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Matakuliah: L0044/Psikologi Faal Tahun: 2009. Sistem Sensoris Pertemuan 21. Sistem Sensoris. untuk berhubungan dengan dunia luar kumpulan reseptor yang sensitif terhadap rangsang (reseptor sensorik) → alat indera terdiri dari : - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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Sistem Sensoris Pertemuan 21
Matakuliah : L0044/Psikologi FaalTahun : 2009
Sistem Sensoris
untuk berhubungan dengan dunia luar
kumpulan reseptor yang sensitif terhadap rangsang (reseptor sensorik) → alat indera
terdiri dari :a. alat penerima rangsang (reseptor), yaitu alat indera itu
sendirib. saraf penghubung antara reseptor dengan pusat susunan
sarafc. pusat saraf (otak), yaitu alat yang bertugas
menerjemahkan dan mengelola rangsanganPanca indera mempunyai fungsi tertentu dan peka terhadap
rangsang tertentu pulaReceptor potential : a slow, graded electrical potential
produced by a receptor cell in response to a physical stimulus
Two Categories of Receptors
• Somatic Senses: touch, pressure, temperature, and pain. Distributed throughout skin and deeper tissues.
• Special senses: smell, taste, hearing, equilibrium, vision. (more complex)
Chemoreceptors• respond to changes in chemical concentrations
Pain receptors (Nociceptors)• respond to tissue damage
Thermoreceptors• respond to changes in temperature
Mechanoreceptors• respond to mechanical forces• → proprioceptor, baroreceptor, stretch receptor
Photoreceptors• respond to light
Receptor Types
Sensations• A feeling that occurs when the brain
interprets sensory impulses• All the nerve impulses that travel away
from sensory receptors into the CNS are alike. The resulting sensation depends on which region of the brain receives the impulse.
• Semua impuls saraf dari berbagai reseptor sensorik adalah sama. Sensasi yang dihasilkan tergantung dari daerah korteks serebral mana yang menerima impuls tersebut.
• Pada saat yang sama ketika sensasi terbentuk, serebral korteks menerjemahkan darimana reeptor yang terstimulasi → seseorang dapat menunjukkan area stimulasi → PROJECTION
• Adaptasi sensorikBila reseptor sensorik terus menerus terstimulasi, membran reseptor akan menjadi kurang responsif terhadap stimuluscontoh : seseorang yang berada di pasar ikan
SPECIAL SENSES
1. Mata, merupakan indera penglihatan (organ visual) sensitif terhadap rangsangan cahaya, menerima bayangan serta kesan-kesan untuk ditafsirkan
2. Telinga, merupakan indera pendengaran (organ auditorik), di sini kesan atas suara atau bunyi diterima dan ditafsirkan
3. Hidung, merupakan indera pembau / penciuman (organ olfaktorius), sangat peka dan kepekaannya mudah hilang
4. Lidah, merupakan indera pengecapan, yang sangat peka (sensitif) terhadap rasa seperti pahit, manis, asam, dan asin
5. Kulit, merupakan indera peraba, sangat peka terhadap tekanan, suhu, sentuhan, dan rabaan
Hole, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th ed
Penglihatan
Apakah informasi yang kita terima dari dunia luar adalah suatu realitas ?
1. Reseptor sensorik manusia hanya dapat mendeteksi jumlah yang terbatas dari bentuk energi yang adacontoh : gelombang radio, gelombang magnet tidak dapat dideteksi oleh reseptor sensorik manusia
2. Informasi yang disalurkan ke otak manusia tidak melalui alat perekam canggih yang peka. Selama proses prekortikal dari input sensorik, beberapa stimuli ditingkatkan sedangkan yang lain dapat ditekan atau diabaikan
3. Serebral korteks selanjutnya akan memanipulasi data yang didapatkan dari reseptor sensorik, dibandingkan dengan informasi lain seperti ingatan dari pengalaman yang lalu
Sherwood, Human Physiology From Cells to Systems, 6th ed
Kanizsa’s Triangle
“Peripheral drift” by Akiyoshi Kitaoka Taken from Nationalgeographic.com
Which Line is Longer?
They are both the same.
