SOCIAL CASE WORK (1).doc

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NEHRU ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE

PG DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WORK

SUBJECT: SOCIAL CASE WORK

UNIT ISocial-Case Work: definition and objectives, its importance and relationship with other methods

of Social Work, Principle of case work. Basic components of Social Case Work: the person, the

problem, the place and the process. Client - case worker relationship and the use of professional

self.

UNIT 11

Social Case Work process: stud, dia!nosis and treatment. "ools-and techni#ues in the stud

process: $nterview, observation, home visits and collateral contacts. Social Case Work

intervention -direct and indirect multidimensional intervention. %oal attainment, "ermination,

&valuation and follow up.

UNIT III

'pproaches in Social Case Work: Pschosocial approach, functional approach, dia!nostic

approach, and crisis -intervention. Social casework recordin!: need, importance ( tpes of

recordin!.

UNIT IV

Social Case Work in different settin!s: )amil and child welfare, School, Communit, *edical

and Pschiatric institutions, correctional settin!s, care of a!ed, Case work in foster home.

UNIT V

+ecent trends in Social Case Work. Problems and limitations of Social Case Work practice in

$ndia. $mpact of social, cultural factors on individual and families. Practice and research in

Social Case Work. se of sin!le case evaluation and ethno!raph as research methods in Social

Case Work.



UNIT I

Social-Case Work: definition and objectives, its importance and relationship with other methods

of Social Work, Principle of case work. Basic components of Social Case Work: the person, the problem, the place and the process. Client - case worker relationship and the use of professional

self.

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P'+" '

Social Case Work is a .............. method of social work,' Primar

/ 01' chan!in! pscholo! in Social Case Work11 is the book written b......

' *iss. 2ir!inia +obinson3 Which is not a component of social case work45Person, problem,Practise,Place,Process

' Practise

PART B

What are the a!"r #hare#ter$%t$#% a&' 'e($&$t$"&% "( S"#$a) Ca%e W"r* 4

S"#$a) Ca%e W"r*:

Social Case Work, a primar method of social work, is concerned with the adjustment and

development of individual towards more satisfin! human relations. Better famil life, improved

schools, better housin!, more hospitals and medical care facilities, protected economic

conditions and better relations between reli!ious !roups help the individual in his adjustment and

development. But his adjustment and development depend on the use of these resources b him.Sometimes due to certain factors, internal or e6ternal, he fails to avail e6istin! facilities. $n such

situations, social caseworker helps him. "hus, social casework is one to one relationship, which

works in helpin! the individual for his adjustment and development. &ver individual reacts

differentl to his social, economic and phsical environments and as such problems of one

individual are different from those of another. "he practice of casework is a humanistic attempt

/



for helpin! people who have difficult in copin! with the problems of dail livin!. $ts one of the

direct methods of social work which uses the case-b-case approach for dealin! with individuals

or families as re!ards their problems of social functionin!. Case work, aims at individuali7ed

services in the field of social work in order to help the client toad just with the environments.

De($&$t$"&% "( S"#$a) Ca%e W"r*:

Mar+ R$#h"&' ,11./

8Social Case Work ma be defined as the 'rt of doin! different thin!s with different people, co-

operatin! with them to achieve some of their own ( societ’s betterment.9

Mar+ R$#h"&' ,110/

Social case work is the art of brin!in! about better adjustments in the social relationship of

individual men or women or children

Mar+ R$#h"&' ,1/

Social case work means, those processes which develop personalit throu!h adjustment

consciousl affected, individual b individual, between men and their social environment‟

Jarrett ,11/Social case work is 8the art of brin!in! an individual who is in a condition of social disorder into

the best possible relation with all parts of his environment.

Ta(t ,12/

Social case work means 8social treatment of a maladjusted individual involvin! an attempt to

understand his personalit, behavior and social relationships and to assist him in workin! out

better social and personal adjustment9.

Wat%"& ,1/

Social Case Work is the art of untan!lin! and restructurin! the twisted personalit in such a

manner that the individual can adjust himself to his environment

34ee& ,15/

Social case work is the art 8of adjustin! personal relationship9.

Lee ,15/

3



Social case work is the art of chan!in! human attitudes9

Ta+)"r ,16/

Social case work is a process concerned with the understandin! of individuals as whole

personalities and with the adjustments of these to sociall health lives

Ra+&")'% ,15./

Social case work is the processes of counselin! with a client on a problem which are essentiall

his own, involvin! some difficult in his social relationship.

Ra+&"'% ,15./

Social case work is that form of social work which assists the individual which he su!!ests to

relate himself to his famil, his natural !roup , his communit

K)e$& ,157/

Social case work is a technical method in social work;. ' wa of adjustin! to the client to his

personal problems.

S8$(t ,15/

Social case work is the art of assistin! the individual in developin! and makin! use of his

personal capacit to deal with problems which he faces in his life.

DeS#h8e$$&$t9 ,15/

Case work means those processes involved in !ivin! service, financial assistance, or personal

counsel to individuals b the representatives of social a!encies, accordin! to polices established

and with consideration of individual need.

Str"'e ,17/

Social case work is the process of assistin! the individual to best possible social adjustment

throu!h the use of social case stud, social resources and knowled!e from relative fields of

learnin!.

T"8)e ,10/

Social case work is one method ;.b which certain social services are made available in areas

of unmet needs.

O;!e#t$<e% "( S"#$a) Ca%e W"r*:

"o make !ood rapport with the common people

"o find-out, understand ( solve the internal problems of an individual

"o stren!then ones e!o power

<



"o prevent problem

"o develop internal resources

Nat4re = Chara#ter$%t$#% "( Ca%e W"r*:

+elationship arise out of shared ( emotionall char!ed situation

+elationship contains elements of acceptance, e6pectation, support ( stimulation

Client ( case worker are interdependent

Case work relationship ma have several therapeutic values

$mprovement of condition

*ore adjustment within the societ

=evelopment of personalit

Capacit buildin!

+elationship needs outside help

Case worker too has relationship reactions and part of one’s professional skills in their

mana!ement

/ Wr$te a &"te "& S"#$a) Ca%e W"r* re)at$"& %h$>?

Re)at$"&%h$> $& Ca%e W"r* C)$e&t:

Ca%e W"r*er Re)at$"&%h$>

"he term relationship in social case work was used forth first time b *iss. 2ir!ini a +obinson

in her book 8' chan!in! pscholo! in Social Case Work9 in >3>.

• +elationship is the channel throu!h which the mobili7ation of the capacities of the client

is madepossible.

• +elationship is the medium throu!h which the client is enabled to state his problem and

throu!h which attention can be focused on realit problems, which ma be as full of

internal conflict with emotional problems.

• +elationship is the professional meetin! of two persons for the purpose of assistin! one

of them, the client, to make a better, a more acceptable adjustment to personal problem.

?



• Professional relationship involves a mutual process of

shared responsibilities,

reco!nition, of other ‟s ri!hts,

acceptance of difference to stimulate !rowth

interaction b creatin! sociali7ed attitudes and behavior.

PART C

.G$<e a 'eta$)e' a##"4&t "( the #">"&e&t% "( %"#$a) #a%e 8"r* .4

Components of Case Work

I Per%"&:

"he person’s behavior has this purpose and meanin!: to !ain satisfactions, to avoid or

dissolve frustration and to maintain his balance-in-movement.

Whether a person’s behavior is or is not effective in promotin! his well-bein! depends in

lar!e part upon the functionin! of his personalit structure.

"he structure and functionin! of personalit are the products of inherited and

constitutional e#uipment in continuous interaction with the phsical, pscholo!ical and

social environment the person e6periences.

' person at an sta!e of his life not onl is a product of nature and nurture but is also and

alwas in process of bein! in the present and becomin! in the future.

"he person’s bein! and becomin! behavior is both shaped and jud!ed b the e6pectations

he and his culture have invested in the social role

"he person who comes as a client to a social a!enc is alwas under stress. "o understand human

behavior and individual difference, %race *athew has !iven the followin! propositions:

@



. 'n individual’s behavior is conditioned b hisAher environment and hisAher e6periences.

Behavior refers to reactin!, feelin!, thinkin!, etc. the conditions and influences surroundin! the

person constitutes the environment.

/. )or human !rowth and development it is essential that certain basic needs should be

met. 5*aslow’s hierarch of needs

3. &motional needs are real and the cannot be met or removed throu!h intellectual reasonin!.

<. Behaviour is purposeful and is in response to the individual’s phsical and emotional needs.

?. ther people’s behavior can be understood onl in terms of ones own emotional and

intellectual comprehension.

P&+S

II Pr";)e

"he problems within the purview of social casework are those which vitall affect or are affected

b a person’s social functionin!. "he multifaceted and dnamic nature of the client ’s problem

makes necessar the selection b caseworker and client some part of it as the unit for work. "he

choice of problem depends on

5 whether the problem is the client’s problem

5/ leadership !iven b case worker depends upon the professional knowled!e and jud!ment

53 a!enc’s function e.!. hospital, etc.

Problems in an part of a human bein!

’s livin! tend to have chain reactions. ;.

cause D effect D cause.

'n problem which a person encounters has both an objective and subjective si!nificance

#ualit and intensit of our feelin!s.

ot onl do the e6ternal 5objective and internal 5subjective aspects of the problem co-

e6ist, but either ma be the cause of the other.

Whatever the nature of the problem the person brin!s to social a!encE it is alwas

accompanied and often complicated b the problem of bein! a client.

Problems can be categorized as follows (Grace Mathew):

. Problems related to illness and disabilities

/. Problems due to lack of material resources.

3. School related problems.

<. Problems related to institutionali7ation.

?. Behaviour problems.

F



@. Problems of marital discord.

F. Problem situations needin! a follow-up service.

G. eeds related to rehabilitation of people.

>. Clients cau!ht up in social problems like !amblin!, prostitution, alcoholism, dru! addiction

and unmarried motherhood.

