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MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM OF
HILLY REGION: A CASE STUDY OF NAINITAL, INDIA
M.Sc. Dissertation
Report Submitted in Partial fulfillment for the degree of
M.Sc in Ecology and Environmental Sciences
By:
Mr. Shashi Ranjan Choudhary
Roll No- 11371046
Under the supervision
Prof. M. Vikram Reddy
DEPARTMENT OF ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY,
PUDUCHERRY – 605014
APRIL – 2013
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to show my greatest appreciation to my guide Prof. M. Vikram Reddy.
I can’t say thank you enough for all his tremendous support and guidance. I
sincerely thank, Prof. K. V. Devi Prasad, Head of Dept of Ecology and
Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry University
I owe my deepest appreciation to Dr. Sunil Kumar who has the attitude and the
substance of genius he continually and convincingly conveyed a spirit of adventure
in regard to research and an excitement in regard to teaching. Without his
guidance and persistent help, this dissertation would not have been possible.
I am heartily thankful to Dr. S. Pramanik, Scientist and Head, NEERI Kolkata
Zonal laboratory whose encouragement supported me helped me throughout my
dissertation work.
I am greatly thankful and indebted to Ms. Hiya Dhar, Ms. Snehal Patki, Mr.
Anand and Mr. Vivek Kumar Ojha, Mr. Jaseel O.C Project Assistants and all the
technical staff in NEERI, Kolkata Zonal laboratory for their constant support and
encouragement throughout my dissertation period.
Last but not least, I want to express my love and special regards to my parents
because without their support, I would not have been able to perform this tedious
work.
Dr. M. VIKRAM REDDY
Senior Professor
Ecology & Environmental Science
Pondicherry University
Puducherry-605014
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the dissertation report entitled “MUNICIPAL SOLID
WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM OF HILLY REGION: A CASE STUDY OF
NAINITAL (INDIA) .” which is submitted by SHASHI RANJAN CHOUDHARY
in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Master degree in Ecology
& Environmental Science Department, Pondicherry University, Puducherry,
during the academic year 2011-2013, is a bonafide record of the candidate own
work carried out by his under my supervision. The matter embodied in this thesis is
original and has not been submitted for the award of any other degree.
Date Dr. M. VIKRAM REDDY
Research Supervisor
Dr. K. V. Devi Prasad
Head of Department
Department Of Ecology & Environmental Sciences
Mr. Shashi Ranjan Choudhary
M. Sc.
Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences
Pondicherry University
Pondicherry – 605014
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the dissertation entitled “MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM OF HILLY REGION: A CASE STUDY OF
NAINITAL, INDIA” is a bonafied record of research work done by me under the
guidance of Prof. M. Vikram Reddy, Dept. of Ecology and Environmental
Sciences, Pondicherry University.
The work carried out at National Environmental Engineering Research Institute
Kolkata Zonal laboratory is be submitted for the partial fulfillment of the degree
of Master of Ecology and Environmental Sciences to be awarded by Pondicherry
University, Pondicherry and no part of it has been used for any degree or diploma
of any another university.
Shashi Ranjan Choudhary
Place: Pondicherry
Date:
LIST OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction 1-12
1.1 Solid waste: definition, management and types 1
1.2 MSW, Discussion on MSW Management 2
1.3 Functional Elements of MSW Management System 4
1.4 MSWM System in India 11
1.5 Need for Study on MSW Management in Hilly Regions 11
1.6 Objective and Scope of the Study 12
2. Literature Review 13-43
2.1 Waste Characteristics 15
2.2 Integrated Waste Management 18
2.3 Waste Diversion and Minimization 21
2.4 MSW Indian Scenario 27
2.5 MSW International Scenario 30
2.6 MSW Cradle to Grave 37
3. Study Area 44-54
3.1 Description of Study Area 44
3.2 Population 44
3.3 Life-style 45
3.4 Profile of the Town 45
3.5 Existing Climate 45
3.6 Existing Status of MSW Management in Nainital 51
4 Materials and Methods 55-60
4.1Methodology Adopted for Collecting MSW Samples 55
4.2 Preparation of Samples for Chemical Analysis 55
4.3 Important Parameters 55
pH 55
Moisture Content 56
Measurement of C and N 57
Loss on Ignition and Ash Content 57
Heavy Metal Analysis 58
5 Result and Discussion 61-65
5.1 Quantification of MSW 61
5.2 Discussion on Results (Silent Findings in MSW in Nainital) 63
6 Conclusion and Future Scope 66-69
6.1 Recommendation 68
6.2 Future Scope of Project work 69
7 Reference 70-77
Annexure
List of Tables
Solid waste categories based on source 2
Source of Municipal solid waste 3
Waste streams classified by source 17
MSW generation rates in different states in India 25
Physical characteristics of a typical city MSW 28
Chemical characteristics of MSW in Indian cities 29
Density of MSW in some cities 29
MSW composition data by percentage 31
Default values of different MSW components 32
MSW generation and management data 34
Relative composition of household waste 36
Profile of Nainital town 45
Physical composition of MSW sample 61
Chemical analysis parameters of MSW 62
List of Figure
MSW stream 4
Waste management hierarchy 23
Map of Nainital 44
Area wise solid waste management at Nainital 47
Solid waste GPS locations at Nainital 48
Collection of MSW 52
Transportation of MSW 53
Segregation of MSW 54
Disposal of MSW 54
Photograph of pH meter 56
A pictorial view of CHNS analyzer 58
Photographic view of ICP-OES 59
Photograph of Hot air oven 60
Photograph of Muffle furnace 60
Percentage of different components of MSW 62
Framework of MSW Management of city Nainital 68
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Introduction
Waste is a continually growing problem at global and regional as well as at local levels. Solid
wastes arise from human and animal activities that are normally discarded as useless or
unwanted. In other words, solid wastes may be defined as the organic and inorganic waste
materials produced by various activities of the society and which have lost their value to the first
user. As the result of rapid increase in production and consumption, urban society rejects and
generates solid material regularly which leads to considerable increase in the volume of waste
generated from several sources such as, domestic wastes, commercial wastes, institutional wastes
and industrial wastes of most diverse categories. Management of solid waste may be defined as
that discipline associated with the control of generation, storage, collection, transfer and
transport, processing, and disposal of solid wastes in a manner that is in accord with the best
principles of public health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics, and other
environmental considerations. In its scope, solid waste management includes all administrative,
financial, legal, planning, and engineering functions involved in the whole spectrum of solutions
to problems of solid wastes thrust upon the community by its inhabitants. Solid wastes have the
potential to pollute all the vital components of living environment (i.e., air, land and water) at
local and at global levels. The problem is compounded by trends in consumption and production
patterns and by continuing urbanization of the world. The problem is more acute in developing
nations than in developed nations as the economic growth as well as urbanization is more rapid.
1.1 Solid waste management
Management of solid waste is associated with the control of generation, storage, collection,
transfer and transport, processing, and disposal of solid wastes in a manner that is in accord with
the best principles of public health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics, and other
environmental considerations. In its scope, it includes all administrative, financial, legal,
planning and engineering functions involved in the whole spectrum of solutions to problems of
solid wastes thrust upon the community by its inhabitants.
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MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
1.1.1 Categories of Solid Waste
Solid waste can be categorized based on source as shown in table 1.
Table 1: Solid Waste categories based on source
Source Typical facilities, activities, or
locations where wastes are
generated
Types of Solid waste
Agricultural Field and row crops, orchards,
vineyards, diaries, feedlots, farms,
etc
Spoiled food wastes,
agricultural wastes, rubbish,
and hazardous wastes
Industrial Construction, fabrication, light
and heavy manufacturing,
refineries, chemical plants, power
plants, demolition, etc.
Industrial process wastes,
scrap materials, etc.;
nonindustrial waste
including food waste,
rubbish, ashes, demolition
and construction wastes,
special wastes, and
hazardous waste.
Commercial
and
Institutional
Stores, restaurants, markets, office
buildings, hotels, auto repair
shops,
Paper, cardboard, plastics,
wood, food wastes, glass,
metal wastes, ashes, special
wastes, etc.
Municipal
solid waste
Includes residential, commercial
and institutions
Special waste, rubbish,
general waste, paper,
plastics, metals, food waste,
etc.
Source: (Hester, R. E and Harrison, R. M., 2002)
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MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
1.2 Municipal Solid Waste
The term municipal solid waste (MSW) is normally assumed to include all of the waste
generated in a community, with the exception of waste generated by municipal services,
treatment plants, and industrial and agricultural processes. In the urban context the term
municipal solid wastes is of special importance. The term refers to all wastes collected and
controlled by the municipality and comprises of most diverse categories of wastes. It comprises
of wastes from several different sources such as, domestic wastes, commercial wastes,
institutional wastes and building materials wastes.
1.2.1 Types of Municipal Solid Waste
Table 2: The sources of municipal solid waste
Sources Examples
Residential Single family homes, duplexes, town houses, apartments
Commercial Office buildings, shopping malls, warehouses, hotels, airports,
restaurants
Institutional Schools, medical facilities, prisons
Industrial Packaging of components, office wastes, lunchroom and restroom
wastes (but not industrial process wastes)
Source: (Tchobanoglous, G and Kreith, F., 2002)
1.2.2 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Municipal Solid waste management involves the application of principle of Integrated Solid
Waste Management (ISWM) to municipal waste. ISWM is the application of suitable techniques,
technologies and management programs covering all types of solid wastes from all sources to
achieve the twin objectives of (a) waste reduction and (b) effective management of waste still
produced after waste reduction
In the Municipal Solid Waste Management the major issues to be considered are:
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MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Increasing waste quantities
Wastes not reported in the national MSW totals
Lack of clear definition for solid waste management terms and functions
Lack of quality data
Need for clear roles in state and local government
Need for even and predictable enforcement regulations and standards
1.3 Functional Elements of Municipal Solid Waste Management
To implement proper waste management, various aspects have to be considered such as Waste
generation (source reduction), Waste handling and sorting, storage and processing at the source
(onsite storage), Collection, Sorting, processing and transformation, transfer and transport, and
Disposal (The Expert Committee, 2000). Figure 1, shows the interrelationship between the
functional elements in solid waste management.
Figure 1: The Municipal Solid Waste Stream
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MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
1.3.1 Waste Generation
Waste generation encompasses activities in which materials are identified as no longer being of
value (in their present form) and are either thrown away or gathered together for disposal. Waste
generation at present is not very controllable. However, reduction of waste at source is included
in system evaluations as a method of limiting the quantity of waste generated.
The compositional terms that are used can vary a lot, from relatively simple descriptions in terms
of organic to more complicated schemes, using many or all of the constituents, such as paper,
plastic, glass, metal etc.
1.3.2 Waste Handling, Sorting, Storage, and Processing at the source
Waste handling and sorting involves activities associated with management of wastes until they
are placed in storage containers for collection. Handling also encompasses the movement of
loaded containers to the point of collection.
Sorting is an important component of waste management and best-done onsite. However,
there are various stages of sorting. These can be identified as the following:
o At the source or house hold level
o At the community bin (municipal bin)
o At transfer station or centralized sorting facility
o At waste processing site (pre-sorting and post sorting)
o At the landfill site
Sorting Operations can be carried out in three ways:
o Manual sorting
o Semi-mechanized sorting
o Fully mechanized sorting
Onsite storage is of primary importance because of public health concerns. Open ground
storage, make shift containers should always be avoided and only closed containers
should be used. Processing at the source involves backyard composting. Storage of
wastes can be done at three levels:
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MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
o At source
o At community level
o At transfer stations
1.3.3 Collection
This includes gathering the solid wastes and recyclable materials and transport of these materials
to either the processing facility, transfer facility or the disposal site.