Explanation
• This is one of the most studied illusions, and was created by a German psychiatrist Franz Müller-Lyer in 1889. It it not well understood why this illusion works, but we think it is related to the fact that the first object is simply larger, and the second object is "pointed."
• http://www.optical-illusions.biowaves.com/Perspective/MullerLyerLineLength.cfm
http://www.optical-illusions.biowaves.com/Perspective/ParallelLines.cfm
Are the Red Lines Parallel?
Spinning Effect Optical Illusion
• Move toward and away from the screen while staying focused on the red dot.
• Notice that the outer rings seem to rotate or spin when you move toward or away from the screen.
Explanation
• The eye interpretes visual cues to assist in day to day living. In this case, the visual cues mislead one to percieve motion.
• http://www.optical-illusions.biowaves.com/Misc/SpinningEffect.cfm
Disappearing Haze• Stare at the Red Dot.• Notice that the haze disappears after 20 to
30 seconds.
Explanation• The retina gradually changes senstivity to
adapt to the existing light conditions. This is what allows the eyes to work with such incredibly diverse light conditions, from bright sunlight to faint moonlight. You can learn more about this on our pages about eyesight.
• http://www.optical-illusions.biowaves.com/Color/DisappearingHaze.cfm.
Do you See Gray?• This picture is only made with black and
white. • You can see that the above picture all black
and white by covering either side of a white row with paper.
Explanation• The eye, which responds to an amazing wide
variety of light sources, from moon light to direct sunlight, tries to adjust to the present light levels. Here, the contrast is so strong and irregular, the white ends up looking gray.
• You can learn more about color perception here.
• http://www.optical-illusions.biowaves.com/Color/DisappearingHaze.cfm.
The Stacked Blocks Optical Illusion• Are the lines straight and level?• The lines are all exactly parallel.
Explanation• The eye interpretes visual cues to
assist in day to day living. In this case, visual cues mislead they eye to perceive an increased distance, therefore a narrowing where the blocks recede.
http://www.optical-illusions.biowaves.com/Distortions/StackedBlocks.cfm
Are the Boxes the Same Size? Explanation• Yes, they really are exactly the same
size. Hard to believe, isn't it. The artist is taking advantage of a very powerful three dimensional technique where all of the lines meet at one point off the edge of the canvas, thus making the mind see the picture as a 3-D model of reality, rather than just lines on a screen.. The eye then adjusts for the 3-D effect, which results in the farthest block looking much larger.
http://www.optical-illusions.biowaves.com/3D/PerspectiveBoxes.cfm
• IS THIS SPIRAL? LOOK AGAIN, THEY ARE ALL SEPERATE CIRCLES
http://www.indianchild.com/is_this_spiral.htm
Seeing is believing
MATA• analog dengan kamera• terletak di dalam rongga mata (Orbital Cavity)• 70% dari reseptor sensorik terletak pada mata• digerakkan oleh otot mata
otot lurus : m. rektus okuli superior, inferior, medial, dan lateralotot serong : m. obliquus okuli superior dan inferior
• Bagian : kornea, Iris, pupil, lensa, retina (sel batang dan kerucut) sclera, kamera okuli anterior dan posterior, humor aqueous, humor vitreous
• lateral terhadap bintik buta (tempat keluarnya pembuluh darah dan saraf), terdapat daerah lonjong disebut makula lutea, dengan cekungan kecil di pusatnya disebut fovea sentralis (hanya mengandung kerucut)
Mata manusia dapat menangkap radiasi elektromagnet dengan panjang gelombang 380 - 760 nmKecepatan Cahaya : 300.000 km/detik
Persepsi terhadap Warna ditentukan oleh :- Hue (ditentukan oleh panjang gelombang)- Brightness (intensitas)- Saturation (purity)
Neil R. Carlson, Physiology of Behaviour, 9th ed
Neil R. Carlson, Physiology of Behaviour, 9th ed
Hole, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th ed
Cornea
• Bulges forward• Transparent window of the eye (contains few cells, no blood
vessels, cells and collagenous fibers form unusually regular patterns)
• Helps focus entering light rays.• Continuous with the sclera (white portion of the eye)
Sclera
• White portion of the eye• Posterior 5/6th of the outer tunic• Opaque due to many large, disorganized collagenous and elastic
fibers.• Protects the eye and is an attachment for the extrinsic muscles
Lens• Lies directly behind the iris and pupil• Composed of differentiated epithelial cells called lens fibers.