Problem

III P)a#e:

"he social a!enc is an or!ani7ation fashioned to e6press the will of a societ or of some

!roup in that societ as to social welfare communit decides the need of the a!enc. &ach social a!enc develops a pro!ram b which to meet the particular areas of need

with which it sets out to deal. $t depends on factors like mone, knowled!e and

competence of the a!enc staff, the interest, resources available and support of the

communit.

"he social a!enc has a structure b which it or!ani7es and dele!ates its responsibilities

and tasks, and !overnin! policies and procedures Hierarch roles and responsibilities

clear, desi!nated and dele!ated collaboration procedures and policies, understand the

usefulness. b which it stabili7es and sstemati7es its operations. amon! workers. "he social a!enc is a livin!, adaptable or!anism susceptible to bein! understood and

chan!ed, much as other livin! or!anisms.

Past, present and future not static and fi6ed.

&ver staff member in an a!enc speaks and acts for some part of the a!enc’s function,

and the case worker represents the a!enc in its individuali7ed problem solvin! help.

Case worker not an independent professional practitioner

case worker speaks and acts for the a!enc pscholo!icall identified with its purpose

and policies.

"he case worker while representin! his a!enc is first and foremost a representative

of his profession must know and be committed with feelin! to the philosoph that !uides

the practice of the social work profession.

'!enc Private e.!. fundin! a!encies and Public e.!. famil welfare or!s.

Primar e.!. % and Secondar e.!. Hospitals, schools, etc

G



Based on functions

child welfare, famil welfare, education, speciali7ation based.

'lso differs based on Source of support, Professional authorit, Clientele the serve,Services

the offer, %oals of the a!enc, etc.

IV Pr"#e%%:

$n order to understand what the case work process must include in its problem-solvin! help, it is

necessar to take stock first of the kinds of blockin!s which occur in people’s normal problem-

solvin! efforts. "he si6 are:

. $f necessar tan!ible means and resources are not available to the person.

/. ut of i!norance or misapprehension about the facts of the problem or the facts of e6istin!

was of meetin! it.

3. $f the person is depleted or drained of emotional or phsical ener!.

<. Some problems arouse hi!h feelin!s in a person emotions so stron! that the overpower his

reason and identf his conscious controls.

?. Problem ma lie within the personE he ma have become subject to, or victim of, emotions that

chronicall, over a lon! time, have !overned his thinkin! and action.

@. Haven’t developed sstematic habits or orderl method of thin!s and plannin!.

"he intent of the case work process is to en!a!e the person himself both in workin! on andcopin! with the one or several problems that confront him and to do so b such means as ma

stand him in !ood stead as he !oes forward in livin!.

"he means are

. "he provision of a therapeutic relationship

/. "he provision of a sstematic and fle6ible wa

3. Provision of such opportunities and aids.

'll competent problem-solvin!, as contrasted with trail-and-error method, contains three

essential operations. r!ent pressures will often dislod!e their se#uence, botan conscious effort

to move from #uandar 5difficult to solution must involve these modes of action:

. Stud 5fact-findin!

/. =ia!nosis 5thinkin! about and or!ani7in! facts into a meanin!ful !oal-pointed e6planation

3. "reatment 5implementation of conclusions as to what and how of action upon the problem.

>



)inall, for the solution or miti!ation of man problems there must e6ist certain material means

or accessible opportunities which are available to the needful person and which he can be helped

to use. Iinds of resources that a person ma need are mone, medical care, nurser schools,

scholarships, foster homes, recreation facilities, etc.

UNIT II

Social Case Work process: stud, dia!nosis and treatment. "ools-and techni#ues in the stud

process: $nterview, observation, home visits and collateral contacts. Social Case Work

intervention -direct and indirect multidimensional intervention. %oal attainment, "ermination,

&valuation and follow up

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PART A

............is an attempt to arrive at an e6act definition as possible of the social situation and

personalit of a !iven client.

' Social =ia!nosis

J



/ "he third sta!e of social case work process

A/ "reatment

3 Which amon! the followin! is a tool of stud4

5"reatment,social dia!nosis,collateral contact,evaluation

' Collateral contact

PART B

1/ What a)) are the %ta@e% "( %"#$a) #a%e 8"r* treate&t?

Stages in Case Work :

=ifferent sta!es in case work process are: Case stud ASocial $nvesti!ation A Pscho Social Stud

Social =ia!nosis

Social "reatment

S"#$a) Ca%e H$%t"r+:

"he first step in the case work is to collect the social histor of the client. "his could be done in

various was. "hese are:

$nterview with the client

$nterview with the relatives, emploer, teacher and friends of the client.

2isitin! the nei!hborhood and environment in which the client lives.

'll these visits will help the worker to know the client in his environment and collect all the data

in respect of the client and his environment i.e. his famil, nei!hborhood, friendship circle,

emploer, teacher, etc. as a matter of fact it is not possible to separate the three sta!es of case

work service i.e. social histor, dia!nosis and treatment. =urin! the course of interview, the

worker ma be able to dia!nose and even su!!est treatment to the client but where the problem

is ver acuteE it isnecessar to consider the dia!nosis in relation this own histor.

S"#$a) D$a@&"%$%

Social dia!nosis is an attempt to arrive at an e6act definition as possible of the social situation

and personalit of a !iven client. $t is a search for theca uses of the problem which brin!s the

client to the worker for help. =ia!nosis, is therefore, is concerned with understandin! both the



pscholo!ical or personalit factors which bear a casual relationship to the client’s difficult and

the social or environmental factors which tend to sustain it.

S"#$a) treate&t

Social treatment in case work is the sum total of all activities and services directed towards

helpin! the client with a problem. "he focus into relieve the immediate problem and if feasible

modif an basic difficulties which precipitated it. Strictl speakin!, everthin! that has been

discussed so far is part of treatment.

%enerall, two tpes of efforts are re#uired for social adjustment environmental modification and

or chan!e in behavior modification. &arl case work treatment was placed on modification

throu!h the environment. Kater on the development of e!o pscholo! helped social case

workers to use intensive and direct treatment techni#ue

/ State the eth"'% a&' ";!e#t$<e% "( %"#$a) #a%e 8"r* treate&t.4

O;!e#t$<e% "( Ca%e W"r* Treate&t:

"o prevent social breakdown .

"o conserve client’s stren!th . "o restore social functionin!.

"o provide positive reinforcements.

"o create opportunities for !rowth and development.

"o compensate pscholo!ical dama!e.

"o increase capacit of self direction.

"o increase his social contribution.

Meth"'% "( %"#$a) #a%e 8"r* treate&t

'dministration of Practical Services.

$ndirect "reatment 5&nvironmental *anipulation

=irect "reatment

Providin! help to theclient to choose and use the social resources afforded b the communit.

*one, medical care, le!al aid, helpin! to !et job or admission in educational institutions, a!ed

homes,foster homes, recreational facilities are such tpe of services that an person in problem

/



ma need in order to resolve a !iven problem in his dail livin! &nvironmental manipulation

means chan!in! the social conditions of the client so that heAshe ma be relieved from e6cessive

stresses and strains. )or e6ample attempts to chan!e the attitude of the parents, teachers, spouse,

emploer, friends and relatives, trainin! and emploment for livelihood, !roup e6perience in

accordance with the needs of the client. &nvironmental modification is undertaken b the case

worker onl when environmental pressures upon the client are beond the client ’s control but

can be modified b the case worker $n this the case worker e6erts influence directl on the client.

$t is used when the client needs direction because of his i!norance, an6iet and weakness of his

e!o stren!th. =irect treatment is !iven throu!h counselin!, therapeutic interviewin!, clarification

and interpretation leadin! to an insi!ht.

Social "reatment

Social treatment in case work is the sum total of all activities and services directed towards

helpin! the client with a problem. "he focus is to relieve the immediate problem and if

feasiblemodif an basic difficulties which precipitated it. Strictl speakin!, everthin! that has

beendiscussed so far is part of treatment.

%enerall, two tpes of efforts are re#uired for social adjustment environmental modification and

or chan!e in behavior modification. &arl case work treatment was placed on modificationthrou!h the environment. Kater on the development of e!o pscholo! helped social case

workers to use intensive and direct treatment techni#ues. "he interviews in all these process are

ever important and unless the interviews are conducted properl, it is not possible to e6pect

results. "he case worker has, therefore, not onl to understand the theor of interview but also

have sufficient trainin! and e6perience in interviewin!, if heAshe wants to be successful in

providin! service to the client.

$nterviewin! in Casework

B interviewin!, we mean a meetin! or conference 5ma be formal or informal between two or

more persons for specific purpose. $t is an art which is used in ever situation for better

understandin! and better relationships between the interviewer and the interview. $nterviewin! is

the foundation on which theor and practice of social case work is based because without

3



interview, the worker cannot !et all the possible information about the client nor can the client

!ain an confidence in the worker. "he purpose of an interview is, therefore:

o "o obtain knowled!e of the situation.

o "o understand another person.

o "o make the person understand ou.

PART C

1E>)a$& the %"#$a) #%ae 8"r* >r"#e%%?

5Hint: $ntake 5)irst$nterview+apport Buildin! Pscho-Socialstud e6plorationA

$nvesti!ation ,Pscho - Social dia!nosis 5'ssessment,"reatment 5Problem-solvin! process,

)ollow-up and "ermination

Case Work Process:

Casework process has four different sta!es, namel,

• Social stud

• Social dia!nosis

• Casework treatment

• &valuation.

Conceptuall, the are different and separate sta!es but the do not make a neat pro!ression

alwas with one sta!e followin! the other in se#uence. Sometimes, two or more sta!es proceed

simultaneousl. =ia!nosis ma also chan!e with the !atherin! of more data about the situation or

with chan!e stakin! place in the situation itself. Casework help can not be postponed till the

<



completion of the social stud or of the formulation of a social dia!nosis. Some kind of help ma

have to be rendered even at the first worker-client contact. "he skilful wa the case worker

conducts the interview ma be of help to the client in terms of the concern, hope, warmth and

interest conveed to the client, which in turn start a process, sooner or later, within him

activatin! him to mobili7e his inner resources for problem solvin!. $n casework intervention the

individual client is not considered in isolation from the famil, but as a part of the famil, since

the famil forms the most important human environment for the client with its network of

emotional relationships. "herefore, other members of the famil are also involved in the

casework process. 'lso, home visits are made b the caseworker to !et an understandin! of the

environment as for other reasons.

