c40.orglsecities.net

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SEP TEMBER 2016

Co-benefitsofurbanclimateaction:AframeworkforcitiesAworkingpaperbytheEconomicsofGreenCitiesProgramme,LSECities,LondonSchoolofEconomicsandPoliticalScience

GrahamFloater,CatarinaHeeckt,MatthewUlterino,LisaMackie,PhilippRode,AnkitBhardwaj,MariaCarvalho,DarrenGill,ThomasBailey,RachelHuxley

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TableofContentsLSECITIESANDC40CITIESCLIMATELEADERSHIPGROUP..............................................................................3EXECUTIVESUMMARY...................................................................................................................................4

RECOMMENDATIONS...............................................................................................................................................6PART1:INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................7

WHYDOCLIMATECO-BENEFITSMATTERFORCITIES?.....................................................................................................7OBJECTIVESOFTHISREPORT......................................................................................................................................7METHODOLOGY......................................................................................................................................................8

Reviewofliteraturebysector........................................................................................................................8Reviewofco-benefitsframeworks..............................................................................................................10Fivestrategicsectors...................................................................................................................................10

PART2:FINDINGS.......................................................................................................................................12DEFINITIONANDTAXONOMYOFCO-BENEFITS.............................................................................................................12

Definitionsusedintheliterature.................................................................................................................12Definitionsusedbymajororganisations.....................................................................................................13Taxonomyofco-benefits.............................................................................................................................15

CO-BENEFITSLANDSCAPE........................................................................................................................................19Literaturereview.........................................................................................................................................19Cityinterviews.............................................................................................................................................28

AFRAMEWORKFORCLIMATECO-BENEFITS.................................................................................................................30Greeneconomyframeworks........................................................................................................................30Benefit-Costapproaches..............................................................................................................................33Resilienceframeworks.................................................................................................................................36Whyanewframeworkforcityco-benefitsisneeded..................................................................................38Anewframework........................................................................................................................................39

URBANINDICATORSANDDATA................................................................................................................................45Indicatorsthatcitiescanmeasureandmonitor..........................................................................................45Datagapsandcapacitybuilding.................................................................................................................45

PART3:FUTURERESEARCH.........................................................................................................................49RECOMMENDATIONS.............................................................................................................................................50

ANNEX1:FRAMEWORKOFMITIGATIONCO-BENEFITS................................................................................51ANNEX2:FRAMEWORKOFADAPTATIONCO-BENEFITS...............................................................................58ANNEX3:CO-BENEFITSFRAMEWORKINACTION-FIVEEXAMPLES........................................................65REFERENCES................................................................................................................................................83

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LSECitiesandC40CitiesClimateLeadershipGroupLSECitiesisaninternationalcentrethatcarriesoutresearch,educationandoutreachactivitiesinLondonandabroad.Itsmissionistostudyhowpeopleandcitiesinteractinarapidlyurbanisingworld,focusingonhowthedesignofcitiesimpactsonsociety,cultureandtheenvironment.WiththesupportofDeutscheBank’sAlfredHerrhausenGesellschaft,thecentrebuildsontheinterdisciplinaryworkoftheUrbanAgeProgramme,aninternationalinvestigationofcitiesaroundtheworldthatsince2005hasstudiedthesocialandspatialdynamicsofmetropolitanareassuchasIstanbul,SãoPaulo,Mumbai,Johannesburg,Shanghai,NewYorkCityandLondon.ThisReportformspartofawiderresearchprogrammeattheLSEontheEconomicsofGreenCities(EGC).TheEGCisaglobalcollaborativeprogrammechairedbyLordSternattheLSE.TheProgrammewassetupwiththeaimofexaminingtherisk-adjustedcostsandbenefitsofgreenpolicyframeworksonthesustainableeconomicgrowthofcitiesindifferentpartsoftheworld.Thepurposeistoproviderobust,evidence-basedrecommendationsforcityandnationalpolicyleadersandotherstakeholders.TheLSEisalsothecitiesresearchpartnerfortheGlobalCommissionontheEconomyandClimate,leadingtheresearchfortheGlobalCommission’sflagshipproject,theNewClimateEconomy.TheC40CitiesClimateLeadershipGroup(C40),nowinits10thyear,connectsmorethan80oftheworld’sgreatestcities,representing600+millionpeopleandonequarteroftheglobaleconomy.Createdandledbycities,C40isfocusedontacklingclimatechangeanddrivingurbanactionthatreducesgreenhousegasemissionsandclimaterisks,whileincreasingthehealth,wellbeingandeconomicopportunitiesofurbancitizens.C40’sinternationalstaffworkswiththeC40networkundertheleadershipofcitygovernmentstodeliverthismission.Usingadata-drivenapproach,theC40teamidentifiesandpromotestheexchangeofprovenprogrammesandpoliciesdevelopedbycities;providesworld-classresearch,technicalexpertiseandaccesstokeypartnerstodelivernewprogrammesandpolicieswithcities;andcommunicatescities’individualachievementsandcollectiveleadership.C40’sresearchteamperformscuttingedgeanalysisonurbansustainabilityandservesastheleadingauthorityontheimpacttheworld’scitieshaveonglobalclimatechange.