Types of Collection
i. Community bins - they are placed in convenient locations, where the community
members carry the waste and throw it in. For this method the Bins are covered, they are
aesthetic, they are attended to regularly, kept clean, easy to handle and separate bins are
provided for recyclable, mixed, paper and biodegradable waste.
ii. Door-to-Door collection – The waste is placed at the doorstep at a set time when the
waste collector arrives. In this method, it is the collector of the waste has the
responsibility to collect the waste separately.
iii. Block collection - the collection vehicles arrive at a particular place or a set day and time
to collect waste from the households. Households bring their waste containers and empty
directly into the vehicle
iv. Curbside collection – the homeowner is responsible for placing the containers to be
emptied at the curb on the collection day and for returning the empty containers to their
storage location until the next collection.
Street cleansing is another type of collection method mainly for collection of street litter.
1.3.4 Sorting, processing and transformation of Solid Waste
This functional unit encompasses the recovery of the sorted materials, processing of solid waste
and transformation of solid waste that occurs primarily in locations away from the source of
waste generation.
6
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Sorting of the mixed waste usually occurs at a material recovery facility, transfer stations,
combustion facilities and disposal sites. Sorting includes separation of bulky items, separation of
waste components by size using screens, manual separation of waste components, and separation
of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
Waste processing and transformation solid waste processing reduces the amount of material
requiring disposal and, in some cases produces a useful product. Examples of solid waste
processing technologies include material recovery facilities, where recyclable materials are
removed and/or sorted; composting facilities where organics in solid waste undergo controlled
decomposition; and waste-to-energy facilities where waste becomes energy for electricity.
1.3.5 Processing
Recycling and reuse – In this process, by which materials otherwise destined for disposal are
collected, reprocessed or remanufactured and are reused. The recycling and reuse (the use of a
product more than once in its same form for the same or other purpose) sector of waste
management in cities of Asian developing countries is potentially high
Composting – It is a biological process of decomposition carried out under controlled conditions
of ventilation, temperature, moisture and organisms in the waste themselves that convert waste
into humus-like material by acting on the organic portion of the solid waste. It produces a sludge,
which is high in nutrients and can be used as a fertilizer. There are various methods of
composting, which are:
Windrow composting: It is a common method of composting; it involves the stabilization of
organic solid waste through aerobic degradation. The waste is piled in heaps with approximately
a height of 3 m, width of 1.5 m and varying lengths. The waste is left for 60 days for
decomposition with weekly turnings to aerate the heaps. After which, it can be sieved and the
compost is obtained.
Vermi-composting: It is a comparatively new method in composting; it involves the stabilization
of organic solid waste through earthworm consumption that converts the material into earthworm
7
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
castings. Vermi-composting is the result of combined activity of microorganisms and
earthworms.
Energy recovery Processes
The main Parameters, which determine the potential of recovery of energy from wastes
(including MSW), are:
• Quantity of waste, and
• Physical and chemical characteristics (quality) of the waste
The important physical parameters requiring consideration include:
• Size of constituents
• Density
• Moisture content
Smaller size aids in faster decomposition of the waste. Waste of high density reflects a high
proportion of biodegradable organic matter and moisture. Low-density wastes, on the other
hand, indicate a high proportion of paper, plastic and other combustibles.
High moisture content causes biodegradable waste fraction to decompose more rapidly than in
dry conditions. It also makes the waste rather unsuitable for thermo-chemical conversion
(incineration, pyrolysis / gasification) for energy recovery, as heat must first be supplied to
remove moisture.
Bio-chemical conversion: This process is based on the enzymatic decomposition of organic
matter by microbial action to produce methane gas or alcohol. It is preferred for wastes having
high percentage of organic biodegradable (putriscible) matter and high level of moisture/water
content, which aids microbial activity.
Bio-gasification – It is also called bio-mechanization in this process of decomposing biomass
with anaerobic bacteria to produce biogas. This process produces Biogas containing
approximately 60:40 mixtures of methane (CH4), and carbon dioxide (CO2) and simultaneously
8
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
generating an enriched sludge fertilizer- with an energy content of 22.5 MJ/m3 (Edelmann, W et
al 2000).
Landfill gas recovery: The waste deposited in a landfill gets subjected, over a period of time to
anaerobic conditions and its organic fraction gets slowly volatilized and decomposed. This leads
to production of landfill gas containing about 45-55% methane, which can be recovered through
a network of gas collection pipes and utilized as a source of energy.
Thermo-chemical conversion:
Incineration: It is the controlled burning of waste in a purpose built facility. It involves the
process of direct burning of wastes in the presence of excess air at the temperatures of about
800°C and above (The Expert Committee, 2000). The process sterilizes and stabilizes the waste.
For most wastes, it will reduce its volume to less than a quarter of the original. Most of the
combustible material is converted into ash and carbon dioxide (Sathishkumar, et al 2002). In
practice, about 65-80 % of the energy content of the organic matter can be recovered as heat
energy, which can be utilized either for direct thermal applications, or for producing power.
Pyrolysis: It is also referred to as destructive distillation or carbonization. It is the thermal
decomposition of organic matter at high temperature (about 900°C) in an inert (oxygen deficient)
atmosphere or vacuum, producing a pyroligenous liquid having high heat value and is a feasible
substitute of industrial fuel oil.
Gasification: It involves thermal decomposition of organic matter at high temperatures in
presence of limited amounts of air/oxygen, producing mainly a mixture of combustible and non-
combustible gas (carbon monoxide, hydrogen and carbon dioxide). This process is similar to
Pyrolysis, involving some secondary /different high temperature (> 1000°C) chemistry which
improves the heating value of gaseous output and increases the gaseous yield (mainly
combustible gases CO+H2) and lesser quantity of other residues.
9
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
1.3.6 Disposal
Non-engineered disposal: This is the most common method of disposal in low-income
countries, which have no control, or with only slight or moderate controls. They tend to remain
for longer time and environmental degradation could be high, include mosquito, rodent and
water pollution, and degradation of the land.
Sanitary Landfill – It is a fully engineered disposal option; the four minimum requirements for
setting up a sanitary landfill are full or partial hydrological isolation, formal engineering
preparation, permanent control and planned waste placement and covering. Land filling relies on
containment rather than treatment (for control) of wastes. Appropriate liners for protection of
the groundwater, leachate collection and treatment, monitoring wells and appropriate final cover
design are integral components of an environmentally sound sanitary landfill
Bioreactor Landfill
Bioreactor landfills are designed, constructed and operated to optimize moisture content and
increase the rate of anaerobic biodegradation. The principal function that distinguishes bioreactor
landfills from conventional landfills is leachate recirculation. The goal is to increase the rate of
bio-degradation to achieve maximum gas generation rate and output so as to optimize recovery
for energy production. This approach also aims to minimize the landfill stabilization time and
reduce the period of monitoring and liability retention.
Refuse Derived Fuel (RFD) Plants
It produces an improved solid fuel or pellets from MSW. The RDF plant reduces the pressure on
landfills. Combustion of the RDF from MSW is technically sound and is capable of generating
power. RDF may be fired along with the conventional fuels like coal without any ill effects for
generating heat. Operation of the thermal treatment systems involves not only higher cost, but
also a relatively higher degree of expertise.
10
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
1.4 MSWM System in India
Management of MSW continues to remain one of the most neglected areas of urban development
in India. The 23 metro cities in India generates about 30,000 tons of such wastes per day while
about 50,000 tons are generated daily from the Class I cities. Piles of Garbage and wastes of all
kinds littered everywhere have become common sight in our urban life. Magnitude and density
of urban population in India is increasing rapidly and consequently the civic bodies are facing
considerable difficulties in providing adequate services such as supply of water, electricity,
roads, education and public sanitation, including MSWM. The Local Governing Bodies (LGBs)
viz., Nagar Nigam and Nagar Palika Parisad are responsible for providing SWM services in the
urban areas. In most of the urban areas, insufficient funds, use of obsolete and/or inefficient
technologies, lack of public awareness, training, & improper infrastructure have resulted in a
poor state of SWM.
Average Composition of MSW: MSW primarily comprises of 30-35% of organic
fraction, 3-6% of recyclables (paper and plastic), 40-45% of inert material, and less than
one-percent glass and metal.
1.5 Why study on hilly region is needed.
One of the most pressing problems facing the municipalities is the efficient and long term
disposal of urban solid waste. There are deficiencies in the present system in primary collection,
secondary collection, waste treatment and disposal. The source segregation has not been very
effective and uncontrolled littering still continues along the main roads and streets creating
unhygienic conditions in many parts of the town.
With the concepts of material recovery, conversion of material to usable product and need for
engineered landfills is becoming more and more important, it is evident that
Municipalities/Nagar Parishads need to go for efficient management practices which will form a
pathway for resource conservation and environment protection.
Solid waste management is a part of public health and sanitation. Due to lack of awareness in the
community, garbage and its management has become serious problem. Most of solid waste
generated remains unattended, giving rise to unsanitary conditions. Despite having staff and
resources, there has been a progressive decline in the standard of services with respect to
11
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
collection and disposal of municipal solid waste as well as measures for ensuring adequacy of
environmental sanitation and public hygiene. The degree of community sensitization and public
awareness is low. The proper disposal of municipal solid waste is not only absolutely necessary
for the preservation and improvement of public health but it has an immense potential for
resource recovery. There is inadequate system of segregation of organic, inorganic and
recyclable wastes at household level. Scientific method for collection, transportation, segregation
and disposal is lacking in the existing system. Appropriate methods will reduce the flaws in the
system and increase the efficiency of the system.
1.6 Objective of study
Accessing the root cause behind frugal solid waste management system for this city.
To estimate the quantification of MSW.
.
12
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Literature Review
In Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) of developing countries typical
problem areas can be identified. These can be described as (Zurbrugg, 2003): 1) inadequate
service coverage and operational inefficiencies of services, 2) limited utilization of recycling
activities, 3) inadequate landfill disposal, and 4) inadequate management of hazardous and
healthcare waste. The need to understand community participation and community-based
environmental management initiatives have been addressed by researchers and concerned
institutions for the several years now (Richardson, 2003, Omran et al., 2006, Omran &
Gavrilescu, 2008).
A review of existing literature reveals that a great number of studies on SWM have been
undertaken, even prior to 1970 (van Beukering et al., 1999). Earlier studies show that the prime
consideration management of the public officials was the quick waste removal and destruction
(Melosi, 2005).
During the 1970s the debate shifted to issues of waste utilization, focusing on the technical and
economic issues surrounding the allocation and utilization of available resources. Also, the
existing state-of-the-art of resource recovery for managing municipal waste was examined
(Bever, 1976; von Heidenstam, 1977).
The early studies reveal that recycling in the past was mostly industrial and based on financial
considerations to reduce production cost, unlike the current emphasis on recycling as a way of
reducing waste in the environment and preserve dwindling resources (Cointreau et al., 1984;
Diwekar, 2005). During time, systems approaches have also been attempted at by authors dealing
with one or few aspects of MSWM (Imam et al., 2008; Omran and Read, 2008; Zurbrugg, 2003;
van Beukering et al., 1999).
Tsiliyannis (1999) discussed the main environmental problems related to MSWM and in
particular those concerning pollutant releases. The analysis was based on the solid waste
composition of Athens, Greece, and the facilities were assumed to meet EU Directives and to
include the proper disposal of residues. It was found that landfilling with energy recovery
produces slightly higher air pollution and greenhouse gas releases, mainly owing to the emission
of uncollected biogas.
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MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Chang and Wang (1997) proposed a fuzzy goal programming approach for optimal planning of
SWM systems, in which they consider four objectives: economic costs, noise control, air
pollution, and traffic congestion limitations. Another possible approach is based on life-cycle
assessment, which is a tool can provide the data needed for choosing the best combination from
an environmental standpoint (Finnveden, 1996).