Process of Social Case Work:

I I&ta*e ,F$r%t I&ter<$e8/ Ra>>"rt B4$)'$&@

Client comes to an a!enc for professional help throu!h a Case worker.

+elationship between two persons of une#ual positions and power is developed.

'ccept client as a person in a stressful situation

+espect the client’s personalit and help him resolve.

he areas for !robing are:

. "he sta!e of the problem at which the person, throu!h whom, and the reasons becauseof

which, comes to this a!enc.

/. "he nature of re#uest and its relation to his problem, and the cause of his problem, asthe client

see.

3. =oes the re#uest relate directl to his needsA problems4

<. His adjustment to his social functions in job, famil, etc.?. "he state of his phsical and mental health.

@. His appearance includin! dress, etc. in his first meetin!.

F. His personal and social resources includin! material and financial position.

G. 'ppropriateness and intensit of feelin!s.

>. ature of defense mechanisms he fre#uentl uses.

?



J. Kevel of motivation, how #uickl he wants to !et rid of his problems.

. ature of famil, its status, values, relationship pattern within the famil, etc.

/. +eactions to the worker and seekin! help from the a!enc and se6 of caseworker who will be

suitable to help the person.

II P%+#h"-S"#$a) %t4'+ ,E>)"rat$"& I&<e%t$@at$"&/:

8Pscho L Social stud is the initial assessment of client’s current, relevant past and possible

future modes of adaptation to stressful situations and normal livin! situations.9

Perlman has !iven the followin! contents of the case work stud

. "he nature of the presentin! problem

/. "he si!nificance of the problem.

3. "he cause5s, onset and precipitants of the problem.

<. "he efforts made to cope with problem-solvin!.

?. "he nature of the solution or ends sou!ht from the case work a!enc.

@. "he actual nature of the a!enc and its problem solvin! means in relation to the client and his

problem.

ools of stud"

"he tools used b the case worker for collectin! the relevant information are:

. $nterview !uide and schedule.

/. Kife chart.3. 2ideo recordin! of famil interaction.

<. "ape recorded interview.

he #ormat of $nter%iew Schedule

. Histor of the problem.

/.Personal histor.

3. )amil histor.

<. Problematic areas.

?. "reatment Plan

IIII P%+#h" - S"#$a) '$a@&"%$% ,A%%e%%e&t/:

'ccordin! to Perlman 5>?F

@



8=ia!nosis helps in determinin! the focus of treatment, further collection of facts and

decidin! the best course of action to solve the problem.9 8Social dia!nosis is the attempt to arrive at an e6act definition as possible of the social

situation and personalit of a !iven client.9

8=ia!nosis is concerned with understandin! both the pscholo!ical or personalit factors

which bear a causal relation to the client ’s difficult and the social or environmental

factors which tend to sustain it.9

8=ia!nosis ma be viewed as the fluid, constantl chan!in! assessment of the client,

theirproblems, life situations and important relationships.9

Content of the Social &iagnosis:

. "he nature of the problem brou!ht and the !oals sou!ht b the client, in their relationship to.

/. "he nature of the person who bears the problem and who seeks or needs help with the

problem, in relation to.

3. "he nature and purpose of the a!enc and the kind of help it can offer andA or make available.

Process of makin! dia!nosis

Shiftin! the relevant from irrelevant data

r!ani7in! the facts and !ettin! them into relatedness

%raspin! the wa in which the factors fit to!ether

Preparin! the meanin! as a whole.

&ata for &iagnosis

. $nterviews

/. Checklist and $nventories

3. =irect bservation

Steps in =ia!nosis

. "he worker be!ins to focus on problematic behaviors. Both functional and dsfunctional

behaviors in the client’s environment are surveed. "he client’s personal stren!th as well as of

his environment are evaluated./. He specifies the tar!et behaviors. Break down comple6 behaviors into clear and precise

component parts.

3. Baseline data are collected to specif those events that appear to be currentl controllin! the

problematic behaviors.

F



<. "he collected information is summari7ed in an attempt to anticipate an major problem in

treatment and as a wa of be!innin! to establish objectives for treatment.

?. Selectin! priorities for treatment is the final step of the dia!nosis.

$$$

"!es of diagnosis

. Clinical

"he person is described bthe nature of the illness.&.!. schi7ophrenia, pschopath,

tphoid, etc.

sed in medical practice.

se is minimum in casework practice. - $mportance in medical and pschiatr.

/. &tiolo!ical

"ries to delineate the causes and development of presentin! difficult.

Histor of the person.

3. =namic

Proper evaluation of the client’s current problem as he is e6periencin! it now.

+ole of pscholo!ical, biolo!ical, social and environmental factors in the causation of the

problem.

o attempt to di! life histor.

Case worker and client en!a!e inappropriate corrective action or treatment.

"hese developments ma lead to modifications in the !oals for treatment

IV I&ter<e&t$"& Treate&t ,Pr";)e-%")<$&@ >r"#e%%/:

'ccordin! to Hamilton

8"reatment is the sum total of all activities and service directed towards helpin! an individual

with a problem. "he focus is relievin! of the immediate problem and, if feasible, modifies an

basic difficulties which precipitated it.9

he ob'ecti%es of Social case work treatment

. "o prevent social breakdown.

/. "o conserve client’s stren!th.

3. "o restore social functionin!.

<. "o provide happ e6periences to the client.

?. "o create opportunities for !rowth and development

G



@. "o compensate pscholo!ical dama!e.

F. "o increase capacit for self-direction.

G. "o increase his social contribution.

Methods of Social treatment

.'dministration of concrete and practical services.

&.!. mone, medical care,scholarships, le!al aid, etc.

/.$ndirect treatment 5modification of environment, both phsical and social.

&.!. camps, !roup e6perience activities, trainin! pro!rammes, etc.

3.=irect treatment

'. Counselin!

marria!e, occupational, famil, school, etc.

B. "herapeutic $nterviewin!

famil and marital therap.

C. Clarification

=. $nterpretation and $nsi!ht

&. Pscholo!ical support.

). +esource utili7ation

%. &nvironment modification.

$ntervention A "reatment 5Problem-solvin! process

2

V M"&$t"r$&@ a&' E<a)4at$"&:

*onitorin! provides crucial feedback to case worker and the client re!ardin!

. Whether the treatment pro!ram is succeedin! as desired

/. Whether established !oals have been achieved

3. Whether modifications in the pro!ram are necessar

<. Whether the client is bein! helped in real sense.

$m!ortance of Monitoring and %aluation

>



"he purpose of &valuation is to see if the efforts of the case worker are ieldin! an

result or not, if the techni#ues used are servin! the purpose, and if the !oals are bein!

achieved.

&valuation is the process of attachin! a value to the social work practice. $t is the method

of knowin! what the outcomes are.$t is a continuous process.

&valuation of the approach used and result should be taken up with the client so that the

efforts are meanin!full utili7ed.

&valuation will further stren!then the relationship between the caseworker and client and

motivate the client to work towards his !oal.Casework practices need to be evaluated from time to time. "he subject needs to be tested

and researched and most importantl needs on!oin! validation. "he need tobe proved to

the public that the are effective and beneficial to the clients.

Casework practice should be subjected to critical review. Workers need to be held

accountable for what the do and for their social work competence. Workers need to win

approval for their pro!rams.

"he ma sometimes have to be told that their services are overlappin! and ineffective.

Workers have to enhance their own ima!e and also of the a!enc to develop public

relations. "he clients need to !ive a feedback on the effectiveness of the services.

VI F"))"8-4> a&' Ter$&at$"&

't the end, i.e. termination, the worker should discuss the ori!inal as well as revised

!oals and objectives, achievements durin! the helpin! period, factors helpful or

obstructive in achievin! the objectives, and the efforts needed to maintain the level of

achievement and the feelin!s aroused b disen!a!ement.

$t is neither wise nor necessar for the termination to be an abrupt one.

$t is best to discuss termination and its ramifications 5implications several times before

the final interview.

"he fre#uenc and amount of contacts should be !raduall decreased.

"ermination of the helpin! process brin!s up in both the case worker and client5s man

feelin!s both positive and ne!ative which must be verbali7ed and discussed.

)ollow-up is done to help client maintain the improvement.

=urin! follow-up, the client is helped to discuss the problems he faces in maintainin! the

improvement.

Work is done with the people si!nificant for his improved social functionin!.

/J



$f re#uired, he is referred to the proper source for needed services and help.

"he follow-up should be planned on a diminishin! basis after two weeks, then a month,

then three months, si6 months and a ear followin! the termination of the formal

pro!ram.2$

$n $nSocial Case Work Proce

$n short

"he case work process consists of:

$ntake 5)irst$nterview+apport Buildin! Pscho-Socialstud e6plorationA $nvesti!ation

Pscho - Social dia!nosis 5'ssessment

"reatment 5Problem-solvin! process

)ollow-up and "ermination

"he components of social casework are:

"he Person "he Problem

"he Place

"he Process

"he worker L client relationship

"he Problem solvin! work

/



UNIT III

'pproaches in Social Case Work: Pschosocial approach, functional approach, dia!nostic

approach, and crisis -intervention. Social casework recordin!: need, importance ( tpes of

recordin!.

.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

PART A

..............is the Ie to Successful $ntervention.

' Communication

/ .............is a crucial part of da to da social work practice and takes up a substantial

amount of practitionersM time.

' +ecordin!

3 "he Social Worker1s da is tpicall filled with..........

' Crisis intervention

PART B

1/ D$%#4%% a;"4t the a>>r"a#he% $& S"#$a) Ca%e W"r*

Casework: A Psychosocial Therapy

Inown in academic circles as the MbibleM for clinical practitioners of social work, Casework:

Ps"chosocial hera!" introduces readers to the basic theor and principles in the practice of

pschosocial therap, alon! with attention to the historical development of the approach as it has

//

http://www.aihcp.org/aagc.htm




been enriched and e6panded over the ears. "he authorsM approach reflects a balanced focus on

people, their environment, and the was in which people interact with their environment.

