillic !;0P)' or the rnanuSl.:ripl s<-'rar..:tcl} Th~ t":\t$. noles. anJ r..:r..:rcncL's should ll~

t~ [X'd double-spaced All pagt'S should bo.: numOCr..:d The lit Ie of til..: paper, authur'sll:lme. allih,llimt.s. and compklc addres.. should apflI:ar on Ih..: litst page

rhe anlhropological !>I~ Ie ur re!l:ICTIcmg is pn.:rerred Ihe te\ls shlluld rdi.=r 10

nott'S nUl1lhcrl'-d COllS<.'Cllll\d} All notes and lilOtnotl.'S should dprcar al the end (lItheparx:r Book rCVIC\\'S should nut. lume\'cr conl"in 1()Olnull"S. all rl'll'rcnc~s should heineorpor:nc inlhc text itself

Citalion in lhe le'it should 1I1dudc the author's surname. ycar 01" publle,t1loll.and page number: cg (Sorokin 197X 49) [I" lhe publl\.::Jlioll 10 be cil<.'d is aUlhnn.:d bymore than two persons. thcn use the Sllrnamc orthe lirst :lllihor. to be folto\\ed by cl al Itthe samc rclcrence is Cited more than onre cnntll1l1ou.,I}. lise ibId :lller Citing th~ I"ullrdCrl.'ncc once. but gl"ing Ihe rdc\ <lnl p;lg~ numocr Ill' II is difll:=rent

Entries for th<.' blbllOgraphicallisl ~hollh..llollo\\ the 1011l1\\IlIg ord<.'r ;IUlhm'~

name (sumame. 10110\\00 b\ liIll lirst 1l,lme or millals) \car of put'ltcatlon. lh<.' til Ie 01publicatIOn along with lis l'dliion nUll1ll..:r. phil:l' or pllblKallfln. and publisher's nam<: Iftbe fl..fl'rcncc is to an anidc from an edlleJ hook. Ih~n gi\..: lhe name tI!" th~' aUlhor assuggcst~u alxl\c. year or publication. the tilll: nr Ihe anlde. Ihe Illic uf the bUllk. edilell'sname, place of publication. and publisher's n3mc. e g. Gr~'cn\\nIJ Stepl1l'1l 197X 'I heRol<.' of IhePricsl 111 NClVar Soclcty". IIII/wll'.lllll AmhmpoloR)' <.'d .1:1111":5 Fisher IheII:lguc Moulon

Iflh..: relCrcnc..: is from a IlCriodit:Jl. gi\..: the name orthe ,luthor as sug.gesledabove. year orpublicalion. Ih<.' tille 01" Ih..: arlicle-. the title 01 the penodlcal "Ith its \olul1l":number. nnd page Ilumocr cg Gr.l\ John. N 19KO "11~pt:rg.lll1~ (':lSte ,lIld Kin~hlp

among lhe Chhetris ofN..:pal". COlllnhll/iom 10 /Ildiall Soc.-i%.\{). 1-1 1-34[f the }ear :llld the placc or publlc,lllon arc mis.<;ing usc n d and n p

respccli"cl} The bibhogr.tphicailisl stllluld prclerahl~ mc1ude onl\' the works (lied lJsl'double quote marks (" W) \\hilc quol1ng sentences ,Illd slI1glc qUI)t,;s (' 'j Ihr ;l slllgicwork/phras..: Us,; spellings as follO\\ed III the N..:\\ W..:bsll'r DI(II~lary or O'itiHdDictionary Contributors ure requested 10 m:IIIl!<llIl e{lI1,slsICIlCY throughout thcir ;l1"lldes

All correspondetlces rdated to cditiri:ll and subscrirlion should he addressed10 ,

rh~ Chairpc:r.;onCentral DcJXlrtm..:nt III SnCitllug)/i\nthropolug)

Tnbllll\an lJni\erslhKirlipur. Kilthmanuu