However, life-cycle assessment does not predict actual impact; assess risk, safety or
whether a threshold may be exceeded by choosing an option (Bagchi, 2004). With regards to the
development of a solid waste management system, Zia and Devadas (2007) attempted to
introduce a SWM system in Kanpur City and by analyzing the major problems pertaining to
SWM faced in the City. Because some of Indian cities are often characterized by poorly rendered
services including waste management, the most ignored of all basic services on account of
various reasons. They have observed that the existing solid waste management system in the city
is found to be highly inefficient. Consequently, Jin et al. (2006) presented an overview on the
current solid waste management practices and situation in Macao during the last decade.
However, they drew conclusions that due to Macao’s geographic area and high cost of land,
landfilling has the lowest priority for waste disposal and solid waste incineration has been given
a top priority over the other waste disposal methods although it is much more expensive. One of
their suggestions was that for an effective and efficient solid waste management in Macao, waste
minimization needs to be implemented strictly in order to reduce the amount of solid waste. The
establishment of new regulations for more effective and efficient integrated solid waste
management system is also necessary. The regulations should indicate the appropriate authority
to define and implement waste management regulations (Jin et al., 2006). Elsewhere, Turan et
al., (2008) presented an overview on of solid waste management in Turkey.
However, they drew conclusions that MSW management is a major problem facing
municipalities. The annual generation increases in proportion to the rise in the population and
urbanization, and issues related to disposal have become challenging as more land is needed for
the ultimate disposal of solid waste. They commented that open dumps can be detrimental to the
urban environment. In spite of efforts to change open dumps into sanitary landfills and to build
new modern recycling and composting facilities, Turkey still has over 2000 dumps because of
insufficient financing.
14
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Turan et al(2008), Concluded that composting is an excellent method of recycling
bridgeable waste. However, many composting plants have failed because not enough attention
was given to the quality of the product and to marketing activities. To conclude, determining
methods of final disposal requires an understanding of the make-up of the MSW stream. A MSW
decision support system based on integrated solid waste management should be developed for
cities in Turkey (Turan et al., 2008). A recent study conducted by Hazra & Goel (2008) has
presented an overview on of current solid waste management practices in Kolkata, India and
suggested solution to some of the problems. They argued that the collection process is deficient
in terms of manpower and vehicle availability. Bin capacity provided is adequate but locations
were found to be inappropriate, thus contributing to the inefficiency. Further, Hazra & Goel
(2008) proved that there is no treatment is provided to the waste and waste is dumped on land
after collecting it. However, in order to improve these problems, authors provided some solutions
for these problems. For instance, to improve collection and transportation at Kolkata city, public-
private partnerships can be successful solution, with private agencies providing waste collection
service at lower cost and greater efficiency (Hazra & Goel, 2008).
Vidanaarachchi et al. (2006) described the problems, issues and challenges of solid
waste faced in the country’s Southern Providence. However, they revealed that only 24% of the
households have regular access to waste collection and that in rural areas it was less than 2%.
Substantial number of household in areas without waste collection expects local authorities to
collect their waste. Vidanaarachchi et al. (2006) showed that most sites in the province are under
capacity to handle any increased demand on waste collecting. However, they suggested that
urgent and immediate improvements of the waste disposal sites are necessary to meet the current
demand for sustainable waste collection. This study was carried out using two approaches.
Firstly a review study based on published and unpublished information gathered by the authors
and other scientists. Secondly, informal interview was conducted with the representative director,
Department Leader City Cleaning, Stadt Karlsruhe from municipal council of Karlsrhe city.
2.1 Waste Characteristic
A common misconception is that environmental protection and sustainable initiatives must come
at the expense of economic development (El-Haggar, 2007). This is particularly true for
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MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
managing wastes, a process which depletes natural resources and pollutes the environment if not
done correctly. Proper waste management can be costly in terms of time and resources and so it
is important to understand what options exist for managing waste in an effective, safe and
sustainable manner (El-Haggar, 2007). This is particularly true for organizations which fall into
the institutional, commercial and industrial (ICI) sector.
Waste Streams
Municipal solid wastes (MSW) is often described as the waste that is produced from residential
and industrial (non-process wastes), commercial and institutional sources with the exception of
hazardous and universal wastes, construction and demolition wastes, and liquid wastes (water,
wastewater, industrial processes) (Tchobanoglous & Kreith, 2002).
MSW is defined through the Solid Waste-Resource Management Regulations (1996) which state
that MSW “..includes garbage, refuse, sludge, rubbish, tailings, debris, litter and other discarded
materials resulting from residential, commercial, institutional and industrial activities which are
commonly accepted at a municipal solid waste management facility, but excludes wastes from
industrial activities regulated by an approval issued under the Nova Scotia Environment Act”
(SWRMR, 1996).
Materials which are organic or recyclable are excluded from this definition, and so MSW in
Nova Scotia is significantly different from that in many other jurisdictions. This definition of
MSW works together with a legislated landfill ban which prohibits certain materials from landfill
to ensure that only certain materials are entering landfills. Banned materials cannot be disposed
of and are processed through alternative methods (SWRM, 1996); typically recycling, reuse, or
composting. The designation of materials into specific categories such as organics, recyclables,
and garbage can differ by region, therefore organizations must ensure that waste is separated
according to local area by-laws.
Construction and demolition (C&D) waste consists of materials which are normally produced as
a result of construction, demolition, or renovation projects and can be a significant source of
waste for all organizations in the ICI sector. According to the Nova Scotia Solid Waste-Resource
Management Regulations (1996), C&D waste/debris “includes, but is not limited to, soil, asphalt,
brick, mortar, drywall, plaster, cellulose, fiberglass fibers, gyproc, lumber, wood, asphalt
shingles, and metals” .
16
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
The ICI Sector
Organizations from all areas within the ICI sector are required to manage traditional solid waste,
residential waste, and that which is not typically produced in residential settings (Table). This
causes significant differences and presents unique challenges in waste management within the
ICI sector versus municipal level solid waste management (El-Haggar, 2007; Tchobanoglous &
Kreith, 2002). With municipal wastes, general characteristics can be common across various
regions. The ICI sector however, produces a broad range of potential waste streams, including
municipal and industrial solid wastes, clinical wastes, construction and demolition wastes,
hazardous wastes, and universal wastes which differ widely between organizations and can make
comparisons difficult (El-Haggar, 2007; Woodard & Curran Inc., 2006). Commercial and
institutional firms typically produce waste as a result of conducting trade and business (Smith &
Scott, 2005), whereas the waste streams of industrial firms (manufacturing, repair, production)
are typically characterized as liquid wastes, solid wastes, or air pollutants with each typically
being managed and regulated differently (Woodard & Curran Inc., 2006). Industrial settings also
produce MSW. Aside from dealing with highly varying waste streams, there is also the issue that
many firms place a high value on company privacy and may not share information willingly
(Ehrenfeld & Gertler, 1997).
Table 3: Waste streams classified by source (adopted from Tchobanoglous & Kreith, 2002)
Source
Facilities, activities, or
locations where wastes are
generated
Types of solid wastes
Residential
Single-family and multifamily
dwellings; low-,medium, and
high-density apartments. Can
be included in IC&I sector
Food wastes, paper,
cardboard, plastics, textiles,
yard
wastes, wood, ashes, street
leaves, special wastes
(including bulky items,
consumer electronics, white
goods, universal waste) and
17
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
household hazardous
waste.
Commercial Stores, restaurants, markets,
office buildings, services
stations, auto repair shops.
Paper, cardboard, plastics,
wood, food wastes, glass,
metal wastes, ashes, special
wastes, hazardous wastes
Institutional Schools, universities,
hospitals, prisons,
governmental centers
Same as commercial, plus
biomedical
Industrial (non-process
wastes)
Constructions, fabrication,
light & heavy manufacturing,
refineries, chemical plants,
power plants, demolition
Same as commercial
Municipal solid waste All of the preceding All of the preceding
Construction and Demolition New construction sites, road
repair, renovation sites, razing
of buildings, broken pavement
Wood, steel, concrete, asphalt
paving, asphalt roofing,
gypsum board, rocks and soils.
Industrial Construction, fabrication, light
and heavy manufacturing,
refineries, chemical plants,
power plants, demolition
Same as commercial, plus
industrial process wastes,
scrap materials.
2.2 Integrated Waste Management
Waste management methods cannot be uniform across regions and sectors because individual
waste management methods cannot deal with all potential waste materials in a sustainable
manner (Staniškis, 2005). Conditions vary; therefore, procedures must also vary accordingly to
ensure that these conditions can be successfully met. Waste management systems must remain
flexible in light of changing economic, environmental and social conditions (McDougall et al.,
18
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
2001; Scharfe, 2010). In most cases, waste management is carried out by a number of processes,
many of which are closely interrelated; therefore it is logical to design holistic waste
management systems, rather than alternative and competing options (Staniškis, 2005).
A variety of approaches have been developed to tackle waste issues. A well designed framework
can help managers address waste management issues in a cost-effective and timely manner. It
can spur the improvements of existing plans or aid in the design of new ones (USEPA, 1995).
A waste management framework provides:
Flexibility to frame and analyze quantitative and qualitative information across different
scales
Structure to clearly identify key goals and values
Logic to consider the potential probability and consequences related to a particular option
Communicability to clearly communicate key ideas to key stakeholders (Owen, 2003).
Integrated waste management (IWM) has emerged as a holistic approach to managing waste by
combining and applying a range of suitable techniques, technologies and management programs
to achieve specific objectives and goals (McDougall et al., 2001; Tchobanoglous & Kreith,
2002). The concept of IWM arose out of recognition that waste management systems are
comprised of several interconnected systems and functions, and has come to be known as “a
framework of reference for designing and implementing new waste management systems and for
analysing and optimising existing systems” (UNEP, 1996). Just as there is no individual waste
management method which is suitable for processing all waste in a sustainable manner, there is
no perfect IWM system (McDougall et al., 2001). Individual IWM systems will vary across
regions and organizations, but there are some key features which characterize IWM:
employing a holistic approach which assesses the overall environmental burdens and economic
costs of the system, allowing for strategic planning;
using a range of collection and treatment methods which focus on producing less waste
and in effectively managing waste which is still produced;
handling all materials in the solid waste stream rather than focusing solely on specific
materials or sources of materials (Hazardous materials should be dealt with within the
system, but in a separate stream)
19
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
being environmentally effective through reducing the environmental burdens such as
emissions to air, land and water;
being economically affordable by driving costs out and adopting a market-oriented
approach by creating customer-supplier relationships with waste products that have end
uses and can generate income;
social acceptability by incorporating public participation and ensuring individuals
understand their role in the waste management system.
(McDougall et al., 2001)
Due to the varying needs and challenges faced by organization in the ICI sector, a flexible yet
comprehensive approach is needed to manage waste properly. Using a wide range of waste
management options as part of a comprehensive integrated waste management system allows for
improved ability to adjust to changing environmental, social and economic conditions
(McDougall et al., 2001).
Forming an IWM plan can be a complex undertaking. Those responsible for designing IWM
systems must have a clear understanding of their goals and objectives and ensure that
terminology and activities are clearly defined in the plan. The next step requires identifying the
range of potential options that are suitable for managing waste with cost estimates, risk
assessments, available processing facilities and potential partners, and the product standards
which exist for the recycling of certain wastes. Public feedback in this step can help to assure the
accuracy of assumptions made, and help to build public acceptance. The final step involves
examining the tradeoffs which exist among the available options given what is known about the
risk, cost, waste volumes, and potential future behaviour changes (Tchobanoglous et al., 2006).