&ssential techni#ues includin! how to conduct initial interviews with clients, crisis intervention,

arrivin! at assessments, and choosin! appropriate treatment, are thorou!hl e6plained, and often

clarified with case studies and vi!nettes, preparin! readers to assess social work clients from a

variet of perspectives. "he book is desi!ned for the !raduate-level student who needs to master

the principles, theories, and approaches of the pschosocial approach to applied practice, but it

ma also be used to fit a variet of courses, includin! the $ntroduction to Social Work BSW

student who is lookin! for supplemental information on the basics of clinical practice. ow in its

fifth edition, Casework has been thorou!hl revised to keep discussions clear and up to date.

ew material has been added throu!hout, includin! a !reater variet of case studies, discussions

about current topics such as the influence of ethnicit and diversit in the social work practice,

chan!es in famil life roles, chan!es in ideas and practice approaches, and a si!nificantl

updated biblio!raph for reference.

F4&#t$"&a) A>>r"a#h

Str4#t4ra) (4&#t$"&a)$% is a broad perspective in sociolo! and anthropolo! which sets out to

interpret societ as a structure with interrelated parts. )unctionalism addresses societ as a whole

in terms of the function of its constituent elementsE namel norms, customs, traditions and

institutions. ' common analo!, populari7ed b Herbert Spencer , presents these parts of societ

as Nor!ansN that work toward the proper functionin! of the NbodN as a whole. O $n the most basic

terms, it simpl emphasi7es Nthe effort to impute, as ri!orousl as possible, to each feature,

custom, or practice, its effect on the functionin! of a supposedl stable, cohesive sstem.N )or

"alcott Parsons, Nstructural-functionalismN came to describe a particular sta!e in the

methodolo!ical development of social science, rather than a specific school of thou!ht.O/O3

Parsons called his own theor for action theor and ar!ued a!ain and a!ain that the term

structural-functionalism was a misleadin! and inappropriate label to use as a name of his theor.

THEOR

/3

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_structure

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norms_(sociology)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_(norm)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditions

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institutions

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Spencer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_functionalism#cite_note-0

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talcott_Parsons

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_functionalism#cite_note-Bourricaud-2

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_theory_(sociology)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_structure

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norms_(sociology)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_(norm)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditions

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institutions

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Spencer


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talcott_Parsons

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_functionalism#cite_note-Bourricaud-2

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_theory_(sociology)



Classical functionalist theories are defined b a tendenc towards biolo!ical analo! and notions

of social evolutionism:

)unctionalist thou!ht, from Comte onwards, has looked particularl towards biolo! as the

science providin! the closest and most compatible model for social science. Biolo! has been

taken to provide a !uide to conceptuali7in! the structure and the function of social sstems and

to anal7in! processes of evolution via mechanisms of adaptation ... functionalism stron!l

emphasi7es the pre-eminence of the social world over its individual parts 5i.e. its constituent

actors, human subjects.

/ S"#$a) #a%e 8"r* a&' #r$%$% a&a@ee&t?

Social Workers and Case Management: he *e" to Crisis $nter%ention

&ver da around the world, people are in crisis. "he face problems and situations that the

cannot deal with alone and the carin! advocac of the social workers that help them ma be the

difference between their abilit to deal with the crisis or to 8drown9 under the wei!ht of it.

' =a in the Kife of a Social Worker

"he Social Worker1s da is tpicall filled with crisis intervention. "he diversit of the needs of

the patients assi!ned to them re#uires research, strate!ic plannin! and provision of

individuali7ed support to each client. $n addition, the nature of their work re#uires confidentialit

and emotional separation to enable them to carr out their case mana!ement in a professional

manner.

"eam Work as $ntervention Strate!

Workin! closel with a client and his or her famil, the social worker must also work as a

member of a team to provide the best outcomes for the client. =ependin! on the tpe of work

en!a!ed in, and the tpe and e6tent of support re#uired, the tpes of teams the worker is part of

ma chan!e considerabl from client to client.

Communication is the Ie to Successful $ntervention

/<

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_evolutionism

http://www.aihcp.org/


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_evolutionism





Case mana!ement re#uires the development of e6cellent communication skills to enable all

members of the team, and the client to feel that pro!ress is bein! made and that the client1s most

pressin! needs are bein! successfull addressed. Social work can be a difficult and sometimes

stressful profession, but on!oin! education can provide skills in areas that would otherwise be

potentiall drainin!. Courses in communication, technolo!, team work and strate!ic plannin!

are amon! the man options that can help provide all health care workers with advanced skills to

assist them in their work.

Best Practice $nterventions

When an individual is faced with a crisis, the ma in certain circumstances need someone to

make decisions for them. "his is particularl true of children re#uirin! protective services

intervention. "heir a!e and vulnerabilit mean that often the are incapable of makin! important

life decisions.

But older individuals must be empowered to make their own decisions and this is the role of

social workers workin! with adult clients. "he offer an essential service in the provision of

advocac and information, ensurin! that their client is in a position to be able to make informed

life choices.

$f ou feel that the field of social workers mi!ht be a career for ou, wh not check into

one of the online trainin! courses that are offered. Qou won1t just learn a new skill, but

will become a part of a movement that is all about helpin! others&6plain the important

kes to crisis intervention

PART C

Ea$&e the >4r>"%e "( %"#$a) 8"r* re#"r'$&@?

Case Work +ecording

"here has been a si!nificant chan!e in the nature of case recordin!, which in man was reflects

the wider chan!es in social work. Staffin! levels, increased user involvement and increased

accountabilit to service users, the or!ani7ation and profession, are all factors which have

influenced the development of the case record and recordin! practice

/?








"he traditional case record reflected the interaction between the practitioner and the service user,

in the conte6t of the service userMs histor and current situation. 't its heart was the relationship

between the practitioner and service user. "raditional case records were Moften written in an

abstract discursive stle for a sophisticated professional audienceM within the a!enc.

Practitioners were reluctant to restrict their professional autonom b establishin! Mclear and

specific criteria for the clinical 5practice recordM

$n the absence of an definition b practitioners, the wa in which the case record developed to

meet the chan!es in le!islation and social work practice was led b or!ani7ational and

mana!erial re#uirements . Whilst, the shift to more structured, focused and evidenced recordin!

has been both welcome and necessar, concerns have been e6pressed that usin! case recordin!

simpl to evidence individual and or!ani7ational accountabilit ne!lects itMs value as a practicetool .

M"he case file is the sin!le most important tool available to social workers and their mana!ers

when makin! decisions as to how best to safe!uard the welfare of children under their care. $t

should clearl and accessibl record the available information about the child and the action that

has been taken on the case to date. +eference to the case file should be made at ever sta!e of the

case and before an si!nificant decision is madeM.

"he case record should be more than a comple6 diar of the practitionerMs actions and the

response of the service user. "o use it in such a wa is like buin! a video recorder and then onl

usin! its clock to tell the time. Practitioners should use case recordin! to support analsis and

reflection .

sin! recordin! for analsis re#uires practitioners to assess the wei!ht that should be !iven to

information !athered. "o do this practitioners should draw on their knowled!e from research and

practice combined with an understandin! of the childMs needs within his or her famil andAor the

conte6t in which the child lives .

'nalsis provides a clear direction to on!oin! records and assists practitioners in identifin!

what information should be recorded . However analsis often takes place outside da to da

recordin! and is facilitated b specific formats. $nitial and Core 'ssessments, !eno!rams,

/@



ecomaps, social histories and case summaries are all e6amples of formats that support analsis.

"he re#uire practitioners to or!ani7e, manipulate and evaluate the information !athered in the

case files. "he provide an opportunit to assess the childMs needs, monitor pro!ress, evaluate the

effectiveness of interventions, and to identif patterns that would ma not immediatel be

apparent.

ften case recordin! can become almost a subconscious activit, like drivin! a car alon! a

familiar road. Qou arrive but canMt sa e6actl how ou !ot there. "he re!ular use of tools for

analsis in the case record keeps recordin! a proactive activit that supports on!oin! assessment,

plannin! and intervention.

A<"$' the >$t(a))

• =o not record simpl 8hat is happenin!, use analsis to move beond this to hpothesise

and e6plain 8h+ particular situations and events are occurrin!.

• se !eno!rams, ecomaps, chronolo!ies and assessment records to help ou to or!anise

and to analse information.

• se case summaries as a wa of reviewin! pro!ress and evaluatin! the effectiveness of

interventions.

• se trainin!, journals and articles to keep up to date with developments in research to

inform our practice.

What do we mean b" social case work recording,

We mean all the written material contained in the social work files of people usin! social work

services. Social work files ma be wholl or partl electronic or the ma be in hard cop.

+ecordin! is a crucial part of da to da social work practice and takes up a substantial amount

of practitionersM time. +ecordin! involves:

/F



R writin! down the work ou doE

R notin! the pro!ress people make towards their desired outcomesE

R includin! the views of the personE

R analsis and assessmentE and

R the life histor of the person and its interpretation.

%ood records are an essential tool for practitioners to reflect on their on !oin! work with people

and plan future work. When shared with the person whose file it is the encoura!e transparenc.

+ecordin! is also part of the code of practice for social services workers published b the

Scottish Social Services Council 5 SSSC. "he purpose of this code is to set out the conduct

e6pected of social service workers and to inform people usin! social work services and the

public about the standards of conduct the can e6pect from social service workers. +ecordin!

comes under section @:

M's a social service worker ou must be accountable for the #ualit of our work and take

responsibilit for maintainin! and improvin! our knowled!e and skills.M

What is the !ur!ose of social work recording,

R documentin! the involvement with the individualE

R informin! assessment and care plannin!E

R enablin! practitioners to review and reflect on their workE

R assistin! practitioners to identif an patternsE

R ensurin! accountabilit of staffE

/G



R meetin! statutor re#uirementsE

R providin! evidence for le!al proceedin!sE

R enablin! continuit when a new worker takes over the caseE

R providin! performance informationE

R formin! a bio!raph - for e6ample, for a looked after child to read at a later date to provide

them with their historE

R providin! evidence for in#uiries or reviewsE and

R assistin! partnership workin! between workers and people usin! their services.