Lens Capsule
• Surrounds the lens• Clear, membrane-like structure composed largely of intercellular
material• Elastic nature keeps it under constant tension. Can assume a
globular shape.
Human Eye – cross
Hole, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th ed
Neil R. Carlson, Physiology of Behaviour, 9th ed
Hole, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th ed
Hole, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th ed
Hole, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th ed
Iris• The colored part of the eye• Thin diaphragm composed mostly of connective tissue and smooth
muscle fibers• Pupil – central opening of the iris
– Regulates the amount of light entering the eye during: • Close vision and bright light – pupils constrict• Distant vision and dim light – pupils dilate• Changes in emotional state – pupils dilate when the subject matter is
appealing or requires problem-solving skills
• Divides the space (anterior cavity) into the anterior chamber (between the cornea and the iris) and posterior chamber (between iris and vitreous body containing the lens)
Dim light stimulates the radial muscles of the iris to contract, and the pupil dilates. Bright light stimulates the circular muscles of the iris to contract, and the pupil constricts.
Hole, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th ed
• Suspensory ligaments attached to margin of lens capsule and the ciliary muscles. Changing tension changes the shape of the capsule and lens for focusing.
• Accommodation: the ability of the lens to adjust shape to facilitate focusing. Close objects= lens thickens; distant objects= thinner, less convex
Hole, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th ed
Hole, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th ed
Neil R. Carlson, Physiology of Behaviour, 9th ed
Hole, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th ed
Summary of Cranial Nerves and Muscle Actions
• Names, actions, and cranial nerve innervation of the extrinsic eye muscles
Sherwood, Human Physiology From Cells to Systems, 5th ed
Hole, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th ed
Pergerakan Mata :• Vergence movement : the cooperativew movement of the eyes,
which ensures that the image of an object falls on identical portions of both retinas
• Saccadic movement : the rapid, jerky movement of the eyes used in scanning a visual scene
• Pursuit movement : the movement that the eyes make to maintain an image of a moving object on the fovea
Accomodation : changes in the thickness of the lens of the eye, accomplished by the ciliary muscles, that focus images of near or distant objects on the retina
Aqueous Humor
• Watery fluid secreted by the epithelium on the inner surface of the ciliary body into posterior chamber.
Sherwood, Human Physiology From Cells to Systems, 5th ed
Aparatus LakrimalisConsists of the lacrimal gland and associated ducts• air mata dihasilkan oleh kelenjar lakrimalis superior dan inferior.
Melalui duktus ekskretorius lakrimalis masuk ke dalam sakus konjungtiva. Melalui bagian depan bola mata terus ke sudut tengah bola mata ke dalam kanalis lakrimalis mengalir ke duktus nasolakrimalis terus ke meatus nasalis inferior.
• Tears– Contain mucus, antibodies, and lysozyme– cleanse and protect the eye surface as it moistens and lubricates it– Enter the eye via superolateral excretory ducts – Exit the eye medially via the lacrimal punctum– Drain into the nasolacrimal duct
Hole, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th ed
Hole, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th ed
Sherwood, Human Physiology From Cells to Systems, 5th ed
Retina. A.) Nerve fibers leave the eye in the area of the optic disc (arrow) to form the optic nerve. B.) Major features of the retina.
Hole, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th ed
• Fovea centralis : terdapat pada macula lutea, cekungan kecil dengan lebar 1 derajad, di tengah macula luteathe region of the retina that mediates the most acute vision. Color-sensitive cones constitute the only type of photoreceptor found in the fovea.
• Macula lutea / macula retina : irregular yellowish depression on the retina, about 3 degrees wide, lateral to and slightly below the optic disc
• Optic disc :the location of exit point from the retina of the fibers of the ganglion cells that form the optic nerve ; responsible for the blind spot
Sherwood, Human Physiology From Cells to Systems, 5th ed
The retinal consists of several cell layers.