Once these details are known, a comprehensive IWM strategy can be formed.
Systems analysis can provide information and feedback that is useful in helping to define,
evaluate, optimize and adapt waste management systems (Pires et al, 2010). There are two main
types of systems analysis techniques relevant to waste management systems:
systems engineering models such as cost benefit analysis, forecasting models, simulation
models, optimization models, integrated modeling systems
system assessment tools such as management information systems, decision support
systems, expert systems, scenario development, material flow analysis, life cycle
20
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
assessment, risk assessment, environmental impact assessment, strategic environmental
assessment, socioeconomic assessment (Pires et al., 2010)
2.3 Waste Diversion & Waste Minimization
The three R’s are commonly used terms in waste management; they stand for “reduce, reuse, and
recycle”. As waste generation rates have risen, processing costs increased, and available landfill
space decreased, the three R`s have become a central tenet in sustainable waste management
efforts (El-Haggar, 2007; Seadon, 2006; Suttibak & Nitivattananon, 2008; Tudor et al., 2011).
The concept of waste reduction, or waste minimization, involves redesigning products or
changing societal patterns of consumption, use, and waste generation to prevent the creation of
waste and minimize the toxicity of waste that is produced (USEPA, 1995). Common examples of
waste reduction include using a reusable coffee mug instead of a disposable one, reducing
product packaging, and buying durable products which can be repaired rather than replaced.
Reduction can also be achieved in many cases through reducing consumption of products, goods,
and services. The most effective way to reduce waste is by not creating it in the first place, and
so reduction is placed at the top of waste hierarchies (USEPA, 2010). In many instances,
reduction can be achieved through the reuse of products. Efforts to take action to reduce waste
before waste is actually produced can also be termed pre-cycling (HRM, 2010).
It is sometimes possible to use a product more than once in its same form for the same purpose;
this is known as reuse (USEPA, 1995). Examples include using single-sided paper for notes,
reusing disposable shopping bags, or using boxes as storage containers (UC Davis, 2008).
Reusing products displaces the need to buy other products thus preventing the generation of
waste. Minimizing waste through reduction and reuse offers several advantages including: saving
the use of natural resources to form new products and the wastes produced in the manufacturing
processes; reducing waste generated from product disposal; and reducing costs associated with
waste disposal (USEPA, 2010).
Not all waste products can be displaced and even reusable products will eventually need to be
replaced. It is inevitable that waste will be created as a by-product of daily human living (Kim,
2002), but in many cases it is possible for this waste to be diverted and recycled into valuable
new materials. Glass, plastic and paper products are commonly collected and reformed into new
21
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
materials and products. Recycling products offer many of the benefits of waste reduction efforts
(displacing new material usage, reducing waste generated and the costs associated with disposal)
but recycling requires energy and the input of some new materials, thus placing it lower on the
waste hierarchy than reduction and reuse (UC Davis, 2008; USEPA, 2010).
Many waste management frameworks seek to incorporate the three R’s in some capacity. In the
UK, North America, throughout Europe and in parts of Asia, waste hierarchies are being
incorporated which promote the adoption and use of “reduce, reuse and recycle” initiatives
(Allwood et al., 2010). Waste management hierarchies (Figure 1) place the highest priority on
waste prevention, reuse, and then waste recovery. Disposing materials in a landfill is the least
desirable of the options (ECOTEC, 2000).
22
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Figure 2: Waste management hierarchy (CIELP, 2008)
In some instances, additional R`s can be added to the basic three. Some organizations have
chosen to add a fourth R (Concordia University, n.d.; FNQLSDI, 2008; UC Davis, 2008; U of T,
2008). The fourth R can represent different words including rebuy (UC Davis, 2008), rethink
(Concordia University, n.d.; U of T, 2008), and recover (FNQLSDI, 2008). The concept of rebuy
23
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
refers to consumer purchasing decisions. Consumers have the ability to take steps to improve
waste management by helping to close the loop in waste management systems by purchasing
products which have been recycled or used (UC Davis, 2008). Rethink is added to the three R’s
by some because changing our behaviour and our actions can lead to improvements in waste
management. Changing consumption patterns and considering the impacts of our actions can
lead to decreased production of waste, and even a reduction in waste management and waste
minimization efforts (Concordia University, n.d.).
Recover can refer to methods which use and process waste so that it is used rather than disposed
of (which would include reuse and recycling); however, it can also include recovering energy
form waste before it is disposed. Waste can be processed into a fuel and used to produce a usable
form of energy (FNQLSDI, 2008). Examples include incinerating waste to generate electricity,
breaking waste down with (high temperature) plasmolysis to produce usable sources of fuel, or
breaking down organic matter with anaerobic digestion to produce biogas.
These additional concepts do not need to be limited to 4 R’s. El-Haggar (2007) proposes that to
achieve sustainable waste management, a 7R methodology should be adopted: Reduce, Reuse,
Recycle, Recover, Rethinking, Renovation, and Regulation. Renovation refers to taking action to
develop innovative ways to process waste, while regulation is added in recognition that it is a
driving force behind ensuring the implementation of responsible waste management practices
(El-Haggar, 2007).
Municipal Solid Waste Management in India
In India, according to the Ministry of Environment and Forests "municipal solid waste" includes
commercial and residential wastes generated in municipal or notified areas in either solid or
semi-solid form excluding industrial hazardous wastes but including treated bio-medical wastes
(MoEF, 2000). In simple words the municipal solid waste can be defined as the waste that is
controlled and collected by local authority and municipality.
Municipal Solid Waste Management in India falls under the public health and sanitation and
hence as per the Indian Constitution is a State responsibility. This service has always been within
the public domain until very recently, that the waste management services started being
24
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
privatized. The activity being local in nature has been given to local municipal authorities that
provide this service with its own staff, equipment and funds.
The Government of India (GoI) has encouraged the proper management of MSW from as early
as 1960s when the Ministry of Food and Agriculture gave soft loans to the local municipal
authorities for MSWM. GoI also gave grants and loans to state government for setting up MSW
composting facilities under the fourth five-year plan (1969-74)(Beukering, 1999). In 1974 GoI
modified this scheme making it specific only for cities having a population above 30 lakhs. The
Water (prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974 resulted in the creation of Central and
State Pollution Control Boards (CPCB and SPCB) with the aim of prevention, abatement and
control of water pollution. The Air (Control and Prevention of Pollution) Act of 1981 also
empowered the CPCB and SPCB (Harashima, 2000). These Boards now authorise process plants
and sanitary landfill sites.
Table 4: Municipal Solid Waste Generation Rates in Different States in India
Name of State No. of Cities Municipal
Population
MSW Per Capita
Waste (kg/day)
Andhra Pradesh 32 10,845,907 3,943 0.364
Assam 4 878,310 196 0.223
Bihar 17 5,278,361 1,479 0.280
Gujarat 21 8,443,962 3,805 0.451
Haryana 12 2,254,353 623 0.276
Himachal
Pradesh
1 82,054 35 0.427
Karnataka 21 8,283,498 3,118 0.376
Kerala 146 3,107,358 1,220 0.393
Madhya Pradesh 23 7,225,833 2,286 0.316
Maharashtra 27 22,727,186 8,589 0.378
Manipur 1 198,535 40 0.201
25
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Meghalaya 1 223,366 35 0.157
Mizoram 1 155,240 46 0.296
Orissa 7 1,766,021 646 0.366
Punjab 10 3,209,903 1,001 0.312
Rajasthan 14 4,979,301 1,768 0.355
Tamil Nadu 25 10,745,773 5,021 0.467
Tripura 1 157,358 33 0.21
Uttar Pradesh 41 14,480,479 5,515 0.381
West Bengal 23 13,943,445 4,475 0.397
Chandigarh 1 504,094 200 0.475
Delhi 1 8,419,084 4,000 0.295
Pondicherry 1 203,065 60 0.376
Source: Status of MSW generation, collection, treatment and disposal in Class-I cities, (CPCB,
2000b)
A high level committee was set in 1975 to review the problems of urban solid waste in India.
This committee covered all aspects of waste management and based on these recommendations,
between 1975 and 1980, ten mechanical compost plants were set up in the country. Out of all the
plants commissioned there is only one functional at Bangalore. A major step in the direction of
managing waste happened with GoI setting up of the National Waste Management Council
(NWMC) in 1990. This council provided financial assistance to 22 municipalities to undertake
surveys to assist them in improving the MSWM situation (Marandi, 1998).
After the outbreak of the plague epidemic in Surat, the magnitude of the problem was realised by
the government. A high powered committee was set up in 1995 which gave many
recommendations for the improvement of MSWM like door to door collection, setting up of
transfer stations, charging user fees, etc. The ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) and
CPCB held meeting with the municipalities to evolve a strategy for MSWM. About 50 waste
treatment facilities were set up after this. In 1996, the MNES initiated a pilot program to promote
26
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
waste-to-energy projects in India, which may be considered as the birth of the new era of waste-
to-energy programs in India.
As per the recent estimates, the country produces about 100000 MT urban solid waste daily (The
Expert Committee, 2000) with typical characteristics as per the Table 1 below. The municipal
waste generation in metro cities varies between 0.2- 0.6 kg/capita/day (Zurbrugg, 2002 and
Agarwal, et al 2005), and urban MSW generation is estimated to be approximately 0.49 kg per
capita per day. This is estimated to be two or three times more than the waste generated by rural
residents (Devi, et al 2001). The figures, however, vary from city to city. For example, while the
per capita waste generated in Delhi is 0.5 kg per day, MSW generated per capita per day is 0.35
kg in Hyderabad and 0.64 kg in Bangalore (Huysman, 1994). Accordingto studies carried out by
(NEERI) the per capita waste generated in a typical Indian metropolitan city increases by 1.3%
per year while the estimated urban population growth is around 3.5% per annum (Shekdar, et al
1993). These studies point out that there is a large difference between urban and rural level of
waste generation, which reflect the economic extremities existing with the Indian society.
Many studies have been conducted to estimate the composition of waste in Indian cities, as it is
an important parameter in choosing the process method to be adopted and the design of the
process plant. The studies reveal that the organic fraction of the waste makes up 40 – 75 % of the
waste (National Solid waste Association of India, 2003, CPCB, 1998 and NEERI, 2000). Studies
have stated that the composition of waste varies depending on the income and life style
(Zurbrugg, 2004).
2.4 MSW Indian Scenario
27
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Table 5: Physical Characteristics of a typical city Municipal Solid Waste
Population
range
(million)
Number
of cities
surveyed
Paper
(%)
Rubber,
Leather
and
Synthetics
(%)
Glass
(%)
Metals
(%)
Total
compostable
matter (%)
Inert
(%)
0.1 - 0.5 12 2.91 0.78 0.56 0.33 44.57 43.59
0.5 -1.0 15 2.95 0.73 0.35 0.32 40.04 48.38
1.0 – 2.0 9 4.71 0.71 0.46 0.49 38.95 44.73
2.0 – 5.0 3 3.18 0.48 0.48 0.59 56.67 49.07
> 5 4 6.43 0.28 0.94 0.80 30.84 53.90
Source: The Expert Committee (2000) Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management, The
Ministry of Urban Development, The Government of India1.
From table, we can deduce that in India the overall percentage of inert material in all cities is
very high. This can cause hindrance to processes like incineration and anaerobic digestion if the
waste is not segregated prior to processing. The percentage of compostable matter is high in all
cities, but the cities with a population above five million have a lower percentage of organic
matter compared to the cities with a lower population. The cities with a population above 5
million also have a higher percentage of paper and glass material. The cities in India having a
population higher than 5 million are also having high income. The waste composition also
indicates the same.