/>



UNIT IV

Social Case Work in different settin!s: )amil and child welfare, School, Communit, *edical

and Pschiatric institutions, correctional settin!s, care of a!ed, Case work in foster home.

.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-

PART A

"he ori!in of medical social work in $ndia was attributed b ...........

' Bhore Cormnittee

/ What is PHC4

' NPrimar Health Care

3 "he stud of a!ed people is known as.............

' %eriatrics

PART B

1/ E>)a$& the r")e% "( a %"#$a) 8"r*er $& the e'$#a) %ett$&@4

Case work in Medical - Ps"chiatric Setting

*edical and Pschiatric Social Work is a branch or specialisation in professional social work. "hemedical and pschiatric social workers are emploed in health settin!s like hospitals, communit

health care projects, medical and pschiatric rehabilitation a!encies, pschiatric treatment centres

and counsellin! centres. "he role of the medical and pschiatric social worker is to help individuals

with social, economic and pschiatric problems that arise because of ill health, disabilit and

economic problems. "he help to enable the person to lead a productive and satisfied life to the best

3J



of his abilities. "he social worker uses his skill in relationship with the client sstem, and

understands the problems faced b the client. $t could be economic problems, attitude towards the

problem faced b the client, the nature of the relationship he has with other support sstems like the

famil, emploers and referral a!encies. "he social worker !ets the cooperation of the famil

treatment of the client and uses communit resources that are available.

$n the medical settin!, the worker acts as the link between the doctor and the patient. She acts

as the source of knowled!e for the client. $n the commullit health care or!anisations, the worker

understands the social-cultural patterns of the communit, the health practices of the communit, the

needs of the coinmunit and interprets these to the team of other professionals with whom she works.

Her main role in the communit is to elicit participation of the communit in plannin! their health

care, provide health education and help them to use preventive services effectivel. $n the pschiatric

settin!, she does the mental status e6amination of the client, understands the pschosocial problems

of the client and interprets the same to the pschiatric team. Her main role is one of counsellin! and

education of the famil to understand and accept the client. $n the dru! addiction centers, she is the

link between the pschiatric and medical team, the famil and the client. 'part from counsellin! the

client, she works towards the rehabilitation of the client in the communit and helps him to become a

productive member of the communit,

.istor"

*edical Social Work had its be!innin! in &n!land and the nited States of 'merica. $n GGJ, a

!roup of volunteers workin! for an aslum in &n!land paid friendl visits to the dischar!ed patients

to find how the were adjustin! to their home conditions. $n GG? Sir Charles Koch recommended

that the lad almoners should visit the patients at home to prevent the abuse of dru!s !iven freel in

the charit hospitals. "he almoner, while investi!atin! the financial problems of the clients, found

other sets of social and pscholo!ical problems that needed handlin!. Hence, apart from the medical

help !iven, she also tapped other communit resources in order to help them overcome social

problems.

$n thd Ntlmtea Statcs of 'inerica, around >JJ, nurses visited the dischar!ed patients in their homes

and showed the importance of understandin! the patient in his social situation. $n >J/, =r. &merson

of ohn Hopkins niversit, Baltimore, made the medical students visit the patients in their homes.

"his helped the students become aware of the impact of the social and cultural factors in health. $n

>J?, a Lmedical social worker was appointed at the *assachusetts %eneral Hospital, with the

establishment of the Social Service =epartment. $n the first thirt ears, more social

3



Ps"chiatric Setting

'part from individual patient care, the social workers were also involved in other activities like

administrative plannin!, joint teachin! and research. "he were involved in the plannin! Bond

implementation of communit health care activities. $n the west, the medical social workers have

firml established themselves and work as members of the health team. "heir main role revolves

around the treatment of the pschosocial

dimensions of the patientMs personalit.

Medical and Ps"chiatric Social Work in $ndia

$ndia has a tradition of voluntar social work. Service to the sick has been a part of 't the $ndian

tradition. "he scientific orientation to medical social work took a lon!er time. )urther, the medical

social workers had to stru!!le lo establish their ima!e as professionals. "he ori!in of medical social

work in $ndia could be attributed to the Bhore Cormnittee 5><@. "he Committee stron!l

recommended the appointment of inedical social workers in hospitals. "he Bhore Committee made

the followin! recolnmendations re!ardin! the role of the medical social worker. =iscover and

makin! available to the medical staff factors in the patientMs environment that ma have an bearin!

on his phsical condition, thus supplementin! inedical histor with social histor. $nfluencin! and

!uidin! patients in canin! out treatment, makin! the phsicianMs direction siniple and concrete, and

helpin! them to carr out the plan of treatment throu!h to completion. vercomin! obstacles tosuccessful treatnlent or recover particularl in the outpatient department and durin! convalescence

medical and sur!ical supplies are secured: the social or economic conditions affectin! the patient

adversel are corrected. 'rran!in! for the supplementar care of patients. &ducatin! the patient in

re!ard to his phsical condition in order that he ma better . cooperate ia the pro!ramme laid down

b the phsician. Because of the recommendation of the Bhore Commit-tee and the conviction of

some of the doctors who had seen the effective work done b the medical social workers .

.

he n%isaged asks of the Medical Social Worker

"he medical social worker is involved in the followin! areas: direct service to the client sstem,

teamwork, administration, teachin!, supervision and self-development, and communit health.

D$re#t Ser<$#e t" the C)$e&t S+%te

3/



SocMial evaluation of the individual patients in terms of their abilit to participate in the treatment

process. $nterpretation of the nature of the illness to the patient and his famil an individual basis.

2isits to patientMs home for assessment of the pschosocial situation. Counselin! and helpin! the

patient and famil to deal with the pscholo!ical and social problems arisin! out of the illness and

!ivin! information on the pro!nosis, treatment process and rehabilitation. &nvironmental

modification throu!h work with emploers, famil and others to enable the patient to benefit

ma6imum from the treatment process. r!ani7in! with patients, volunteers and other a!encies,

therapeutic, educational and recreational activities for !roup of patients and their relatives. Placement

and institutionali7ation of destitute and other patients, if and when found necessar. )ollow up of the

client sstem to ensure fullest utili7ation of the services !iven. +eferrin! patients and their families to

other social welfare a!encies.

Tea W"r* $nterpretin! the role of the social worker to the other team members. $nterpretin! the patientMs

pschosocial needs to the other team members. Participatin! in formulatin! a dia!nosis and plannin!

the treatment. Consultation to and from other members of the team.

' Work ith various members of the team.

C"4&$t+ Hea)th W"r*

$nvolvin! the communit in carrin! out a communit surve and use of media1 to identif needs

/ L$%t"4t the r")e "( %"#$a) 8"r*er $& (a$)+ %ett$&@?

Family

)amil-centered casework practice encompasses the ran!e of activities desi!ned to help families

with children stren!then famil functionin! and address challen!es that ma threaten famil

stabilit. "hese activities include famil-centered assessment and case plannin!E case

mana!ementE specific interventions with families includin! counselin!, education, and skill

buildin!E advocatin! for familiesE and connectin! families with the supportive services and

resources the need to improve their parentin! abilities and achieve a nurturin! and stable famil

environment.

• )amil-centered assessment

33

http://www.childwelfare.gov/famcentered/casework/assessment.cfm

http://www.childwelfare.gov/famcentered/casework/assessment.cfm



• )amil-centered case plannin!

• )amil-centered case mana!ement

• Workin! With families and outh

• 'dvocatin! for families

• Workin! With communit resources

Family-Centered Assessment

'ssessment forms the foundation of effective practice with children and families. )amil-

centered assessment focuses on the whole famil, values famil participation and e6perience, and

respects the familMs culture and ethnicit. )amil-centered assessment helps families identif

their stren!ths, needs, and resources and develop a service plan that assists them in achievin! and

maintainin! safet, permanenc, and well-bein!.

"here are man phases and tpes of famil-centered assessment, includin! screenin! and initial

assessment, safet and risk assessment, and comprehensive famil assessment. 'ssessment in

child welfare is on!oin!.

S#h"") Sett$&@%:

Professional social workers pla a vital role in helpin! school children of all a!es. "raditionall,

school social workers serve as liaisons between the home, the school, and the communit. Since

>JF, school social workers have collaborated with teachers and other school personnel in

advancin! the purposes of education.

School social workers are an important part of the school team, possessin! uni#ue

interdisciplinar knowled!e. School social workers contribute to pro!rams desi!ned for students

at-risk due to a variet of factors, includin!:

• emotional problems,

• poor self-esteem,

• child abuse and domestic violence,

• povert and unemploment,

3<

http://www.childwelfare.gov/famcentered/casework/case_planning.cfm

http://www.childwelfare.gov/famcentered/casework/case_mgmt.cfm

http://www.childwelfare.gov/famcentered/casework/working.cfm

http://www.childwelfare.gov/famcentered/casework/advocation.cfm

http://www.childwelfare.gov/famcentered/casework/comm_resources.cfm

http://www.childwelfare.gov/famcentered/casework/case_planning.cfm

http://www.childwelfare.gov/famcentered/casework/case_mgmt.cfm

http://www.childwelfare.gov/famcentered/casework/working.cfm

http://www.childwelfare.gov/famcentered/casework/advocation.cfm

http://www.childwelfare.gov/famcentered/casework/comm_resources.cfm



• suicidal behavior, dru! and alcohol abuse,

• teen pre!nanc and parentin!,

• discrimination, and

• 'ttendance related issues.

"he School Social Work Pro!ram is desi!ned to train school social workers and provide them

with the competencies to practice in a variet of traditional and non-traditional primar and

secondar education settin!s. Such competencies include assessin! the needs of school children,

desi!nin! and implementin! interventions, and makin! referrals to other professionals and

a!encies as needed.

PART C

1 D$%#44% the $>"rta&#e "( %"#$a) #a%e 8"r* $& #"4&$t+ %ett$&@?

Community setting :

"his is another trainin! document in the series of communit mobili7in! methods for results

other than a phsical construction such as a communal water suppl, clinic or school.