Hole, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th ed
Note the layers of cells and nerve fibers in this light micrograph of the retina.
Hole, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th ed
Hole, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th ed
RETINACahaya harus melewati beberapa lapisan sel yang relatif transparan sebelum mencapai sel batang dan sel kerucut.
Fotoreseptor ini berkomunikasi dengan sel-sel ganglion melalui sel bipolar.
Pengolahan informasi visual dimulai di retina itu sendiri. Akson sel batang dan sel kerucut bersinapsis dengan neuron yang disebut sel bipolar, yang selanjutnya bersinapsis dengan sel ganglion.
Campbell & Reece, Biologi, Edisi kelima jilid tiga
Neil R. Carlson, Physiology of Behaviour, 9th ed
FOTORESEPTOR PADA RETINA
a) Fotoreseptor yang disebut sel batang sangat sensitif terhadap cahaya dan berfungsi dalam penglihatan hitam putih pada malam hari. Sel-sel kerucut bertugas dalam penglihatan warna selama siang hari.
b) Rhodopsin, pigmen visual pada membran cakram sel batang, terdiri atas molekul retinal penyerap cahaya yang berikatan dengan sejenis protein membran spesifik, opsin. Opsin mempunyai tujuh bagian heliks alfa yang menembus membran cakram.
* Fotopigmen : opsin (protein) dan retinal (lipid, disintesis dari vitamin A)
Campbell & Reece, Biologi, Edisi kelima jilid tiga
Sherwood, Human Physiology From Cells to Systems, 5th ed
• Fotoreseptor : batang dan kerucutBatang : 120 jutaKerucut : 6 juta
• Sel kerucut banyak pada fovea sentralis, makin ke perifer makin banyak batang
• bayangan yang jatuh ke retina : lebih kecil dan terbalik
Neil R. Carlson, Physiology of Behaviour, 9th ed
Visual Receptors
Rods• long, thin projections• contain light sensitive pigment called rhodopsin• hundred times more sensitive to light than cones• provide vision in dim light (night vision)• produce colorless vision• produce outlines of objects•Much convergence in retinal pathways Less precise images because nerve fibers from many rods converge their impulses and transmit them to the brain on the same nerve fiber.• Human eye has 125 million•More numerous in periphery
Cones• short, blunt projections• contain light sensitive pigments called erythrolabe, chlorolabe, and cyanolabe• provide vision in bright light (day vision)•produce color vision• produce sharp images•Convergence of impulses less common. Brain can pinpoint stimulation more accurately.
•Human eye has 7 million•Concentrated in foves
Visual Pigments
Rhodopsin• light-sensitive pigment in rods• decomposes in presence of light• triggers a complex series of reactions that initiate nerve impulses• impulses travel along optic nerve
Pigments on Cones• each set contains different light-sensitive pigment• each set is sensitive to different wavelengths• color perceived depends on which sets of cones are stimulated• erythrolabe – responds to red• chlorolabe – responds to green• cyanolabe – responds to blue
Neil R. Carlson, Physiology of Behaviour, 9th ed
Neil R. Carlson, Physiology of Behaviour, 9th ed
Sherwood, Human Physiology From Cells to Systems, 5th ed
Nyata, diperkecil, terbalik
Stereoscopic Vision• provides perception of distance and depth• results from formation of two slightly different retinal images
Sherwood, Human Physiology From Cells to Systems, 5th ed
Binocular vision → stereocospic vision → simultaneously perceives distance, depth height, and width of objects
The visual pathway includes the optic nerve, optic chiasma, optic tract, and optic radiations. Sherwood, Human Physiology From Cells to Systems, 5th ed
Human Visual System
Hole, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th ed
JALUR NEURON UNTUK PENGLIHATAN
Karena susunan neuron dalam retina, saraf optik, dan kiasma optik, maka sisi kanan otak dapat menerima informasi sensoris mengenai benda di medan visual kiri, sementara sisi kiri otak menerima informasi dari medan visual kanan.
Masing-masing saraf optik mengandung sekitar sejuta akson yang bersinapsis dengan interneuron pada nukleus genikulata lateral.
Nukleus merelai sensasi ke korteks visual, yang diyakini merupakan yang pertama dari banyak pusat otak yang bekerja sama dalam membentuk persepsi visual kita.