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ExecutiveSummaryWhydoclimateco-benefitsmatterforcities?

• Theevidencesuggeststhatcitizensaremorelikelytotakeactiononclimatechange,ormorelikelytosupportgovernmentsthattakeactiononclimatechange,ifthewiderco-benefitsofthoseactionsareemphasised.

• Atthesametime,policiesthatareaimedatsupportinginnovation,deliveringeconomicbenefitsandenhancingthequalityoflifeofcitizenscanpotentiallyleadtomajorclimateco-benefits(e.g.reducedgreenhousegasemissions)whichwouldbemorechallengingtoachieveifclimateactionweretheprimaryobjective.

• Atthecitylevel,thepotentialofco-benefitsisparticularlygreatascitizenscanoftenwitnesstheresultsofpolicyactionsmoredirectlyontheirdailylives.

Definitionandtaxonomyofco-benefits

• Thetermco-benefitshasawiderangeofdefinitionsintheclimateliterature,withover20termsidentifiedintheliteraturethatareusedsynonymouslyorinasimilarcontext.

• The term co-benefits varies in intentionality (e.g. is climate the primary or secondaryobjective, or simply an unintentional benefit?), scope (e.g. does it include mitigationbenefits,adaptationbenefitsorboth?),andscale(e.g.arethebenefitsshorttermandlocal,orlongtermandglobal?).

• Co-benefitsmaybe(1)secondarybenefitsfromclimatepolicyaction,(2)secondaryclimatebenefitsfromotherpolicyactions,or(3)thecombinationofclimateandnon-climatebenefits;bothofwhicharetargetedunderanintegratedpolicyprogramme.

• Thewiderangeofestablisheddefinitionsofco-benefitsusedbyauthoritativeorganisationsmeansthatformulatingataxonomyofco-benefitswithbroadbuy-infrompolicymakersischallenging.

Resultsofliteraturereview

• Health,LandUseandTransportwerethetopthreesectorsforthenumberofco-benefits,withover40co-benefitsidentifiedineach.

• Waste,AirQuality,TransportandEnergyhadparticularlyhighnumbersofmitigationco-benefitsintheliteraturereviewed.Adaptationco-benefitswereparticularlystrongforDisasterandEmergency,FoodSecurityandTourism,CultureandSport.LandUse,Health,WaterandEducationtendedtobestrongforbothmitigationandadaptationco-benefits.

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Co-benefitsframeworks

• Currentco-benefitsframeworkstendtobefocusedonthreeareas:(1)thegreeneconomy,(2)benefit-costapproaches,and(3)resilienceframeworks.Inmanyoftheseframeworks,thetermco-benefitsisnotexplicitlyused.However,noneoftheseframeworksaresufficienttocapturethefulllandscapeofco-benefitscomprehensively.

• Furthermore,noneoftheexistingframeworksaredesignedtoidentifyandmeasurespecificco-benefitsinacity.

• Thisreportsuggestsanewpotentialframeworkforcityco-benefitsbasedonfivestrategicsectors:Health,Mobility,Buildings,ResourcesandEconomy.

• Thesestrategicsectorsarecentraltothestrategyofmanycities,includingthoseindeveloped,emerginganddevelopingcountries.

• Thestrategicsectorscanbesubdividedintocitygoalsandassociatedpolicyactions.• Alternativepolicyactionscanbeassessedbasedontheirclimateandnon-climateimpacts.• Fivepromisingareaswhereco-benefitsarepotentiallyhighinclude:1.Trafficpollution;2.

Healthylifestyles;3.Smarttransportsystems(includingBusRapidTransit);4.Floodingandbuildingdamage;5.Valuingthesizeoftheenvironmentalgoodsmarket.

Urbanindicatorsanddata

• Citiesneedrobustdataandstandardindicatorstomeasureandmonitortheimpactofpolicyactionsonco-benefits.