"he product or output is a pro!ramme of services for vulnerable members of the communit,man of whom can help themselves if onl the are provided with a relativel small amount of

help and encoura!ement.

What is Social Work4

3?



"he profession of Social Work is an odd mi6ture of man thin!s. $t is usuall practised b

!overnment civil servants in the west 5&urope and orth 'merica while man international

%s have social workers on their staff.

"he clientele of social work are often called the vulnerable, ie people whose special conditions or

circumstances put them in positions of weakness or vulnerabilit in comparison with the

mainstream of a societ. %enerall the include members of societ who need some help.

"picall, these include those with phsical or mental disabilities, persons who are not able to

work for a livin! or not able to care for themselves. $n special cases, these ma include battered

women 5those who have been phsicall or emotionall assaulted L e! b their spouses Land can

not escape dan!erous situations on their own, frail elderl persons, children without parents to

support them, or who are bein! mistreated,

"he tasks of a social worker mainl include administration and counsellin!, alon! with a little bit

of medical 5usuall pscholo!ical intervention and advocac. "he social worker provides her or

his clients with little bits of wisdom, advice, information, counsellin!, as needed. &ver case is

different.

"he !overnment 5or % social worker in a western countr 5&urope and orth 'merica

provides services that are usuall provided b elders and famil members in other countries.Social work services are too e6pensive for !overnments in the least developed countries.

"he word NsocialN is a bit misleadin! because, in the west, where it is mainl practised, the social

worker does not work with a whole societ, or even with a communit or a !roup in a social

conte6t. "he social worker usuall handles Ncases,N and a case is usuall about an individual or

latel increasin!l, a famil.

"his is even more ironical because where social work is tau!ht, usuall in a universit in a

department or a school of social administration or social work, often 5where the are small the

are attached to sociolo! departments. Such schools or departments, in turn, are then usuall also

where communit development 5like much of the material on this web site is also tau!ht.

Communit development, in contrast, is an activit aimed at social institutions, such as

communities or !roups, rather than at individuals. 5See Communit.

3@

http://www.scn.org/cmp/key/key-v.htm#Vulnerable


http://www.scn.org/cmp/modules/com-wha.htm






ne of the man motivatin! facts pushin! the development of this web site is that the

empowerment of communities is important and hi!hl needed in low income countries. Kimitin!

the trainin! of communit workers to those who are studin! in universities, limits the available

number of potentiall capable communit workersE this should be tau!ht to middle school level

students 5after the have been workin! out in the real world and have some life e6perience.

.

Where is CBSW !!ro!riate,

+ich countries can usuall provide social work services 5on an individual or famil basis, not

communit based, and poor countries rel on the advice, e6perience and knowled!e of elders

and famil members. So where would it be appropriate to place a communit based social work

pro!ramme4 Communit based social work services are needed where the can not be provided

b elders and families, but where there is not enou!h finance available to provide it on an

individual basis.

"he situation which comes to mind most readil is where there are lar!e displaced or refu!ee

populations, in camps, in poor countries. )urther to that, after the emer!enc is over, those same

refu!ees ma return home. "heir lives will have been interrupted, losin! man famil members,

includin! elders and famil members, thus the need for social work services remains. So lon! as

there is enou!h fundin! available for a professional social worker to supervise the communit

based work, keepin! it up to re#uired standards, the communit itself can suppl the ener!, time

and interest in makin! it work.

'part from refu!ee situations, wherever there is a lar!e disaster that results in the removal of

elders and famil members, andAor which disrupts the normal and traditional social or!ani7ation,

are included amon! situations where it would be appropriate to set up a communit based social

work pro!ramme. Post disaster situations would be included in these.

Where there are lar!e refu!ee populations, the basic services, food, water, shelter, elementar

medical, are usuall provided, often b a!encies and international %s. )inance is not

unlimited, however, so there ma onl be a token attempt at providin! social work services, if

3F

http://www.scn.org/cmp/modules/dis-prin.htm

http://www.scn.org/cmp/modules/dis-prin.htm



an at all. "his is a !ood situation in which to consider or!ani7in! a communit based social

work pro!ramme.

Communit" Perce!tions:

When a child is a witness to atrocities that destro her world, she is affected. "o watch our

famil members andAor nei!hbours bein! shot or bombed produces immense trauma if ou are a

child. $n man cases, the e6perience results in the child withdrawin! into herself, refusin! to talk,

andAor refusin! to respond to dail interactions. "he child who is traumati7ed b the same events

which lead to refu!ee or displaced communities, ma displa behaviour that is often

misinterpreted b her remainin! famil or care !ivers. Sometimes she is deemed as mentall

retarded, and beond recover. Sometimes she is seen as affected b evil spirits. Sometimes her

condition is seen as a punishment for previous misdeeds b her famil members. $n all these

cases, there is much shame and secrec associated with her behaviour. 'll too often her care

!ivers do not understand that she is reactin! to the terrible events of the disaster or civil war, and

the do not know that the condition can be reversed b a few simple interventions.

*an times such children are hidden 5even tied up in darkened rooms awa from public view.

"he can not dress or clean themselves, and often are found in their own filth and in poor health,

hun!r, dirt, sick, weak and helpless. Public announcements do not !et the messa!e across.Hands on intervention is needed to assess each child.

$f the are traumati7ed b atrocious events, and not retarded or otherwise disabled b other

factors, the can show remarkable chan!es, learnin! to dress themselves, clean themselves and

feed themselves. "his re#uires patience, love and care, e6tended over several weeks and months.

' stimulus or two in the form of a doll, and perhaps later a ball, are effective and useful tools for

the job.

Here is a situation, repeated hundreds of thousand times around the world, where a communit

based social work pro!ramme is appropriate. "his is a tpical or classic situation for CBSW.

' sin!le, universit educated, professional social worker can appraise the situation, prescribe

appropriate interventions, and monitor. Communit mobili7ers can work with the communit

3G



members to identif hidden and sufferin! children, recruit communit level social workers,

arran!e for their trainin! and supervision, or!ani7e CBs to mana!e and operate the CBSW

pro!ramme at communit level, and ensure an effective flow of information. Kocal residents, on

a volunteer basis or with some incentives, can provide the care and stimulation to the children in

need, and keep the mobili7ers informed about chan!in! conditions and further needed trainin!.

"his is onl one of man kinds of situations involvin! vulnerable refu!ees or displaced persons

in communities disrupted b 5but survivin! disasters caused b natural or human made events.

he P.C Princi!les:

"he NPrimar Health CareN 5PHC polic promoted b WH 5 World Health r!ani7ation,

has several basic principles, perhaps the best known one bein! that prevention is better than cure.

'nother, that is particularl applicable here to communit based social work, is the idea that

resources should not be spent on e6pensive cures for a few people.

nderlin! this is a public health polic in support of the !reatest !ood for the !reatest number.

With a limited bud!et available, that means to concentrate on a few common diseases, to provide

elementar trainin! to persons educated at low levels, and reachin! the most rural and remote

patients. "his !ave rise to the popular 5but sli!htl inaccurate concept of N"he Barefoot =octor.N

5'lso see Water and PHC. $f the PHC polic is transferred to the need for social services, then

the idea is to !ive elementar trainin! to persons without universit level education,

concentratin! on the most common and easil treated conditions, and relin! on a referral sstem

for more complicated diseases or conditions.

"he !oal in communit based social work, then, is to or!ani7e a cadre of communit members

who can be !iven low level trainin! 5ie not re#uirin! universit education to treat a limited

number of social conditions of vulnerable communit members. "heir interventions will not be

as fle6ible or a sophisticated as those of social workers with universit level education and

e6tensive social work trainin!, but the will be able to reach a wider proportion of the population

than if onl hi!hl skilled and relativel costl professionals are emploed.

N"he !reater !ood for the !reater number.N

3>

http://www.scn.org/cmp/key/acronh.htm#PHC

http://www.scn.org/cmp/key/acronh.htm#WHO

http://www.scn.org/cmp/modules/wat-phc.htm

http://www.scn.org/cmp/key/acronh.htm#PHC

http://www.scn.org/cmp/key/acronh.htm#WHO

http://www.scn.org/cmp/modules/wat-phc.htm



Structure:

What is a !ossible structure for a CBSW !rogramme,

Where ou have a population of refu!ees or others who have had severe disruptions in their communit lives, where the are able to access support for their immediate needs 5food, shelter,

water, housin! but no social welfare. Where ou ma have a professional social worker or two

for a population too lar!e for them to reach everbod. Where ou have a situation conducive to

or!ani7in! voluntar communit !roups.

"here ou have the basis for CBSW.

"he professional social workers need to make a needs analsis to determine the limited number of conditions that can be addressed b communit workers with low level trainin!. "he then

need to train and to supervise the trainin! of a cadre of communit workers who have access to

the client communit or communities. Both the needs assessments and the trainin! would not be

once-off, but on!oin!. "he and the communit workers 5mobili7ers need to identif, recruit,

and train communit members, as communit leaders of the pro!ramme, as practitioners of

social work interventions in their communities, and as monitors of the chan!in! situations in

their respective communities.

*embers of the communit !roups conduct the social work interventions. "he need to be

supported with trainin! and !uidance b the mobili7ers and 5more indirectl b the professional

social workers.

What results in effect is like a social work pramid, with the professional social worker5s at the

ape6, possible social work trainers 5temporar or lon! term supervised b the social workers,

mobili7ers, communit leaders and mana!ers of the communit !roups 5CBs and communit

and CB members who conduct most of the interventions.

raining and Su!!ort:

$n !eneral, communit mobili7ers should never be trained once-and-for-all, but need re!ular

support, encoura!ement, and a forum in which to ask #uestions that arise in the field 5See

<J



"rainin! *ethods. $n CBSW this is even more a re#uirement. )irst, mobili7ers without formal

trainin! 5the main audience for this web site need continued support and professional inputs.