Campbell & Reece, Biologi, Edisi kelima jilid tiga
Hole, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th ed
Neil R. Carlson, Physiology of Behaviour, 9th ed
(striate cortex)
Sherwood, Human Physiology From Cells to Systems, 6th ed
Neil R. Carlson, Physiology of Behaviour, 9th ed
• Warna primer : merah, biru, hijau• Warna komplementer
Contoh : hitam-putih, biru-kuning, merah-hijau
Hole, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th ed
Neil R. Carlson, Physiology of Behaviour, 9th ed
Neil R. Carlson, Physiology of Behaviour, 9th ed
Photoreceptors : trichromatic coding
Retinal Ganglions Cells : Opponent-Process Coding
Red opposing GreenYellow opposing Blue
Neil R. Carlson, Physiology of Behaviour, 9th ed
Neil R. Carlson, Physiology of Behaviour, 9th ed
Neil R. Carlson, Physiology of Behaviour, 9th ed
Different forms of color blindness result from lack of different types of cone pigments.
Color Blindness → 7% males, 0,4% females
Protanopia dan Deuteranopia terkait dengan kromosom X
Tritanopia : tidak terkait kromosom X. Kejadian sama antara pria dan wanita
Sherwood, Human Physiology From Cells to Systems, 5th ed
Rainbows and Ethno-Linguistics
• http://www.missiology.org/animism/Learning/wordsandsounds.htm• “The cultural categorization of colors is the most discussed illustration in
the study of ethno-linguistics. Americans see six colors in the rainbow: red, orange, yellow, green, violet, and blue. Some cultures see eight, others four, others three. Kipsigis classify blue and black together and consider the sky tue, the word that I initially translated literally as "black." Tue, however, has a broader color range than simply black. The Malagasy speaker of Madagascar distinguishes over 100 basic categories of color (Nida 1952). The Shona of Zimbabwe and Bassa of Liberia both have fewer color categories than English speakers, and they break up the spectrum at different points (Gleason 1961, 4). ”
Color Categories of the Shona of Zimbabwe and Bassa of Liberia
Negative Afterimage
• Warna komplementer : warna yang membuat menjadi putih atau abu-abu ketika dicampurkan
• Penyebab : adaptasi pada sel ganglion retinaBila sel ganglion retina tereksitasi atau terinhibisi dalam waktu yang lama, sel ganglion akan menunjukkan rebound effect
Neil R. Carlson, Physiology of Behaviour, 9th ed
Sherwood, Human Physiology From Cells to Systems, 6th ed
Functions of the major Components of the Eye
Sherwood, Human Physiology From Cells to Systems, 6th ed
Functions of the major Components of the Eye
Visual Fields
Rabbit Human
Hole, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th ed
Gangguan Penglihatan• Mata normal : emetrop• miopi : rabun jauh• hipermetrop : rabun dekat• presbiopi : pada orang tua, berkurangnya kekenyalan lensa
sehingga daya akomodasi berkurang• astigmatisme : karena berubahnya bentuk kelengkungan lensa
Diktat Faal, Fakultas Kedokteran Universitas Tarumanagara
Hole, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th ed
Sherwood, Human Physiology From Cells to Systems, 5th ed
Amblyopia• Dim vision due to a cause other than a refractive
disorder or lesion
Amblyopia is the medical term for poor development of vision in one eye. The word comes from the Greek. [ambly- (dull) + -opia (vision)] Amblyopia is often referred to as "lazy eye." It affects just two to three percent of the population. Central vision does not develop properly, usually in one eye, which is called amblyopic. The eye is anatomically normal, but visual acuity is reduced even with glasses. Amblyopia develops sometime between birth and 8 or 9 years of age, the critical period of time when the visual system develops and matures. Amblyopia causes more visual loss in the age group under 40 than all the injuries and diseases combined.
Anopia• Absence of an eye
Conjunctivitis• Inflammation of the conjunctiva
Viruses, bacteria, irritating substances (shampoo, dirt, smoke, pool chlorine), sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) or allergens (substances that cause allergies) can all cause conjunctivitis. Pink eye caused by bacteria, viruses or STDs can spread easily from person to person but is not a serious health risk if diagnosed promptly; allergic conjunctivitis is not contagious.