• Thereviewidentifiedthreetypesofdatasourcewithpotentialtoquantifyco-benefits:data,casestudiesandmodels.However,muchofthedatacontainedinthesesourcesisoflittlevaluetoindividualcities.

• Theevidencesuggeststhatcurrentlyfewcitieshavebenchmarkindicatorsagainstwhichauthoritiescanmeasureandmonitorpolicyimpactsonco-benefits.Wherethesedoexist,theyarenotstandardisedacrossdifferentcities.

• Theevidencefromtheliteraturesuggeststhatmanycitiesdonotcollecttheprimarydatatoestimatesuchindicators.Othercitiesmayholdrelevantdata,butarecurrentlynotusingiteitherduetolackofcapacityorthelackofaco-benefitsframework.

• Gapsindataandtechnicalcapacityforanalysingdataaremajorbarrierstoimplementingpolicyactionsthatmaximiseco-benefits.

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RecommendationsRecommendation 1. Develop a co-benefits framework based on five strategic sectors; Health,Mobility,Resources,BuildingsandEconomy.

• Initiateagloballevelcollaborationtodevelopaco-benefitsframework.• Build on and extend the LSE/C40 co-benefits framework (Annex 1 and 2) for the five

strategicsectors,toprovideamorecomprehensivelandscapeofco-benefits,linkingthemtoC40’sClimateActioninMegacities.

• Developamethodologyformeasuringthegreeneconomyandrelatedco-benefits.• Upgrade existing methods for measuring economic, social and environmental co-benefits

andadjusttoaclimateresilienceframework.• Using pilot studies, develop an integrated accounting framework for municipal

governmentsthatincludesclimate,economic,socialandenvironmentalindicatorsanddata.Recommendation2.Improvethecollectionandanalysisofclimateco-benefitsdata.

• Using pilot cities, build a detailed database of co-benefits data and indicators beginningwiththefollowingareas:1.Trafficpollution;2.Healthylifestyles;3.Smarttransportsystems(including Bus Rapid Transit); 4. Flooding and building damage; 5. Valuing the size of theenvironmentalgoodsmarket.

• Supportadatacapacitybuildingprogrammeforcitiesbysharingbestpracticesondataandindicators.

Recommendation 3. Implement a research programme on governance and finance required fordeliveringco-benefits.

• Develop best practice guidance for departmental and multi-level governance to delivercross-departmentalco-benefitsthroughintegratedpolicy.

• Developactionplansforallocatingpublicfinancemoreeffectivelyandefficientlytodelivercross-departmentalco-benefitsandleverageprivatefinance.

• Developplanningframeworkscapableofintegratingconsiderationsacrosssectoral,spatialandtemporalscales.

• Develop a tool for prioritising policy programmes thatmaximise climate impacts and co-benefits.

Recommendation4.Developacommunicationstrategyfortakingactionbasedonco-benefits.Develop an evidence base for best practice to communicate co-benefits to mayors, senior cityofficials,business,citizensandNGOs.

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Part1:Introduction

Whydoclimateco-benefitsmatterforcities?Theevidencesuggeststhatcitizensaremorelikelytotakeactiononclimatechange,ormorelikelytosupportgovernmentsthattakeactiononclimatechange,ifthewiderco-benefitsofthoseactionsareemphasised(Bainetal.2015).Atthesametime,policiesthatareaimedatsupportinginnovation,deliveringeconomicbenefitsandenhancingthequalityoflifeofcitizenscanpotentiallyleadtomajorclimateco-benefits(e.g.reducedgreenhousegasemissions)whichwouldbemorechallengingtoachieveifclimateactionweretheprimaryobjective.Atthecitylevel,thepotentialofco-benefitsisparticularlygreatascitizenscanoftenwitnesstheresultsofpolicyactionsmoredirectlyontheirdailylives.Oneexampleisurbanairquality.Themajorsourceofbothoutdoorairpollutionandgreenhousegasemissionsistheburningoffossilfuels.Consequently,targetedpolicyactionstoimproveairqualitycanleadtosubstantialclimateco-benefitsandviceversa.Asairpollutionleadsto7millionprematuredeathsayear,thehealthimpactsofimprovedairqualityrepresentapotentiallypowerfuldrivertoreducecarbonemissionsatthesametime(WHO2014).Despitethepotentialformakingamorerobusteconomic,socialandenvironmentalcaseforclimateaction,combinedwiththepotentialformainstreamingclimateobjectivesintointegratedmunicipalpolicyprogrammes,governmentshavenotdevelopedcomprehensiveco-benefitsframeworksforpolicydecisionmaking.Partofthereasonisthelackofclarityonthedefinitionofco-benefits.Atthesametime,whereco-benefitsarewell-defined(e.g.policiesthatsimultaneouslyreduceGHGemissionsandurbanairpollutionlevels),thebenefitsaremostoftenunquantifiedanduncosted.