28
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Table 6: Chemical characteristics of Municipal Solid Waste in Indian Cities
Population
range (in
millions)
No of
cities
surveyed
Moisture Organic
Matter
Nitrogen
as Total
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
as P2O2
Potassium
as K2O2
C/N
ratio
Calorific
value in
kcal/kg
0.1 – 0.5 12 25.81 37.09 0.71 0.63 0.83 30.94 1009.89
0.5 – 1.0 15 19.52 25.14 0.66 0.56 0.69 21.13 900.61
1.0 – 2.0 9 26.98 26.89 0.64 0.82 0.72 23.68 980.05
2.0 – 5.0 3 21.03 25.60 0.56 0.69 0.78 22.45 907.18
>5.0 4 38.72 39.07 0.56 0.52 0.52 30.11 800.70
Source: The Expert Committee, 2000. Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management. The
Ministry of Urban Development, The Government of India 1.
From table, we can deduce the Indian waste has a high content of organic matter, which makes
it suitable for processes like composting and anaerobic digestion. The C/N ratio is between 20-
30 and this ratio is very suitable for composting (Eiland, et al, 2001). The waste also has a high
moisture content which makes it unsuitable for incineration.
Table 7: Density of Municipal Solid Wastes in some Cities
Sl .No. City Density (Kg/m3)
1. Bangalore 390
2. Baroda 457
3. Delhi 422
4. Hyderabad 369
5. Jaipur 537
6. Jabalpur 395
7. Raipur 405
Source: The Expert Committee (2000) Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management, The
Ministry of Urban Development, The Government of India, Volume 1 and 2
Density is another important factor that needs to be estimated as it is essential for the design
considering all functional elements of solid waste management system viz. Community storage,
transportation and disposal. In India, the waste collection vehicle is not weighed in order to
29
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
estimate the weight; only the number of trips made is counted. This is not appropriate as the
density, tends to change from time to time (Shekdar, 1997).
2.5 MSW International Scenario
Regional and country-specific defaults data on waste composition in MSW are given in table.
These data are based on weight wet waste. Table does not give default data for garden and park
waste and nappies. In the default method these waste fractions can be assumed to be zero, i.e.,
they can be assumed to be encompassed by the other waste types.
30
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Table 8: MSW Composition data by percentage – Regional Defaults
Region Food
Waste
Paper/Cardboard Wood Textiles Rubber/Leather Plastic Metal Glass Other
Asia
Eastern
Asia
26.2 18.8 3.5 3.5 1.0 14.3 2.7 3.1 7.4
South-
Central
Asia
40.3 11.3 7.9 2.5 0.8 6.4 3.8 3.5 21.9
South-
Eastern
Asia
43.5 12.9 9.9 2.7 0.9 7.2 3.3 4.0 16.3
Western
Asia &
Middle
East
41.1 18.0 9.8 2.9 0.6 6.3 1.3 2.2 5.4
Default values for DOC and fossil carbon content in different waste types is given in table. In this table gives the default values also
for garden and park waste, and disposable nappies.
31
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Table 9: Default dry matter content, DOC content, Total carbon content and fossil carbon fraction of different MSW
components
MSW Component
Dry matter
content in %
of wet weight1
DOC content in %
of wet waste
DOC content in % of
dry waste
Total carbon content
in % of dry weight
Fossil carbon
fraction in % of
total carbon
Default Default Range Default Range2
Default Range Default Range
Paper/Cardboard 90 40 36-45 44 40-50 46 42-50 1 0-5
Textiles3
80 24 20-40 30 25-50 50 25-50 20 0-50
Food waste 40 15 8-20 38 20-50 38 20-50 - -
Wood 854
43 39-46 50 46-54 50 46-54 - -
Garden and Park
waste
40 20 18-22 49 45-55 49 45-55 0 0
Nappies 40 24 18-32 60 44-80 70 54-90 10 10
Rubber and
Leather
84 (39)5
(39)5
(47)5
(47)5 67 67 20 20
Plastics 100 - - - - 75 67-85 100 95-100
Metals6
100 - - - - NA NA NA NA
Glass6
100 - - - - NA NA NA NA
Other, Inert waste 90 - - - - 3 0-5 100 50-100
32
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
1 The moisture content given here applies to the specific waste types before they enter the collection and treatment.
2 The range refers to the minimum and maximum data reported by Dehoust et al., 2002.
3 40 percentage of textile are assumed to be synthetic (default). Expert judgment by the author.
4 This value is for wood products at the end of life. Typical dry matter content of wood at the time of harvest (that is
for garden and park waste) is 40 percent. Export judgment by the authors.
5 Natural rubber would likely not degrade under anaerobic condition at SWDS.
6 Metal and glass contain some carbon of fossil origin. Combustion of significant amounts of glass or metal is not
common.
Waste Generation and Management Data – by country and regional averages
In this Table shows MSW generation and management data for Asian countries whose data are
available. Regional defaults for waste generation and treatment are derived based on the
information from this table. The data are applicable as default data for the year 2000.
For comparison, data on waste generation and disposal to SWDS from the Revised 1996 IPCC
Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (1996 IPCC Guidelines) are also given in
the table.
33
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Table 10: MSW generation and management data – by country and regional averages
Region/Count
ry
MSW1,2
Generation
Rate
IPCC-1996
value4
(tones/cap/
yr)
MSW1,2,3
Generation
Rate
Year 2000
(tones/cap/
yr)
Fractio
n of
MSW
dispose
d to
SWDS
IPCC
– 1996
value4
Fractio
n of
MSW
dispose
d to
SWDS
Fraction
of MSW
incinerat
ed
Fraction
of MSW
Compost
ed
Fraction of
other
MSW
manageme
nt
unspecifie
d 5
Sourc
e
Asia
Eastern Asia 0.41 0.37 0.38 0.55 0.26 0.01 0.18
China 0.27 0.97 0.02 0.01 1
Japan 0.41 0.47 0.38 0.25 0.72 0.02 0.01 2,31
Rep. of Korea 0.38 0.42 0.04 0.54 3
Southern and
Central Asia
0.12 0.21 0.60 0.74 - 0.05 0.21
Bangladesh 0.18 0.95 0.05 4
India 0.12 0.17 0.60 0.70 0.20 0.10 4
Nepal 0.18 0.40 0.60 4
Sri Lanka 0.32 0.90 0.10 4
South-eastern
Asia
0.27 0.59 0.09 0.05 0.27
Indonesia 0.28 0.80 0.05 0.10 0.05 4
Lao PDR 0.25 0.40 0.60 4
Malaysia 0.30 0.70 0.05 0.10 0.15 4
Myanmar 0.16 0.60 0.40 4
Philippines 0.19 0.62 0.10 0.28 4,5
Singapore 0.40 0.20 0.58 0.22 6
Thailand 0.40 0.80 0.05 0.10 0.05 4
Vietnam 0.20 0.60 0.40 4
1 Data are based on weight of wet waste.
34
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
2 To obtain the total waste generation in the country, the per-capita values should be multiplied with the population
whose waste is collected. In many countries, especially developing countries, this encompasses only urban
population.
3 The data are default data for the year 2000, although for some countries the year for which the data are applicable
was not given in the reference, or data for the year 2000 were not available. The year for which the data are
collected is given below with source of the data, where available.
4 Values shows in this column are the ones included in the 1996 IPCC Guidelines.
5 Other, unspecified, includes data on recycling for some countries.
35
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Table 11: Relative composition of household waste in low, medium and high-income countries
Content Parameter Low-income countries Medium-income High-income countries
Physical
properties
Organic (putrecible), % 40 to 85 20 to 65 20 to 30
Paper, % 1 to 10 15 to 30 15 to 40
Plastics, % 1 to 5 2 to 6 2 to 10
Metal, % 1 to 5 1 to 5 3 to 13
Glass, % 1 to 10 1 to 10 4 to 10
Rubber, leather, etc., % 1 to 5 1 to 5 2 to 10
Other, % 15 to 60 15 to 50 2 to 10
Chemical
properties
Moisture content, % 40 to 80 40 to 60 5 to 20
Specific weight, kg/m3 250 to 500 170 to 330 100 to 170
Calorific value, kcal/kg 800 to 1100 1000 to 1300 1500 to 2700
Source : (INTOSAI working group on environmental auditing, 2002)
1 1
36
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
2.6 Cradle to grave method
Storage
Municipal Solid Waste is commonly stored in circular concrete open bins in India. There have
hardly been any studies conducted on the most suitable type of storage bin for the Indian waste.
The waste should be preferably stored in closed bins and for not more than 24hrs, as the Indian
waste has high organic content and is highly putricible.
Collection
The waste collection methods that are mainly adopted in India are Door to door collection and
Community method. Community bin method has been the most commonly adopted method in
India. A study carried out in Indian Institute of Science (Sathishkumar, et al, 2002) describes
that in community bin method, the improper placement of bins, bins not designed as per quantity
of waste generated and bins not being covered causes problems like odour, stray dog nuisance
and unaesthetic appearance.
On the other hand, a study conducted on municipal solid waste management describes the
collection of waste by Door-to-Door method in Ahmadabad (Sachdeva, 2002). Here the worker
uses a pushcart with 6 drums for the separate collection of waste. The householder has to collect
the dry waste in plastic bags and biodegradable waste in bins. The worker collects the waste and
put it in separate bins. This is then transferred into large storage containers, which are designed
as per the population density. The same system has been adopted in Chennai (IPE, 2004). In
From these studies, it has been observed that the door to collection method has improved the
efficiency of collection of segregated waste.
The collection efficiency ranges between 70 to 90% in major cities whereas in several smaller
cities the collection efficiency is below 60%. Street sweeping is another type of collection
method for the collection of street litter; many cities spend 30-50 % of their solid waste budgets
on street cleansing (The Expert Committee, 2000).
Studies show that in most urban areas it is the slums and areas where the poorer communities
reside which are most badly served (Fritz, 1990 and Furedy, 1994). One possible reason could be
that municipal authorities give priority to localities where the elite and the better-off populations
reside because of their influence and political weight. Meanwhile, the areas which are not
37
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
serviced are faced with clogged sewers and littered waste, creating serious health problems for
the resident population.
Transfer and Transport
Many methods have been adopted for the transfer of waste from either the pushcarts to trucks or
Bins to truck. In Ahmadabad, door-to-door collection method is adopted. Here once the waste is
collected in pushcarts, it is transferred to large covered metal bins having separate compartments
for storage of segregated waste. From here it is transferred to the trucks with a mechanized
collection truck that lifts the container and empties the waste into the truck (Sachdeva, 2004).
This mechanism adopted in Ahmadabad is new and can be found only in select cities in India.
The most common method for transfer is manual transfer from community bin to trucks by 2 to 3
workers (The Expert Committee, 2000). The transfer of waste directly from pushcarts to trucks
by meeting at a specified time and place called synchronization points is suggested by
(Karadimas, 2004), which is a suitable option for the door to door collection method.
Transportation of waste is carried out by the municipalities employing vehicles like open trucks,
tractor-trailers, tipper trucks and dumper placers. According to calculations done on a basis of
waste density, waste generated etc. indicate that on an average 320m3 capacity is required for
daily transportation of waste generated by 1 million population. However, a study carried out in
1996 stated that out of the 44 cities that were studied, 70% of these cities did not have 320m3
transport capacity (Boyar, et al 1996). Many improvements have been made since then including
the introduction of container-carriers and dumper-placers that was done by 1997 (Gupta, et al
1998). Bangalore itself has about 13 dumper placers (Ramachandra, et al, 2003) that do two
trips a day.