Diplopia• Double vision
Emmetropia• Normal condition of the eyes; eyes with no
refractive defects.
Enucleation• Removal of the eyeball
Exophthalmos• Abnormal protrusion of the eyes
Associated with hyperthyroidism and Grave’s disease. In the case of Graves Disease, the displacement of the eye is due to abnormal connective tissue deposition in the orbit and extraocular muscles (Epstein et al, 2003) which can be visualized by CT or MRI.If left untreated, exophthalmos can causes the eye lids to fail to close during sleep leading to corneal damage. The process that is causing the displacement of the eye may also compress the optic nerve or ophthalmic artery leading to blindness
Cataract• cloudy eyes → distorted view• inadequate nutrient delivery to deeper lens fibers• causes
– congenital– age-related hardening, thickening of lens– secondary result of DM
• risk factors– heavy smoking– frequent exposure to intense sunlight
Night Blindness - Nyctalopia• condition in which rod function is
impaired• most common cause : prolonged
vitamin A deficiency → leads to rod degeneration
Hemianopsia• Defective vision affecting half of the visual field
Iritis• Inflammation of the iris
Also called anterior uveitis. It is the 3rd leading cause of blindness in the developed world. White blood cells are shed into the anterior chamber of the eye in the aqueous humor. These cells can accumulate and cause adhesions between the iris and the lens. Iritis is associated with over 90 different pathogens and autoimmune disorders. Some treatments include antibiotics and steroids.
Keratitis• Inflammation of the cornea
Symptoms include pain, and profuse tearing. Can be caused by infection, trauma, dry eyes, UV exposure, contact lens over-wear, degeneration.
Herpes simplex keratitis
Neuritis• Inflammation of a nerve
Optic neuritis
Optic neuritis is acute visual loss owing to demyelination of the optic nerve. It may be an isolated autoimmune condition or part of multiple sclerosis. Fortunately, vision recovers to normal or near normal in over 90% of patients within six months. No treatment improves those chances.
Retinoblastoma• Inherited, highly malignant tumor arising from
immature retinal cells
Retinoblastoma is a rare cancer of the retina (the innermost layer of the eye, located at the back of the eye, that receives light and images necessary for vision). About 300 children will be diagnosed with retinoblastoma this year. It accounts for 3 percent of childhood cancers. Treatments include surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, laser therapy, phototherapy, thermal therapy, and cryotherapy.
Trachoma• Bacterial disease of the eye that causes
conjunctivitis, which may lead to blindness
Trachoma, an infection of the eye caused by Chlamydia trachomatis, ranks worldwide as the most common preventable cause of blindness and the second most common cause of blindness after cataract. It has been estimated to cause 15% of the world's blindness.1,20 The disease is endemic in 48 countries in Latin America, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Australasia [see Fig. 1], and is most prevalent in poor, rural communities with lower standards of hygiene and sanitation.2 The WHO currently estimates that 6 million people are blind due to trachoma, and that an additional 146 million people have active forms of the disease.
Uveitis• Inflammation of the uvea, the region of the eye
that includes the iris, ciliary body, and choroid coat.
There are different types of uveitis, depending on which part of the eye is affected: When the uvea is inflamed near the front of the iris, it is called iritis. If the uvea is inflamed in the middle of the eye, it is called cyclitis. Cyclitis affects the muscle that focuses the lens.An inflammation in the back of the eye is called choroiditis. Eye drops, especially steroids and pupil dilators, can reduce inflammation and pain. For more severe inflammation, oral medication or injections may be necessary. Uveitis can have these complications: Glaucoma (increases pressure in the eye); Cataract (clouding of the eye's natural lens); Neovascularization (growth of new, abnormal blood vessels).
Daftar Pustaka• Campbell & Reece, Biologi, Edisi kelima jilid tiga
• Diktat Faal, Fakultas Kedokteran Universitas Tarumanagara• Hole, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th ed• Neil R. Carlson, Physiology of Behaviour, 9th ed• Sherwood, Human Physiology From Cells to Systems, 6th ed