ObjectivesofthisreportC40aimstosupportcitiesto“understandvalueandthenmakethecaseforindividualclimateactionsbasedontheenvironmental,economicandsocialcostsandbenefits”ofthoseactions.Tosupportthisoverallaim,thisreport-ascopingstudyonco-benefitsbytheEconomicsofGreenCitiesProgrammeattheLondonSchoolofEconomics-hasthreekeyobjectives:

• Undertakeareviewoftheliteratureanddataonurbanco-benefitstoclimateactioninordertomapthecurrentlandscapeofunderstanding,useandavailabilityofdata.

• Produceaco-benefitframeworktosupportasharedlanguagefor,andcommonunderstandingandmeasurementof,co-benefits.

• Producerecommendationstoinformfurtherworkonco-benefits.

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MethodologyReviewofliteraturebysectorTheliteratureonclimateco-benefitswasexaminedacross13keysectors.Inordertodefinethescopeforcollectingtheevidenceonco-benefits,theprojectteaminitiallyidentified20urbanpolicyareasbasedoncityandnationaldepartmentalpolicyresponsibilities.Thesewerederivedfromthestructuresofagenericnationalgovernmentandacity’spolicydepartments,andcomplementedbyexaminingtheoverallstrategiesofarangeofcitiesindeveloped,emerginganddevelopingcountries.Forexample,thedigitalpolicyareacoversdigitalinclusionstrategiesaswellasthedigitalinfrastructureforbusinessgrowth.Thepolicyareaswererefinedandorganisedintocoherentsectorstoreducesubstantialoverlaps.GiventheoverlapintheinitialsearchresultsacrossTourism,CultureandSport,thesewereamalgamated.Similarly,BuildingsandHousingwereamalgamated.AninitialexaminationofthePoliceandSecuritysearchresultsfoundlittleornorelevantco-benefitsintheliteratureandthissectorwasexcludedfromthemainanalysis.Finally,EconomyandEconomicDevelopment,SocialInclusionandEnvironmentwerenotincludedassectorsastheco-benefitsidentifiedacrosstheotherremainingsectorswerethemselvesgroupedintoeconomic,socialandenvironmental.Combined,theseco-benefitsalsocoverthequalityoflifeofcitizens.However,giventheimportanceofAirQualityasanenvironmentalsectorintheco-benefitsliterature,thiswasincludedasaspecificsectorinitsownright.Theprocessofrefiningandamalgamatingthe20initialareasresultedin13keysectors.Manyofthe13keysectorswerethendividedintobroadsub-sectors,reflectingthekeyareasofgovernmentresponsibilitiesineachsector.Thiswasparticularlythecaseforsectorsthatcoveredabroadrangeofissues(e.g.Transport)orwheretheprecisepolicyareawasunclearusingthesectorkeywordalone(e.g.Landuseplanning).Theinclusionofsub-sectorswasdesignedtoextendthesearchtocovermorepotentialco-benefitsthanmightbeapparentfromsectorheadingsonly.Thisexerciseresultedin13keysectorsand55sub-sectors(seeBox1.1).Theliteraturewasreviewedforeachsector,usingtwosearchengines:scholar.google.co.ukandwww.google.co.uksothatrelevantgreyliteraturewascapturedaswellasacademicstudies.Thesearcheswerecarriedoutforeachsectorandsub-sectorinbothGoogleandGoogleScholarwithidenticalkeywordsinstandardisedorder.Thetotalnumberofsearchresultswasrecordedandthefirst20relevantarticlesforeachsectorandsub-sectorsearchwerereviewedindetail.ItshouldbenotedthattheliteraturesearchwasconductedusingEnglishkeywordsandwiththeUKversionofGoogle.Consequently,articlesonco-benefitsinotherlanguagesandinothercountriesareprobablyunder-representedinthesampling.However,casestudiesfoundinthesearchwerebroadlyinternationalinscope.Atthesametime,certainurbanchallengeswereparticularlyconcentratedincertainregions,countriesorcities.Forexample,manyofthesearchesrelatedtoairqualityco-benefitsmentionedcasestudiesfromChinaandIndia,reflectingthesignificantairpollutionchallengesthatthesecountriescurrentlyface.