Process
Recycling
The recycling sector in India has been in operation since the 1960’s and while only a fraction of
the total plastic waste is being recycled in most western countries (APME, 1995), around 75% of
the plastic wastes are recycled in India (Haque, 1998). Rag pickers mainly carry out the
recycling process in India and they play a vital role in the economy of solid waste recycling
process (Agarwal, et al 2005). They feed the need of the intermediary buyers, who, in turn, meet
38
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
the demand of factories using recyclable solid waste as raw materials. However, the rag pickers
do not have sufficient protection and are exposed to waste and sometimes even the hazardous
waste present in MSW. A study carried out in 2003 has shown that 75 percent rag pickers have
upper and lower respiratory symptoms (Bhattacharya, 2005). Even the quality of the
successively recycled products in the informal sector in terms of their (i) physical appearance (ii)
polymeric properties (iii) health hazards (for the recyclers and users of such products involved)
are in serious question (Haque, 2000).
Another aspect to be noted is that plastic carry bags and PET do not figure in the list of priorities
for rag pickers, because collecting them is not profitable. This is primarily because the rewards
do not match the efforts required for collection, and this leads to plastic bags and PET continuing
to pose a major threat to the environment (Narayan, 2001).
Composting
Composting urban waste in India has a long history. Sir Albert Howard developed the Indore
process nearly 75 years ago by systemizing the traditional process that was carried out in India
(Howard, 1940). Government intervention to promote this practice can be traced to the 1940s
and the early 1970s, when the national government initiated a scheme to revive urban
composting (Selvam, 1996). However, centralized large-scale composting plants in urban areas
promoted in the 1970s proved to be uneconomical (Dulac, 2001). Only a few installations are
currently still operational (UNDP, 1991). Due to high operating and transport costs and the
poorly developed market for compost, the expected profits could not be realized as planned.
Composting of mixed waste also had a negative effect on compost quality and, thus, on its
acceptance by farmers.
From 1990’s decentralized composting schemes have been implemented by NGO’s with the help
of international funding. The decentralized composting schemes became very popular and
widespread in a short span of time. Various types of composting have been adopted by these
schemes e.g. Bin-composting, Shallow windrow, Pit composting and vermicomposting.
However, the maintenance of such schemes proved to be difficult because the household
involvement was sporadic, as many people believe that it is the municipal corporation's
responsibility to collect waste and do not want to make additional payments. This study states
that though decentralized composting has more advantages than centralized composting, the
39
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
market for MSW compost is limited and is rarely financially competitive to heavily subsidized
chemical fertilizers and traditional cow dung or poultry manure (Zurbrügg, et al 2002).
However, in Class II, Class III and Class IV cities an urban agricultural set up exists and
functions, where there is optimal use of municipal solid waste. The farmers buy the organic
waste from the municipality at very low costs and use it as manure. There are also companies
that have taken over the responsibility segregating, decontaminating and composting MSW.
This high quality compost is then sold to the farmers at a very high cost compared to the raw
MSW. It has been observed that the farmers prefer the raw MSW to the processed high quality
compost, because the latter is too expensive (Nunan, 2000).
Currently, there are few large-scale composting plants around India that are running successfully.
For e.g. composting plant in Hyderabad run by AP technology development and promotion
center (intake of 200MT/day, composting plant in Vijaywada by Excel industries (intake of 125
MT/day), composting plant in Bangalore by Karnataka Compost Development Authority
(KCDC)(intake of 300MT/day) and composting plant in Bangalore by Terra Firma Bio-
technologies (100MT capacity). All these compost plants have a high demand for their products
and want to increase their processing capacity to meet the huge demand. The awareness for
organic manure is increasing rapidly in India that will in turn increase the demand for the manure
produced from MSW (Garibay, et al, 2003).
Anaerobic Digesters
Biogas is a successful renewable energy technology developed and disseminated in India, second
only to improved wood stoves in its spread. Biogas was first introduced to India as an alternative
to piped natural gas in 1897 for providing gas-based illumination (Sathianathan, 1990). The
superiority of biogas slurry both as manure as well as compost starter and the cleanliness of the
process has been emphasized in several publications of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute
(IARI) and other agricultural institutions in the country (Chanakya, et al 2002). However, biogas
production has been restricted mostly to rural areas (with cattle dung) and in urban areas (with
sewage). The anaerobic digesters used in the rural areas are simple in design and to maintain,
but they require constant monitoring and are less efficient. The complex digesters on the other
hand, are designed to automatically adjust when environmental conditions change, such as would
occur with the feedstock. These are used in developed nations to treat unpredictable waste flows
40
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
and such digesters would be suitable for processing of MSW (Ostrem, et al, 2004). Many studies
have been conducted on the use of MSW for production of Biogas. One of the studies suggests
that by having decentralized anaerobic digesters in the localities, the odour problem caused by
MSW from bins and during long transportation distances can be minimized (Chanakya, et al,
2002). Apart from this (Srinivasan, 2003, Ramasamy, 2000 and Ostrem, et al, 2004) bring out
the dual purpose of anaerobic digesters, not only will they provide a solution to the solid waste
crisis, but also to the energy crisis.
In India, not many large-scale bio-methanisation plants using MSW have been set up. One of the
few bio-methanation plants set up was in Lucknow that consumed 300 MT/day of MSW to
generate 75 MT/day of organic manure and 5.1 MW of electricity. This plant was recently shut
down, and the main cause for failure was the intake of unsegregated waste (Gopalakrishna,
2005).
Incinaration
Incineration is another alternative for waste processing that is being used in India. Waste
combustion is not a common practice in India. One 120 tonne per day incinerator was built
during the 1930s in Calcutta but was operated for only a short period. After this study a Danish
incinerator-cum-power plant was installed at Timarpur in North Delhi and was shut down in
1985 due to high maintenance cost. An extensive sample program conducted in India by (Bhide,
1984) reveals that most of the waste had a calorific value of just 3350 joules/g compared with
9200joules/g in high-income countries (Sathiskumar, 2002). Incinerators have been reintroduced
in India for energy recovery from municipal solid waste. Recently, the Chennai Municipality
had approved a plan to set up a 14.85 MW waste-to-electricity plant at Perungudi. But, due to the
opposition of environmentalists the project did not take off (Hindu, 2005). However, in
Hyderabad, a private company Selco has set up an incinerator that is running successfully by
converting waste to electricity. It takes in 400 tonnes for generating 6 MW of power that is
being fed into the grid of the Transmission Corporation of Andhra Pradesh (APTransco) (UNDP,
2000 and Hindu, 2004).
The main drawback identified for the use of incinerators and anaerobic digesters for processing
MSW is that the waste is not segregated prior to the process.
41
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Disposal
Uncontrolled land filling has been mainly adopted for ultimate disposal of municipal solid waste
in India; thereby causing numerous health, environmental and aesthetic hazards (Ambulkar,
2004). However, now land filling is the most preferred method of disposal of solid wastes as it is
an effective and low cost method of disposal (Nissim, 2005). Onionskin method of lying i.e.,
alternate building rubbish of thickness 30cm and municipal waste with thickness of 1 to 3 m is
adopted in few cities like Delhi, Chennai and Hyderabad (CPCB, 1998). However, the numbers
of sanitary landfills are extremely low compared to the dumpsites, where uncontrolled dumping
is observed, leveling and provision of earth cover is rarely provided. The rag pickers are further
observed to be active at disposal site. Methane gas that is emitted at the landfills is not collected,
hence adding to the GHG emissions (Kumar, S., et al 2004).
Solid Waste Degradation
The rate of biodegradation of MSW is a function of waste composition, waste nutrient level,
presence of buffering agent, Moisture content and operational practices (Hossain, 2002). The rate
and characteristics of leachate produced and biogas generated from a landfill vary from one
phase of degradation to another and reflect the processes Taking place inside the landfill. the
observed trend of leachate
Characteristics with MSW degradation.
Phase I: Aerobic Phase: Transformation from aerobic to anaerobic environment occurs In this
phase. This phenomenon can be observed by the decrease in oxygen trapped within the pores of
the waste. The gas generated constitutes of mainly CO2 and N2 leachate strength is relatively
very low in this phase.
Phase II: Anaerobic Acid Phase: In this phase, the PH value decreases which is Accompanied
by biomass growth associated with the acidogenic bacteria and rapid Consumption of substrate
and nutrients. The gas produced is still mainly CO2 and little Amount of methane. With the
transition to phase III, the PH value and methane production increases. The decomposition is
estimated to be in between 15 to 20%
Phase III: Accelerated Methane Production Phase: In this phase, intermediate acids are
consumed by methane forming bacteria and converted into methane and carbon dioxide. There is
42
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
an increase in methane production and increase in PH value. Most of the methane production is
due to the depletion of accumulated carboxylic acids in earlier phase.
Phase IV: Decelerated Methane Production Phase: This is the final state of landfill stabilization,
nutrients and available substrate reduces and the biological activity shifts to relative dormancy.
Gas production drops significantly and the leachate strength remains constant and at much lower
concentrations than earlier phases. Decomposition is about 50 to 70% in this phase depending on
the methane production and operating environment.
43
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
STUDY AREA
3.1 Description of study area
Nainital town is headquarters of Nainital district in the Kumaon foothills of the outer Himalayas.
It is situated at an altitude of 1,938 meters (6,358 feet) above sea level. Nainital is set in a valley
containing a pear‐shaped lake, approximately two miles in circumference, and surrounded by
mountains, of which the highest are Naina (2,615 m (8,579 ft)) on the north, Deopatha (2,438 m
(7,999 ft)) on the west, and Ayarpatha (2,278 m (7,474 ft)) on the south. Nainital is located at
29.38°N 79.45°E.
Fig: 3 Map of Nainital city
Nainital has temperate summers, maximum temperature 27 °C ; minimum temperature 10 °C,
during which its population increases more than fivefold with an annual influx of tourists
predominantly from the plains of Northern India. In the winter, Nainital receives snowfall
between December and February with the temperatures varying between a maximum of 15 °C
(59 °F) and a minimum of 2°C (27 °F).
3.2 Population
The total area of Nainital is 11.73 sq. km and the population of the town is 9,55,128 as per
census 2011. The city has been divided into 13 wards. The daily floating population of the town
is round about 20,000 to 50,000 during season. Males constitute 54% of the population and
females 46%. Nainital has an average literacy rate of 91%, higher than the national average of
59.5%: male literacy is 98%, and female literacy is 86%. In Nainital, 1% of the population is
under 6 years of age. Kumauni’s form the major part of the town's population along with people
44
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
from all over India.Nainital is also an important administrative town in the State having the High
Court and well known institutions such as Academy Of Administration, Aryabhatta Research
Institute of Observational Sciences (ARIES), Office of Kumaon Mandal Vikas Nigam and
Kumaon University.
3.3 Life style
The lifestyle of people in Nainital is a bit backward and very simple. This is mainly due to the
fact that they are secluded from the influences of city and modern lifestyles. Kumauni people
normally live in small brick or stone hut-shaped houses covered with slanted tin roofs. Some old
traditional houses are made only out of wood with wood carvings, a rare sight today. In villages,
animals are kept in the ground floor called 'Goth' and the owners live above. Rice is mostly their
staple diet; however, Wheat, Madwa and other grains also form a part of their daily diet. Urad
Daal, Gahat, Bhatt, Masoor Daal are some pulses they consume including Meat.
3.4 Profile of Town
Table 12: Profile of Nainital Town
Population 9,55,128 as per 2011 census
Total No. of Slums 10
No. of Wards 13
Area 11.73 sq. km.
No. of Household (as per 2011) 6665
No. of Current Dumping Yards 1 adjacent to Haldwani Motor Road
Proposed Landfill and Compost Site 1 (at Narayan Nagar)
No. of Wards
In Nainital there are 13 wards in the city and the waste generation (per capita/day) (in kg/day) of
all the wards. The per capita of the waste generation as per 2011 census is 0.0102 kg/day.