Second, the tra!edies witnessed in CBSW re#uire field workers to meet with their collea!ues to

share e6periences and to be re-ener!ised and re-infused with enthusiasm and positive attitudes. '

CBSW pro!ramme as described above needs a routine and predictable forum for !ettin!

mobili7ers to!ether to share e6periences, to ask #uestions arisin! from the field, and to obtain

inputs from more hi!hl trained and educated social workers. ' trainin! unit could be an answer

to this need. How it is to be set up depends upon available finances and circumstances.

'n initial trainin! pro!ramme for the mobili7ers could use the first si6 trainin! modules from

this web site. "he can be printed and handed out in the trainin! pro!ramme. "he can be easil

adapted to developin! a CBSW pro!ramme. "he trainin! for social work, in contrast, needs to be

defined and !enerated b the professional social workers, after the make their initial appraisal

of the situations, and will be modified as new information comes in.

De%#r$;e the $>"rta&#e "( %"#$a) #a%e 8"r* $& #"rre#t$"&a) a&' ")' a@e

%ett$&@%?

Correctional Social Work

With .@ million 'mericans behind bars and the cost of their care risin!, 'SW believes

preventative services, alternatives to incarceration, and an emphasis on prisoner rehabilitation

must be undertaken. 'de#uate services both inside and outside of the prison could reduce rates of

incarceration and recidivism for the betterment of individuals and societ as a whole.

' number of facts about the prison population, althou!h disturbin!, point toward solutions for

stemmin! the !rowth in numbers of incarcerated individuals:

• People of color are disproportionatel represented in the prison population.

• Substance abuse and mental illness underlie man offenses committed.

• 'n estimated /JJ,JJJ prisoners have severe mental disorders, while others have mental

health problems that are undia!nosed and untreated.

<

http://www.scn.org/cmp/modules/tm-core.htm

http://www.scn.org/cmp/modules/tm-core.htm



'lthou!h the effectiveness of some practices to promote rehabilitationTsuch as helpin!

prisoners maintain famil ties and responsibilitiesTare known, the social work profession

should identif others throu!h research 5for e6ample, other options for dispute resolution,

alternatives to prison, and effective treatments within correctional settin!s. $n addition, social

workers in correctional settin!s need speciali7ed trainin!, includin! the abilit to communicate

with prisoners from other cultures. )inall, social workers should participate in national polic

debates, collaborate with other or!ani7ations that deal with prisoners, and advocate preventative

efforts, includin! communit-based services to treat addiction and mental illness before these

become criminal justice issues.

ged Care

Me'$#a) ,%*$))e' #are/ <er%4% N"&-Me'$#a) ,%"#$a) #are

' distinction is !enerall made between medical and non-medical care, and the latter is much

less likel to be covered b insurance or public funds. $n the S, G@U of the one million or so

residents in assisted livin! facilities pa for care out of their own funds. "he rest !et help from

famil and friends and from state a!encies. *edicare does not pa unless skilled-nursin! care is

needed and !iven in certified skilled nursin! facilities or b a skilled nursin! a!enc in the home.

'ssisted livin! facilities usuall do not meet *edicareMs re#uirements. However, *edicare does

pa for some skilled care if the elderl person meets the re#uirements for the *edicare home

health benefit. O/

"hirt-two .S. states pa for care in assisted livin! facilities throu!h their *edicaid waiver

pro!rams. Similarl, in the nited Iin!dom the ational Health Service provides medical care

for the elderl, as for all, free at the point of use, but social care is onl paid for b the state in

Scotland, &n!land, Wales and orthern $reland are et to introduce an le!islation on the matter

so currentl social care is onl funded b public authorities when a person has e6hausted their

private resources, for e6ample b sellin! their home.

</

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicare_(United_States)

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medicare_home_health_benefit&action=edit&redlink=1


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elderly_care#cite_note-11

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assisted_living

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicaid

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Health_Service

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicare_(United_States)




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assisted_living

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicaid

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Health_Service



&lderl care emphasi7es the social and personal re#uirements of senior citi7ens who need some

assistance with dail activities and health care, but who desire to a!e with di!nit. $t is an

important distinction, in that the desi!n of housin!, services, activities, emploee trainin! and

such should be trul customer-centered.

However, elderl care is focused on satisfin! the e6pectations of two tiers of customers: the

resident customer and the purchasin! customer, who are often not identical, since relatives or

public authorities rather than the resident ma be providin! the cost of care. Where residents are

confused or have communication difficulties, it ma be ver difficult for relatives or other

concerned parties to be sure of the standard of care bein! !iven, and the possibilit of elder abuse

is a continuin! source of concern. "he 'dult Protective Services '!enc T a component of the

human service a!enc in most states T is tpicall responsible for investi!atin! reports of domestic elder abuse and providin! families with help and !uidance. ther professionals who

ma be able to help include doctors or nurses, police officers, lawers, and social workers.O3

$m!ro%ing mobilit" in the elderl"

$mpaired mobilit is a major health concern for older adults, affectin! fift percent of people

over G? and at least a #uarter of those over F?. 's adults lose the abilit to walk, to climb stairs,

and to rise from a chair, the become completel disabled. "he problem cannot be i!nored because people over @? constitute the fastest !rowin! se!ment of the .S. population.

"herap desi!ned to improve mobilit in elderl patients is usuall built around dia!nosin! and

treatin! specific impairments, such as reduced stren!th or poor balance. $t is appropriate to

compare older adults seekin! to improve their mobilit to athletes seekin! to improve their split

times. People in both !roups perform best when the measure their pro!ress and work toward

specific !oals related to stren!th, aerobic capacit, and other phsical #ualities. Someone

attemptin! to improve an older adult1s mobilit must decide what impairments to focus on, and

in man cases, there is little scientific evidence to justif an of the options. "oda, man

care!ivers choose to focus on le! stren!th and balance. ew research su!!ests that limb velocit

and core stren!th ma also be important factors in mobilit.O<

<3

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senior_citizens

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elder_abuse


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobic_capacity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velocity

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Core_strength&action=edit&redlink=1



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senior_citizens

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elder_abuse


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobic_capacity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velocity

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Core_strength&action=edit&redlink=1




"he famil is one of the most important providers for the elderl. $n fact, the majorit of

care!ivers for the elderl are often members of their own famil, most often a dau!hter or a

!randdau!hter. )amil and friends can provide a home 5i.e. have elderl relatives live with

them, help with mone and meet social needs b visitin!, takin! them out on trips, etc.

ne of the major causes of elderl falls is hponatremia, an electrolte disturbance when the

level of sodium in a personMs serum drops below 3? m&#AK. Hponatremia is the most common

electrolte disorder encountered in the elderl patient population. Studies have shown that older

patients are more prone to hponatremia as a result of multiple factors includin! phsiolo!ic

chan!es associated with a!in! such as decreases in !lomerular filtration rate, a tendenc for

defective sodium conservation, and increased vasopressin activit. *ild hponatremia ups the

risk of fracture in elderl patients because hponatremia has been shown to cause subtleneurolo!ic impairment that affects !ait and attention, similar to that of moderate alcohol intake.

O?

<<





UNIT V

+ecent trends in Social Case Work. Problems and limitations of Social Case Work practice in

$ndia. $mpact of social, cultural factors on individual and families. Practice and research in

Social Case Work. se of sin!le case evaluation and ethno!raph as research methods in Social

Case Work.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

PART A

What is CSCW4

' Computer Supported Cooperative Work

/ What is &thno!raph4

' &thno!raph is a method of data capture that works throu!h the immersion of the

researcher within the environment bein! studied.

3 What is HC$4

' Human Computer $nteraction

PART B

1/ L$%t "4t Pr";)e% a&' )$$tat$"&% a&' re#e&t tre&'% "( S"#$a) Ca%e W"r* >ra#t$#e $&

I&'$a? Kack of trained persons

lack of trainin! facilities

poor remuneration

Kack of $ndian literatures

+ecent trends in Social Case Work/

se of computers

$nterview !uide and schedule,

<?



Kife chart,2ideo recordin! of famil interaction

"ape recorded interview

.

PART C

. L$%t "4t the U%e "( %$&@)e #a%e e<a)4at$"& a&' eth&"@ra>h+ a% re%ear#h eth"'% $&

S"#$a) Ca%e W"r* .

thnogra!h"

&thno!raph is a method of data capture that works throu!h the immersion of the researcher

within the environment bein! studied, collectin! detailed material 5notes, documentation,

recordin!s on the 0real-time real-world1 activities of those involved. Periods of immersion can

ran!e from intensive periods of a few das to weeks and months 5more common in sstems

desi!n studies, and even ears. ' primar product of most ethno!raphies is the development of a

0rich1 description L a detailed narrative L of the work or activit in #uestion, which ma then be

further analsed or modelled for various means, takin! various approaches. "he means ma be

for the purposes of answerin! sociolo!ical, pscholo!ical or sstems desi!n research #uestions,with the different approaches for analsis arisin! from various theoretical and methodolo!ical

perspectives within these areas. &thno!raphers are interested in studin! the work !oin! on in

settin!s rather than just computer sstems in a narrow sense L the are interested in studin!

computer sstems in operation, bein! used b people, within an or!anisational conte6t and

therefore shaped b or!anisational norms, rules, procedures, ethos, culture etc. $n this conception

we can think of, for e6ample, a ta6 office as a complete or!ani7ational sstem L it comprises

various technolo!ies 5e.!. computer and paper-based, or!ani7ational rules, processes 5and

methods for implementin! them and so forth, and staff who draw on their everda and

specialised social and vocational skills, abilities and knowled!e to operate the technolo!ies and

work accordin! to or!ani7ational re#uirements.