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TheliteraturereviewwassupplementedbyadditionalkeyarticlesthatwerereferencedinthearticlesreviewedaswellasspecificliteraturesuggestedbyC40(NewClimateEconomyresearchpublications,LSEresearch,CarbonDisclosureProject)andLSEexperts.Foreachofthe13sectors,benefitsidentifiedintheliteraturewerecategorisedintoadaptation,mitigation,economic,socialorenvironmentalbenefits.Box1.1Listof13keysectorsexaminedintheco-benefitsliteratureOverall,13keysectorsand55sub-sectorswerereviewedforco-benefits.Economy&Development,SocialInclusionandEnvironmentwerenotincludedassectors,butwereinsteadcapturedasco-benefitsacrossthe13sectors.1.Health

• Healthefficiency• Children• Elderly• Careservices• Pharmaceuticals• Malnutrition

2.Landuseplanning

• Planningrules• Infrastructureplanning• Regeneration• Greenspaces

3.Transport

• Rail• Metro• Roads• Parking• Roadsafety• Cycling• Walking• E-mobility• Sharedmobility• Multimodality• Airports• Rivertransport• Freight• Newtechnology

4.Water• Waterquality• Waterpollution• Waterdistribution• Floodprotection• Sewerage

5.Buildings

• Energyefficiency• Buildingstandards• Newtechnology

6.Digital7.Energy

• Energysecurity• Lowcarbonenergy• Energyregulation• Smartgrids&energy

distribution• Distributedenergy

8.Education

• Childcare• Schools• Highereducation

9.Tourism,CultureandSport• Tourism• Culture• Sport

10.Foodsecurity

• Fooddistribution• Foodsafety

11.Airquality

• Carbonemissions• Airpollution

12.Waste

• Householdwaste• Industrialwaste• Recycling• Landfill• Incineration

13.Disaster&emergency

• Contingencyplanning• Resilientinfrastructure• Fire&emergency

services

Differentsectorshaddifferentnumbersofsub-sectors,leadingtoahighernumberofarticlesbeingreviewedinsomesectorsthaninothers.Transporthadthehighestnumberofsub-sectors(14),followedbyHealth(6).Thistendedtoreflecttheabundanceofco-benefitsliteratureforthesesectors.TheDigitalsectorwasnotdividedintosub-sectorsasitwasmorespecialisedthanmanyoftheothersectors,andmanyco-benefitswithadigitalassociationwerepickedupin“NewTechnology”searches(underTransportandBuildings).Thetotalnumberofarticlesfoundforeachsectormayalsodependonthesearchengines’algorithms.Forthesereasons,sectorswerecomparedintermsofrelativenumbers(e.g.percentageofarticleswithmitigationco-benefits)ratherthanabsolutenumbers.