3.5 Existing climate
Nainital has temperate summers, maximum temperature 27 °C ; minimum temperature 10 °C,
during which its population increases more than fivefold with an annual influx of tourists
45
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
predominantly from the plains of Northern India. In the winter, Nainital receives snowfall
between December and February with the temperatures varying between a maximum of 15 °C
(59 °F) and a minimum of 2°C (27 °F). Very steep to steep hills and Glacio-fluvial valleys are
dominantly occupied by very shallow to moderately shallow excessively drained, sandy-skeletal
to loamy-skeletal, neutral to slightly acidic with low available water capacity soils. They have
been classified as Lithic/Typic Cryorthents. These soils are in general under sparse vegetation.
The Lesser Himalayan range is mainly composed of highly compressed and altered rocks like
granite, phyllites, quartzite etc. and a major part of it, is under forest. The hilly areas experience
snowfall during winters, while in the plains the temperature soars to 45 degree C during
summers. Nainital district has received good rainfall in recent years . As per 1999 records total
average rainfall of district was 1338.08 MM while total average rainfall up to Aug. 2000 was
1602.69 MM.
46
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Fig: 4 Area wise solid waste management at Nainital
47
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Fig: 5 Solid waste GPS locations at Nainital
Existing status of MSW Management
International Status
Europe
In Europe, MSW management has been reviewed considering their geological similarities with
the areas of concern of the project boundary. The salient features of the MSW Management of
the reviewed areas are bookmarked here forth:
1. Landfills for inert materials: Rock-like wastes are disposed off in these landfills, from
which virtually no pollutants are leached out by rainwater. These include materials, such
as construction waste (concrete, bricks, glass, and road rubble) and uncontaminated soil
that cannot be used elsewhere.
2. Landfills for stabilized residues: These landfills are designed for the disposal of materials
of known composition, with high concentrations of heavy metals and only a small
organic component which cannot release either gases or substances readily soluble in
water. Typical materials include solidified fly ash and flue gas cleaning residues from
48
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
municipal waste incinerators, and vitrified treatment residues. Impermeable linings are
required for the base and sides of the landfill, and leachate is collected and, if necessary,
treated.
3. Bioreactor landfills: Chemical and biological processes occur in these landfills. At these
sites, drainage controls are also required. In addition, gases emitted from the landfill are
captured and treated. Given the unpredictable composition of their contents, bioreactor
landfills require expensive remediation at a later stage. Certain types of waste (e.g.,
incinerator slag) are required to be disposed of in separate compartments, isolated from
other types of waste. If these wastes were intermixed, heavy metals would be leached out
in much greater quantities as a result of the relatively low pH of incinerator slag.
Compartments for residual wastes have also been established at numerous bioreactor
landfill sites. Bioreactor landfills require long-term efforts to monitor and treat gases and
contaminated leachate. The processes occurring within the landfill continue for decades
and cannot, in the event of an incident, be "switched off" within a matter of hours like the
furnace of a municipal waste incinerator. Over a period of decades, despite the use of gas
capture systems, substantial amounts of methane and other undesirable gases are released
into the atmosphere from bioreactor landfills.
4. The environmentally friendly disposal of municipal waste in Switzerland costs only 30
centimes per person and per day. The huge investment made to introduce the separate
collection for new incineration plants did not increase this amount because the plants
were able to rapidly market the heat, electricity and metal they produced. Today the costs
per person and per day are lower than at the end of the 1980’s.
5. Switzerland has a well-developed network of waste management facilities. Virtually
every region possesses the infrastructure required in order to dispose of its own wastes.
This helps to minimize transport costs and vehicle emissions.
America
In America, the case study of Eldorado hills has been considered and the salient findings are
summarized.
The disposal area is constructed without a liner or leachate collection system. However
groundwater monitoring and methane monitoring are conducted. Upon reaching capacity, a final
49
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
cover will be constructed, and the Permitted will be responsible for 30 years of post-closure care.
The Landfill accepts waste predominantly from the local community and adjacent counties.
Historically, no engineered Landfill base liner or leachate collection system has been
incorporated into Landfill development.
The Landfill has been operating under a Special Use Permit (SUP) as a MSWLF by the Storey
County Board of Commissioners since 1969. Refuse, Inc. assumed Landfill operations in 1979
under a lease arrangement with the landowner.
The design rationale used in the development of the final Landfill bench plan seeks to
incorporate design constraints offered by Refuse, Inc., the physical and economic constraints of
the Site, and the regulatory constraints adopted by the State of Nevada. In addition, the design
concept seeks to simplify constructability of the Landfill by developing final grades from a
single, baseline grade control system which is currently in operation for construction of
individual lifts and benches (cells). The Landfill bench design effort included a review of
existing foundation, bench construction, slope stability, access roadways, landfill cover,
settlement, final refuse storage capacities, and cover soil requirements.
Surface Water Management will be accomplished by implementing three measures to reduce the
amount of moisture available for leachate formation:
Storm water run-on will be diverted around the Landfill by the construction of diversion
channels.
The surface of the Landfill will be sloped for drainage. State of Nevada regulations stipulate that
the top slope of the Landfill "must have a grade of not less than three (3) percent".
Provide and maintain positive drainage of storm waters off of the Landfill and direct run-off
waters to evaporation ponds at the western margin of the Landfill.
South East Asia
Among South East Asia, Nepal’s MSW Management was reviewed and the salient points are
summarized.
Open dumping of MSW is mostly followed but they also have a sanitary landfill in Tribhuvan
nagar which is owned by the municipality, this landfill site is very efficiently managed as the
50
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
major fraction of the MSW i.e., biodegradable (70-75%) is processed for preparation of compost
and the rest is dumped in the landfill site, in order to maintain eco-friendly environment about
3000 trees have been planted and 150 beehives have been installed by the municipality;
Composting of the organic fraction of MSW is followed efficiently considering the high fraction
of biodegradable matter in MSW (70-75%);
Segregation of recyclables is also practiced efficiently.
3.6 Existing status of MSW Management in Nainital
In order to assess the existing system of municipal solid waste management and for modernizing
the solid waste management system in the city in terms of MSW Rules 2000, we undertook
consultation with stakeholders which included supervisory staff dealing with solid waste
management and officials of Nagar Palika Parishad. In existing system, Nainital Nagar Palika
Parishad has made efforts by dividing entire town in 13 wards. Details of division have been
made for systematic storage, collection, transportation & treatment of waste. NNPP has deployed
division wise sanitary workers, machineries and tools in order to ensure smooth operation.
Despite of efforts made by NNPP still the desired levels of solid waste management has not been
achieved as yet.
Mode of Collection
MSW is generally collected by sweeping the streets and collecting waste deposited along the
roadsides in front of houses (door to door collection). Sweepers are generally deployed by the
concerned managing bodies to load the waste collected onto the trucks. The shift timings in areas
for waste collection are normally from 6.00 A.M. to 12 noon.
51
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Fig: 6 Collection of MSW
Primary Collection
The primary collection of waste refers to house to house collection of waste in the community
bins either by the resident themselves or by the sanitary workers. That there is mixed pattern of
primary waste collection from households.
Secondary Collection
For the purpose of secondary collection, NNP has placed 43 total containers at designated places.
However these bins are in bad condition and besides its MOC being iron, waste is often burnt in
it. Dogs and monkeys further add on the menace of secondary collection.
Transportation of MSW
Mainly four types of vehicles, namely TATA 407 (High deck) with volumetric capacity of 10
m3, TATA 407 (Mini truck), TATA (1613) and TATA 407 (tipper truck) with volumetric
capacity of 15 m3
are used in areas for transportation of MSW to the dumping grounds. The
loading and unloading of refuse vehicles is done manually by sweepers and sanitary workers.
Manual loading and unloading is time consuming and reduces waste carrying efficiency. This
52
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
practice also increases health risk to the workers. Transfer stations are available in some areas
but they are seldom used.
Fig: 7 Transportation of MSW
Segregation of MSW
MSW in the dumping grounds of areas have often been found to be mixed with biomedical and
industrial wastes owing to the non-availability of a separate disposal technique. Organized waste
segregation is generally not practiced in areas but the localities of the dumping ground segregate
the waste to some extent for their own earnings.
53
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Fig: 8 Segregation of MSW
Disposal of MSW
Mostly in all the regions of India all the waste is dumped openly. Since there is no specified
disposal method, littering of waste and waste burning is often observed, which poses threat to
public health and environment. This disposal practice also can contaminate a nearby stream due
to the leachate generation.
Fig: 9 Disposal of MSW
54
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
MATERIALS AND METHODS
4.1 Methodology adopted for collecting MSW samples
MSW samples were collected from the 10 different areas of Nainital municipality. Sample
collection points are coming under the different categories like residential areas, commercial
areas, vegetable market, and low, higher and middle income areas. 2 kg of wet degradable
samples are collected from 10 different areas after removing the plastics and other non
degradable materials and after labeling brought to the laboratory for chemical analysis.
4.2 Preparation of Samples for Chemical Analysis
The municipal organic waste collected from different areas was oven dried for 48 hrs at 80 °C in
a hot air oven. The oven dried samples were further grinded to fine powder and then desiccated
to cool down.
For the chemical analysis of samples, extracts were prepared by dissolving 10 gm of the sample
in 100 mL of distilled water and shaken for 8 hrs in a rotary shaker in order to ensure full
dissolution of sample into distilled water. The solution was then filtered in Whatman No. 42
filter paper and the filtrate was used for chemical analysis. Chemical analysis was done as
prescribed by Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS No. 10158-1982).
4.3 Important parameters of MSW
pH
The pH is a marginal parameter for any type of MSW treatment like aerobic and anaerobic
digestion and composting process. A primary gauge of digester health is the pH level, which
changes in response to biological conversions during the different processes of AD. A stable pH
indicates system equilibrium and digester stability. A falling pH can point toward acid
accumulation and digester instability. Gas production is the only parameter that shows digester
instability faster than pH. The range of acceptable pH for the bacteria participating in digestion is
from 5.5 to 8.5, though the closer to neutral, the greater the chance that the methanogenic
bacteria will function (Golueke, 2002).
55
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Procedure
10 gram of air-dried sample was taken in a 50 mL beaker and 25 mL of distilled water was added
to it. The solution was kept undisturbed for 1 hr for sedimentation. A digital pH meter (Figure
A.1.1) was inserted into the solution to measure pH of solution.
Fig: 10 Photograph of pH Meter 3.0
I. Moisture Content
Procedure
The sample was weighed immediately after collection and recorded as wet weight of sample
(A). The sample was dried to a constant weight at a temperature not exceeding 100 °C for 48 hr
in a hot air oven. The samples were taken out of oven and kept inside the desiccators for 4 to 5
hrs to allow it to cool. The samples were weighed again the weights recorded as dry weight of
the sample (B).
Calculation
The moisture content of the sample is calculated using the following equation:
%W=[(A-B)/A] * 100
Where, %W = Percentage of moisture in the sample,
56
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
A= Weight of wet sample (gm), and
B= Weight of dry sample (gm)
Measurement of C, N
Principle
The basic principle of quantitative CHNS analysis is high temperature combustion of organic
solid samples. The gaseous combustion products are purified, separated into their various
components and analyzed with a suitable detector (Thermo-conductivity detector (TCD) in this
case).
Methods
Carbon and nitrogen in MSW samples were analyzed using Vario EL III CHNOS analyzer 4-6
mg of MSW sample was packed into tin boats and was dropped into the combustion tube at
temperatures up to 1200°C. The use of tin vessels further elevates the sample's combustion
temperature up to 1800°C.