Str4#t4r$&@ eth&"@ra>h$# 'ata

<@



&thno!raphic records are collected opportunisticall and, conse#uentl, cannot be planned,

or!anised and structured durin! the ethno!raph itself. However, when the raw data is analsed,

we believe that it is useful to or!anise and structure this data in such a wa that it is more

accessible to sstem desi!ners. We do this b providin! a series of topics that can be used to

!uide observations and or!anise 5or structure fieldwork data. "hese topics have been developed

in the ethno methodolo!ical litera< ture, particularl throu!h the studies that have been presented

for computin! audiences

"he topics provide a comprehensive framework for considerin! features of social sstems of

work and how social sstems interact with technical sstems, rules, plans and procedures and the

spatial arran!ement 5ecolo! of the workplace. We su!!est ei!ht different headin!s that ma be

used to structure and or!ani7e ethno!raphic data. However, we are not su!!estin! that these are

the onl was to impose structure on this data or that the headin!s proposed are necessaril

relevant to ever stud and settin!. +ather, from e6tensive e6perience, we have found that these

structural devices allow a mass of data to be or!ani7ed so that it becomes more accessible

to sstem desi!ners who can relate the ethno!raphic structure to the structure of the re#uirements

and the desi!n of the computer-based sstem.

"emporalit and se#uentiall ;..

"he workin! division of labor;..

+ules, plans and procedures ;;

+outines, rhthms, patterns ;;

5=istributed coordination ;;.

'wareness of work ;;

&colo! and affordances ;;.

Skills, knowled!e and reasonin! in action ;;

The S"#$a) Str4#t4re "( W"r*

$n the previous section, we introduced a set of headin!s under which we believe it is useful to

or!ani7e the ethno!raphic record and, in some cases, the ma be effective in focusin!

ethno!raphic studies. "hese headin!s are not, of course, arbitrar, but reflect perspectives

throu!h which we believe it is possible to discern the social

%tr4#t4re "( 8"r*

<F



"he social structure of work can be thou!ht of as the wa in which work is or!ani7ed as a social

process L how or!ani7ations perceive how work should be done b their emploees and how this

is reflected in actual practice b the people doin! the work. nlike a sstem architecture, sa, it

is a more subjective, dnamic concept and cannot reliabl be e6pressed as a set of static models.

Broadl speakin! we su!!est that there are three relevant forms of structure which are central to

the social structure of work:

Te>"ra) a&' %e4e&t$a) %tr4#t4re: how processes and practices unfold L the

relationships between entities, actions, utterances etc. over time in se#uence.

S>at$a) %tr4#t4re: related to the spatial relationships between objects, persons, actions

and so forth.

C"&#e>t4a) %tr4#t4re: 5sometimes also termed ontolo!ical, in a particular usa!e in

computin! what a set of objects, entities, people, actions are, how the can be

individuated

and how the relate to one another conceptuall. f course, these notions are also applicable to

some e6tent to the structure of technical sstems. "he temporal and se#uential structure reflects

the assumptions of sstems desi!ners as to the se#uences of operations that the sstem will

support and the dependencies between the members of these se#uences. "he conceptual structure

is, in essence, the sstem and data architecture and the abstractions used in the sstem

desi!n. "he spatial structure is, perhaps, less si!nificant because of the intan!ibilit of software but ma be reflected in some sstems where the phsical positionin! of hardware is si!nificant

or in the laout and or!ani7ation of the sstem1s user interface. &thno methodolo!ical studies of

work are often interested in the temporal and se#uential structure of processes in the technical

sstem 5structured as a series of definite steps L 0workflow without1, and how well these

processes mesh with the was in which the social practices are structured temporall and

se#uentiall from within. Commonl, the temporal structures of the technical sstem are much

more ri!id than the fluid, reactive structures of the social sstem and this leads to a mismatch

where users are frustrated b the restrictions imposed b the technical sstem.=ourish states that

#uestions of ontolo!ical or conceptual structure 8;address5es the #uestion of how we can

$&'$<$'4ate the world, or distin!uish between one entit and anotherE how we can understand

the relationships between different entities or classes of entitE and so

forth.9

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We defined the social structure of work in the previous section as a reflection of both how work

is perceived b an or!anisation and how that work is actuall carried out b people. "he

or!anisational view is normall defined in sets of rules, plans and procedures. +ules define

conditions that must be maintained 5e.!. credits and debits must balance, plans 5or processes

define workflows 5e.!. what steps are followed to close an account and procedures define the

particular was in which activities are carried out 5e.!. how to validate a customer1s identit.

Practical e6perience, as well as a wide ran!e of ethno!raphic studies, tells us that the wa in

which work is actuall done and the wa in which it is set out in the rules, plans and procedures

is often markedl different. =ifferent people interpret the or!ani7ational rules, plans and

procedures in different was dependin! on their competence, knowled!e, status, e6perience and

the contin!encies of each particular situation.

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How do we now approach the dependable desi!n of socio-technical sstems !iven this

understandin! of 0social structure1 in socio-technical sstems4 "he ke issue here is to

understand the wa in which the structure of technical sstems and the structure of rules, plans

and procedures, fit with that of the social sstem. "he relationship cannot be ade#uatel

described in formal structural terms, i.e. it is not possible to produce an accurate model of asocio-technical sstem because social practices are structured from within while technical

sstems are structured from without 5the have a structure that can be specified separatel to the

technolo! the are implemented in. "echnical sstems can be, and are, modelled, social

practices are emer!ent, dnamic and are alwas responsive to the contin!encies of this situation,

this time. *odels of social practices abstract, !loss and rationalise these features of them, !ivin!

them a ri!id, formulaic structure not found 0in the wild1. "herefore, while models of social

practices can be made commensurate with those of technical sstems, i.e. b encapsulatin! a user

model in the structure of the %$, caution needs to be applied when considerin! how usable the

sstem will be 5how well it will fit in with social practices. "he abstractions, !losses and

rationalisations of practice used to construct the idealised user model ma have problematic

conse#uences when implemented in a real, dnamic and contin!ent situation. Social practices

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will have to adapt in a wa that enables users to carr out what the need to do, in each case, in

response to the

idealised user model encapsulated in the sstem. "he idealised user model will not match what

the alread do, and it ma well clash #uite badl with certain crucial aspects of everda

practice. "echnical sstems, however, need to be built usin! user models and models of work.

=oes this necessaril set up a serious problem4 )ortunatel the answer to this is no, for two

reasons. )irstl, humans and the social sstems the form are necessaril adaptive. "he respond

to the contin!encies of this situation, this time, and the can also adapt their practices over time

to work successfull with a computer sstem that initiall fitted badl with their work practices.

Secondl, user models can be created throu!h observation 0in the wild1 rather than theoreticall

conceptualised. ' user model or model of work based on a fault or incomplete understandin! or

work, or created throu!h ima!inin! what users do, rather than discoverin! what the do runs

serious risks of misunderstandin! the users or misrepresentin! their work. ' ke feature of

sstem dependabilit concerns efficient and effective sociotechnical sstem operation such that

personnel will be able to achieve work with technical sstems successfull. "his includes the

e6tent to which technical sstems will not have to be worked around, and will not inhibit

important social practices, or !ettin! the job done. 'chievin! dependabilit also includes an

assessment of how reliable, safe, secure, resistant to failure these processes and practices are. '

desi!n process therefore involves an assessment of current workin!, and is often characteri7ed b

a desire to transform thin!s to make them better or more dependable. "he desired desi!n is

envisa!ed to 0preserve1 certain adaptive, or desirable, patterns of work, while transformin!

inefficient, maladaptive or inconse#uential practices for or!anisational !ains. Better decision

makin! in this process should be facilitated b a detailed understandin! of current process and

practice.

Cultural #actors

"he social and cultural factors that influence the buin! behavior of consumers are inclusive of

culture, social class, reference !roup, family, demo!raphics and !eo!raph. Culture is an

amal!am of tan!ible factors and intan!ible traditions that enunciate the lifestyleof a particular

!roup of people. 's for social class, it defines the income!roup the individual belon!s too and

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that, in turn, is heavil dependent on the income earned, which is a !reat factor in determinin!

buin! behavior. "he third factor is the reference !roup. 's is obvious from the name it is the

!roup from whom the consumer seeks reference. $t could ran!e from people like oneMs parents,

members of the famil whom the individual feels close to, close friends, celebritieswho endorse

the brand etc. People whom we trust, their opinion means a great dealto us and affects man

decisions of ours includin! buin! behavior. +e!ardin! famil, this determinant is totall

different from the erstwhile one as this one focuses on the norms and preferences of the famil in

which the individual lives and is brou!ht up. *oreover this determinant is on a collective and

unconscious basis as the individualMs buin! decision is takin! effect from the ambience of his

famil and the unconscious wa he has !rasped the values that have been !iven to him b his

famil. Comin! to demo!raphics, these are small and specific details about the individual such as

a!e, !ender, education, income, occupation etc. 'lso the !eo!raphical location in which the

consumer resides also determines the buin! behavior dependin! on sub-factors like climatic

conditions, availabilit of resources, surroundin!s etc.

REFERENCES

Banerjee %.+. Selected Papers in Social Work &ducation, "ata $nstitute of Social

Sciences, Bomba, >@G.

Bernstein, S %roup Supervision in Social Work )ield $nstruction, npublished Paper,

Koola niversit, Chica!o, >@G.

Bessie, Ient Social Work Supervision in Practice, Per!aVnon Press, 6ford, >@>.

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=esai, '.S. )ield $nstruction in Social Work &ducation, ndated and npublished

*anuscript.

Pathak, S *edical Social Work. $n Histor and Philosoph of Social Work in $ndia,

'llied Publications, Bomba, >@G.

Pathak, S.H. *edical Social .Work, $n %ore 5&d. &ncclopaedia of Social Work in

$ndia, V h Pkla nnin! Commission of $ndia, =elhi, >@G.

Shah %ita ' Stud of *edical Social Workers in the Cit of Bomba, npublished

Ph.=. "hesis, "ata $nstitute of Social Sciences, Bonlba, >GG.

*orton, ".=. &ducational Supervision: ' Kearnin! "heor 'pproach, Social Case

Work, ournal of Contemporar Social Work, >GJ.

Sheafor et al. ualit )ield $nstruction in Social Work, Pro!ramme =evelopment and

*aintenance, Kon!man, .Qork, >G/.Sin!h, +.+. Seminar on )ield &ducation in Social Work: 'n e6ploration, npublished

paper, /JJ?.

%C Second +eview Committee of Social Work &ducation: +etrospect and Prospect,

>FG.

We;%$te%

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