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Theliteraturereviewrepresentsoneofthemostextensivereviewsonclimateco-benefitsacrossurbansectorsyetundertaken.Nevertheless,asascopingstudy,itshouldnotberegardedasexhaustive.Somesectorshadalargerangeofresearchonco-benefitsthatcouldnotbeexaminedindetailwithinthescopeofthisreview.Byfocusingonthefirst20relevantarticlesineachsub-sectorsearch,themajorityofco-benefitswereprobablyidentifiedineachsector.Indeed,fewnewco-benefitswerecapturedsuccessivelyafteraround15-20articles.Nonetheless,furtherresearcheffortscouldbedirectedtoanumberofsectorsthatareparticularlyrichinco-benefitsliterature;theseincludehealth,landuseplanningandtransport.Insomeofthelessrepresentedsectors,thekeywordsusedintheliteraturereviewmaynothavepickeduparticlesthatexamineco-benefitsbutdonotexplicitlyusethetermco-benefits.Theconceptofco-benefitsisnotasestablishedincertainsectors,andthismayhaveinfluencedthenumberofrelevantarticlesinthesesectors.Sectorswheremoreresearchwouldseempromisingincludeeducation,waterandtourism.Reviewofco-benefitsframeworksInparalleltotheliteraturereviewonco-benefitsbysector,theprojectteamconductedareviewofco-benefitsdefinitionsandframeworks.Alargerangeofdefinitionswerealreadyidentifiedinthesectoralreview,andthisreviewwassupplementedwithdetailedsearchesfordefinitionsbymajororganisationswithclimateco-benefitsprogrammesorresearchpublications.TheseincludedtheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC),theUnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA),theOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD),theAsianCo-benefitsPartnership(ACP),theJapaneseMinistryofEnvironment,theUnitedNations,andtheWorldBank.Areviewofco-benefitsframeworksidentifiedthreeimportantgeneralapproachesintheliterature.Thesewere(1)thegreeneconomy,focusingonmitigationandeconomicbenefits,(2)benefit-costapproaches,whichprovideaninsightintohowgovernmentsassessmultiplebenefitsandcosts,and(3)resilienceframeworks,whichfocusonclimateadaptationandpotentialco-benefits.Thereportexamineseachofthesethreeapproachesalongwiththeirpotentialandlimitations.FivestrategicsectorsTheco-benefitsidentifiedinthesectoralliteraturereviewweregroupedintofivestrategicsectors:Health,Mobility,Resources,Buildings,andEconomy.Thesestrategicsectorswerethendividedintocitygoals,policyactionsandco-benefits.Thestrategicsectorswerecreatedusingtwomaincriteria.First,thestrategicsectorsarecollectivelyexhaustive,withalltheco-benefitsidentifiedinthereviewassignedtooneofthestrategicsectors.Thestrategicsectorsarenotmutuallyexclusive,andinmanycases,ajudgementwasmadeoverwhichstrategicsectoraco-benefitshouldbeassignedto,whenstrongargumentscouldbemadeforassigningtheco-benefittoanotherstrategicsector.Giventhatthisisascopingreport,theassignmentofco-benefitsmayberefinedinfutureresearch.Second,thestrategicsectorswerebasedonpolicyareaswheremanycitygovernmentsalreadyhavestrategicgoalsthatresonatewithurbancitizens.Allfivestrategicsectorsincludeanelementofimprovingqualityoflife,withperceivedbenefitsforcitizensthatarebothdirectandtangible.TheevidenceforthiswasdrawnfromapreviousLSECitiessurveyofpolicymakersin100citiesworldwidealongwithevidenceonmayoralcitypowersbyC40(RodeandFloater2013;C402015).

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Thefivestrategicsectorsencompasstheco-benefitsinthe13sectorsdescribedabove.Forexample,manyoftheco-benefitsintheAirQualitysectorareintegratedintothestrategicsectorofHealth.Mobilityincludesco-benefitsintheTransportsector,butalsoinLandUse.ResourcesincludeEnergy,WaterandWaste.Toreducedoublecounting,policyactionsthatinitiallyappearedinmultiplesectorswereconsolidated.Forexample,thepreliminaryfindingsincluded‘Increasepublictransport’underLandUse;and‘Increasetheuseofpublictransport(bybusrapidtransit,lightrail,metroorrail)’underTransport.Asthepolicyactionisthesame,itappearsonlyonceintheAnnextablesundertheMobilitystrategicsector,inclusiveofallco-benefitspreviouslyidentified.Whiledoublecountingofpolicyactionsandassociatedco-benefitswasreduced,thesameorsimilarco-benefitmaystillbefoundmorethanonceifitisassociatedwithmorethanonestrategicsector.Thisreducedthetotalnumberofco-benefitsfrom287to268spreadacross55policyactions.TheresultsareshowninAnnex1and2ofthereport.

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Part2:Findings

Definitionandtaxonomyofco-benefitsDefinitionsusedintheliteratureThetermco-benefitsisdefinedinmanydifferentwaysinboththeacademicandpolicyliterature.Therearealsomanyterms(suchasancillarybenefits,secondarybenefits,etc.)thatareinsomecasessynonymouswithco-benefitsbutinothercaseshaveaslightlydifferentmeaning.Inourliteraturereview,co-benefitwasassociatedwithover20differenttermswithawiderangeofuses(seeBox1.2).Inaddition,variousstudieshavehighlightedtheexistenceofco-impactsthathaveanetcostorareneitherpositivenornegativeintheirimpact.

Box1.2Listoftermsusedinterchangeablywith“co-benefits”Thetermco-benefitsisusedinmanydifferentways.AspartoftheC40/LSEproject,ourliteraturereviewuncoveredthefollowinglistofover20termsthatareusedinterchangeablywithco-benefits:

• Win-winsituations• Life-cyclebenefits• Triple-winscenarios• Consequentialbenefits• Ancillarybenefits• Mutualbenefits• Consequentiallifecycleimpacts• Secondarybenefits• Inducedchanges• Collateralbenefits• Sidebenefits• Associatedbenefits• Spill-overbenefits• Alignmentofincentives/objectives• Mainstreaming• No-regretstrategies• Co-priorities• Co-control• Synergisticobjectives• Leveragepoints• Co-incidenceofagendas• Externalities• Coupledsystems