The helium carrier gas transfers the gaseous combustion products into the copper tube. The
nitrogen oxides are reduced to nitrogen and the gaseous mixture enters the dynamic separation
system. The nitrogen travels directly to the TC detector while the CO2, H2O and SO2 are retarded
in specific adsorption traps. When the TCD's signal for nitrogen returns to baseline, the
adsorption traps are thermally desorbed and the corresponding gases detected sequentially.
Overlapping of separated gases is prevented by waiting for the TCD to return to baseline before
desorbing the next trap. This approach ensures the largest dynamic range in the shortest analysis
time possible. Variations in concentration ranges and measuring modes - CHNS, CNS, CHN, etc.
are possible by simply changing adsorption traps. The detector signals are integrated by using the
calibration curves stored in the PC. The concentrations of the various elements were calculated,
displayed and stored in memory.
57
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Figure: 11 A Pictorial View of CHNS Analyzer
Heavy Metal Analysis
Heavy metal content in MSW samples was analyzed using inductively coupled plasma atomic
emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES).
Sample Preparation
EPA Method 3051A (Microwave Digestion with HN03) 0.5 g of sample was weighed into a
fluorocarbon microwave vessel equipped with a controlled pressure relief mechanism. 10 mL
concentrated HNO3 was added to the vessel and was sealed. The vessel was properly placed in
the microwave system. Samples were digested at 175 °C for 10 min. After cooling, vessels
were uncapped and placed in fume cupboard in order to vent. The mixture was transferred
quantitatively to a 50 mL volumetric flask, and the mark was made up with Milli-Q water and
then the solution was filtered. The filtrate thus obtained was introduced into the capillary tube
of ICP-OES. The samples introduced were analyzed for heavy metals at the following wave
lengths:
Cd: 228.802 nm, Co: 228.616 nm, Cr: 267.716 nm, Cu: 327.393 nm, Fe: 238.204 nm Mn:
257.610 nm, Ni: 231.604 nm, Pb: 220.353 nm, Zn: 213.857 nm and then their concentrations
were displayed in the attached computer
58
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Figure: 12 Photographic View of ICP-OES
Loss on ignition and ash content
Procedure
After drying the sample in hot air oven at 80 °C for 24 hr, it was powdered and then kept inside
the Muffle Furnace at 600 °C for 2 hrs. Initial weight of the sample kept inside the muffle
furnace was noted (A) and then the final weight after keeping the sample inside muffle furnace
for 2 hrs at 600 °C was noted (B). The hot air oven and muffle furnace are shown in Figure.
Calculation
% Loss on Ignition = (A-B)/A * 100
% Ash Content = 100 - % Loss on Ignition
59
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Fig: 13 Photograph Hot Air Oven
Fig: 14 Photograph of Muffle Furnace
60
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
5.1 Quantification of MSW
In order to estimate per capita waste generation rate of MSW from Nainitaal city, simply volume
and density method is opted due to non availability of any weighing bridge within or nearby city.
During the survey period, density measurement of different MSW sample has been completed.
The per capita of the waste generation is 0.0102 kg/day.
Table 13: Physical Composition of MSW Sample
Sl. No. Constituents Maximum
%(w/w)
Minimum
%(w/w)
Mean
%(w/w)
1 Biodegradable/Compostable 78.4 36.5 51.17
2 Plastic 17.6 5.3 11.41
3 Paper 23 6.3 14.33
4 Glass and ceramics 7.2 0 1.84
5 Textiles 5 0 0.99
6 Metals 3.1 0 1.72
7 Inert, ash and debris 33.8 1.9 18.54
The observed value of each component of generated MSW in Nainitaal city has been figured
above. Based on economical and lifestyle strata, data of each component is revealing the existing
status of MSW characteristics in their respective domain. Among inert, ash and debris, the
amount of debris was found out be the maximum. Average percentage distribution of different
components of MSW is shown in Figure.
61
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Fig: 15: Percentage of Different Components of MSW
Table 14: Chemical analysis parameters of MSW
Sample Code Max Min Mean Standard
deviation
Moisture Content
(%)
51.5 18.5 39.7 12.7
Ph 7.52 6.11 6.73 0.49
LOI (%) 82.25 27.82 65.97 20.32
Carbon (%) 47.71 16.14 38.27 11.79
Ash (%) 72.18 17.75 34.03 20.32
Cadmium 1.452 0.278
0.61 0.44
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MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Cobalt 7.323 0.94 2.51 2.47
Copper 44.699 25.33 35.27 7.79
Iron 20618.601 3237.735 7815.15 6558.60
Lead 36.65 19.21 29.25 5.98
Potassium 5085 1365 3908.33 1365.77
Phosphate 7 0 2.58 2.58
The chemical analysis of MSW samples of Nainital which has been done at six sites in the study
area. The pH of sample max. 7.52 Which is basic in nature and min. 6.11 which is acidic in
nature, the average is 6.73 and std.dev. is 0.49. The moisture content (%) of the sample max.
51.5 % and min. 18.5 %, the average is 39.7 % and the std.dev. is 12.7 %. Loss on Ignition (%)
of sample max. 82.25 % and min. 27.82 %, the average is 65.97 % and std.dev. is 20.37 %.
carbon (%) of sample max. 47.71 % and min. 16.14 %, the average is 38.27 % and std.dev. is
11.79 %. The Ash (%) of sample max. is 72.18 % and min is 17.75 %, the average is 34.03 %
and std.dev. is 20.32 %. The heavy metal analysis of sample which is Cadmium max. is 1.452
mg/kg and min. is 0.278 mg/kg, the average is 0.61 mg/kg and the std.dev. is 0.44 mg/kg. Cobalt
max. is 7.323 mg/kg and min. is 0.94 mg/kg, the average is 2.51 mg/kg and std.dev.is 2.47mg/kg.
Iron is found in the sample is very high its max. is 20618.601 mg/kg and min is 3237.735mg/kg,
the average is 7815.15 mg/kg and std.dev. is 6558.60 mg/kg. Lead is max. 36.65 mg/kg and min.
19.21 mg/kg, the average is 29.25 mg/kg and std.dev. is 5.98 mg/kg. Potassium is max. 5085
mg/kg and min. is 1365 mg/kg, and average is 3908.33 mg/kg and std. dev. is 1365.77 mg/kg.
The last one is Phosphate its max. is 7 mg/kg and min. is 0, and the average is 2.58 mg/kg and
the std.dev. is also 2.58 mg/kg.
5.2 Discussion
In order to estimate per capita waste generation rate of MSW from Nainital city, simply volume
and density method is opted due to non availability of any weighing bridge within or nearby city.
As per MSW Management and Handling Rule 2000, The waste generation per capita per day in
kg/day within the Indian Standard it is 0.0102kg/day in the Nainital city.
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MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
The physical composition of MSW samples of Biodegradable or Compostable materials are
51.17 % of the total waste collected in the city, lies within the Indian Standard it is good
degradable climatic condition for composting, but the Inert, Ash and debris 18.54 % was found
out be the maximum due to tourist place they throw bottles, bags, old cloths etc that are not
degraded in the nature.
The chemical analysis of MSW samples as per Indian Standard showed that they are slightly
acidic in nature as its average pH was 6.73 and the range of variation was 6.11 - 7.52. Average
moisture content of the samples was observed to be 39.7 % with maximum and minimum values
of 51 % and 18 %, respectively. MSW samples contained average Carbon is that 38.27% and
maximum and minimum values are 47.74% and 16.14%. LOI and Ash has average value is
65.97% and 34.03%. The maximum and minimum values are 82.25%, 72.18% and 27.82%,
17.75%. Heavy metals were also analyzed in MSW samples. The concentration of cadmium was
0.65 mg/kg, Cobalt as 2.51 mg/kg, Copper concentration as 35.27 mg/kg and lead was observed
to be 29.25 mg/kg, Iron concentration as 7815.15 mg/kg, the concentration of heavy metals in
MSW samples are within Indian Compost Standards as per (MSW Management and Handling
Rules, 2000). Comparison of the observed values with Indian Compost Standards is presented
through table. Since the heavy metals content is within the limit and the compost can be used as
a fertilizer for food crops. However, repeated addition of heavy metal bearing compost as soil
conditioner needs to be studied in a more elaborate manner as it is a matter of concern.
Silent Findings in MSW in Nainital
Achievement in Present MSW System
Plastic recycling is being done at Haldwani Recycling plant
Dumping yard and composting plant for composting of waste
Deficiencies in Present MSW System
Inadequate door to door collection system. Door to door collection is taking place in few places
No segregation of waste (waste is being collected in mixed form).
Single Bin system in being practiced to a large extent in the city.
Inadequate no. of community bins and these bins are placed on unsurfaced platforms.
Shop owners in Market area haven’t been provided bins to store their waste, and they are
throwing waste on roads/open ground in front of their shops
Disposal/Dumping of construction and demolition waste in Narayan Nagar Area
Street sweepers are not provided with proper tools
64
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Manual collection and transportation has been practiced.
Poor practice in markets storage of waste in front of open space on ground.
Storage System and Collection system are unsynchronized
Issue of plastic bags
Lack of public awareness
The approach road of dumping yard is in poor condition
At existing Landfill site rehabilitation is required Biodegradable waste is being dumped in the
landfill and composting of waste is taking place in small pits which occupies large space
Machineries and equipments are in poor condition
Improper infrastructure is available at existing land fill site/dumping site.
Unscientific Dumping of Waste at Landfill Site. Uncontrolled dumping at a site down a gorge
like formation.
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MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
The study conducted in Nainital revealed following points:
1. There is the need to promote recycling practices in Nainital as lot of tourists come to the city
and waste materials like plastic, bottle, paper, cloths are indiscriminately thrown which need to
be taken care.
2. Decentralized composting due to Nainital is a tourist place and unavailability of organic
wastes and flow of organic wastes are not consistency and adopted recycling plants for the
recycling of materials.
Finally a framework for Nainital city is proposed for improvement in the existing waste
management system:
66
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
67
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
Fig 16: Framework of MSW Management of city Nainital
6.1 Recommendations
Four bin pushcarts of will be introduced for door to door collection.
NNPP shall arrange door step collection through containerized push carts and shall deployed
motorized vehicle in both hilly areas.
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MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
NNPP authority may extend their help in primary collection of such waste by deploying their
man power and machineries for door to door collection and levy spot fine if no garbage is
given in segregated form (Bio degradable and Non biodegradable)
Delegate power to sanitary supervisor to levy spot fine if no garbage is given in segregated
form ( Bio degradable and Non biodegradable)
Hotel waste shall be stored at site into a container of 50 lit capacities. Container should have
appropriate handle at top or side for easy lifting.
Vegetable market waste shall be keep in sturdy container of capacity 50‐100 lit. with handle
at top or side
In Vegetable market, all shop owners shall be provided with 15‐50 lit of bin for collection of
waste.
Street cleaning shall be done on daily basis or once in three days depending upon importance
of street and workers shall be provided with brooms, shovels and push carts.
For plastic waste recyclable process will be adopted by using extruders.
Excel organic waste composters, composting technology has been suggested on trial basis at
landfill site to check suitability of treatment. Excel organic composting is required to treat
waste from market and hotels during peak season as compostable waste increases drastically
and land available for composting at Narayan Nagar is not sufficient for handling this
amount.
Windrows machinery area will be covered with asbestos sheet for protection.
Create public awareness
6.2 Future Scope of Project Work
Details analysis and study of Organic waste to set up Composting facility
Proximate and ultimate analysis to determine the waste composition at molecular level on
economical and commercial strata.
Comparative MSWM study of hilly region from national and international level to learn
from their success to fill the existing lacuna for this city
69
MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital
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