In addition to these terms for co-benefits, a number of studies have highlighted the existence of co-impactsthathaveanetcostorareneitherpositivenornegativeintheirimpact.Examplesinclude:

• Co-effects• Co-impacts• Co-costs• Lifecycleimpacts• Ancillaryimpacts

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DefinitionsusedbymajororganisationsTheIPCCThirdandFourthAssessmentReports(AR3andAR4)distinguishbetweenco-benefits(benefitsthatareintendedbythepolicymaker)andancillarybenefits(unintendedbenefits).Underthisdefinition,co-benefitsarethebenefitsfrompolicyoptionsimplementedforvariousreasonsatthesametime(seeBox1.3;(IPCCClimateChange2001:WorkingGroupIII:Mitigation)).Consequently,AR3suggestsanintegratedpolicyapproachinwhichmultiplepolicyobjectivesareintended,includingclimateandnon-climateobjectives(illustratedindiagram(c)inFig.1.1).Incontrast,single-objectivepoliciesresultindirectbenefitsinthestatedsphere,andunintentionalancillarybenefitsinotherspheresasaresultofthepolicyaction.1However,intheFifthAssessmentReport(AR5),theIPCChasshifteditsdefinition,andacknowledgesthatco-benefitsareoftenreferredtoasancillarybenefits.ProgrammesandresearchsuchasthoseoftheUSEPAIntegratedEnvironmentalStrategies,theCleanAirInitiativeforAsianCities(CAI-Asia)andtheOECDfocusparticularlyonairqualityandGHGemissions.Theyareopentodifferentinterpretationsofintentionality(Bollenetal.2009).Co-benefitsrelatetoGHGemissionreductionsalongwithhealth,agriculturalandeconomicbenefitsfromaddressinglocalairpollution.IntheEPA’sformulation,benefitscanbegeneratedunintentionallywhendecisionmakersimplementapolicywithasingleaimandthenlaterdiscoverthatthepolicyresultedinadditionalco-benefits.CAI-Asiasuggestpotentialvalueinde-emphasisingtheintentionalclimateobjective,“consideringthatmanyoftheAsiancountriesdonothaveclimatechangepoliciesinplace,noraretheyexpectedtohavedetailedpoliciesinthenextyears”(Castilloetal.2007).TheAsianCo-benefitsPartnershipsuggeststhatclimateco-benefitscanrepresentasecondarybenefittodevelopmentobjectivesbutareintegratedintothepolicymakingprocess.Thismeanspromoting“policies,programmesorprojectsdesignedtomeetimmediatedevelopmentprioritiessuchasimprovingurbanairquality,waterquality,andwastemanagementwhiletakingintoaccountlongertermclimateconcerns.”Inthecaseofairquality,climateconsiderationsmaybebetterplacedasasecondaryconsiderationas“directlocalairpollutioncontrolpoliciesappeartobetypicallycheaperthanindirectactionviagreenhousegasesemissionsmitigation”(Bollenetal.2009).TheWorldBankanalysisshowsthescopingpossibilitieswhenco-benefitsaretreatedas‘win-win-win’scenariosindevelopingpolicieswhich“createenvironmentalbenefitswhilesimultaneouslycontributingtodevelopment,adaptation,andmitigation”(HamiltonandAkbar2010).Asforscale,GHGreductionsinacityareaimedtosupportcollectiveactiontoreducethedamagingimpactsofclimatechangeglobally.Thiscanbeachievedwhiledeliveringarangeofbenefits(e.g.improvedairquality,wastemanagement,energysecurity)atthelocalscaleforthecityitself.Climatemitigationbenefitsalsotendtobelong-term;actionstakentodaywillsupportthereductionofclimateimpactsdecadesintothefuture.Atthesametime,non-climateco-benefitstendtoofferrelativelynear-termbenefitswhicharealsolocallyfelt,affectingthecommunitiesrelativelyclosetothesourcesoftheemissionschanges(IPCCClimateChange2001:WorkingGroupIII:Mitigation).Theopportunityforcitiestopursueco-benefitpoliciesthusoffersananalyticalframeworkthroughwhichindividualactiononGHGreductionswhichhavesingularminimalimpact(butsignificantcollectiveimpactifpursuedbylargenumbersofcities)canbealignedwithlocalpolicyobjectives.

1NoteasconsistentwiththeobjectivesoftheIPCC,thepolicyfocusisalwaysclimateaction.Thusthedistinctionliesinwhetherthepolicyactionsaresimultaneouslyandexplicitlydesignedforclimateandnon-climateco-benefits;orofferdeliveryofnon-climateancillarybenefits(e.g.resourceefficiency).

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Box1.3Definitionsofco-benefitsusedbymajororganisationsIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)2001,2007“Co-benefits”arethebenefitsfrompolicyoptionsimplementedforvariousreasonsatthesametime,acknowledgingthatmostpoliciesresultinginGHGmitigationalsohaveother,oftenatleastequallyimportant,rationales.“Ancillarybenefits”arethemonetizedsecondaryorsidebenefitsofmitigationpoliciesonproblemssuchasreductionsinlocalairpollutionassociatedwiththereductionoffossilfuels,andpossiblyindirecteffectsoncongestion,landquality,employment,andfuelsecurity.IPCC2014Thepositiveeffectsthatapolicyormeasureaimedatoneobjectivemighthaveonotherobjectives,withoutyetevaluatingtheneteffectonoverallsocialwelfare.Co-benefitsareoftenreferredtoasancillarybenefits.UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)2004Co-benefitsisusedtorefertotwoormorebenefitsthatarederivedtogetherfromasinglemeasureorsetofmeasures.Benefitscanbegeneratedunintentionallywhendecisionmakersimplementapolicywithasingleaimandthenlaterdiscoverthatthepolicyresultedinadditionalco-benefits.Thisdocument…considersanypositivebenefitderivedfromapolicymeasureorscenariotobeaco-benefitofthepolicy,providedthatoneofthebenefitsachievedisreducedGHGemissions.OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)2015ForGHGmitigationpolicies,co-benefitscanbestbedefinedaseffectsthatareadditionaltodirectreductionsofGHGandimpactsofclimatechangeandhaveestimatedtobelarge,relativetothecostsofmitigation(e.g.anywherefrom30%toover100%ofabatementcosts).TheAsianCo-benefitsPartnership(ACP)[Co-benefitsare]thosederivedfromtheintentionaldecisiontoaddressairpollution,energydemand,andclimatechangeinanintegratedmanner,butalsoconsiderstheotherunspecifiedbenefitsthatmayarisesuchasimprovedtransportandurbanplanning,reducedhealthandagriculturalimpacts,improvedeconomyorreducedoverallpolicyimplementationcost.Thisenablessectormanagerstoutilizetheco-benefitapproachwithoutdoingsointhecontextofaspecificclimatechangepolicy.MinistryofEnvironment,Japan2009Co-benefitsreferstomultiplebenefitsindifferentfieldsresultingfromonepolicy,strategy,oractionplan.UnitedNationsIAS2013Co-benefitsapproachreferstothedevelopmentandimplementationofpoliciesandstrategiesthatsimultaneouslycontributetotacklingclimatechangewhilstaddressinglocalenvironmentalanddevelopmentalproblems.WorldBank,BackgroundPaper2010Co-benefitsaredefinedasthebenefitsforthelocalenvironmentasaresultof(mitigation/adaptation)actionsthataretargetedataddressingglobalclimatechange.

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Taxonomyofco-benefitsAspartofthescopeoftheLSEco-benefitsreview,C40requestedanexaminationofapotentialtaxonomyofco-benefits.Ataxonomycanbedefinedinatleasttwoways.Thestrictestdefinitionofataxonomy,basedonitsoriginalbiologicaldefinition,isahierarchicalclassificationinwhichobjectsorgroupsinonelevelareaggregatedintogroupsatthelevelabove.Abroaderdefinitionoftaxonomyissimplyanytypeofclassificationofobjects.Inordertoclassifyco-benefitsintoataxonomyitisnecessarytohaveacleardefinitionofco-benefitsthemselves.Asdiscussedinthesectionsabove,thetermco-benefitsisusedinawiderangeofdifferentways.Thismakesasingletaxonomyofco-benefitsbasedontheliteratureimpossible.However,whilethetermco-benefitshasawiderangeofuses,theliteraturerevealsthreemainelementsthatpolicymakersshouldconsiderwhenclassifyingthetermforpolicypurposes:intentionality,scopeandscale.

1. Intentionality:doesthedesignandimplementationofpolicyactionsintentionallyseekclimatechangebenefitsorarethesebenefitsincidental;andwhereclimateactionisintentional,isitpursuedastheprimaryobjective,thesecondaryobjective,orasoneofseveralsimultaneousobjectivesthroughanintegratedpolicyapproach?

2. Scope:doclimatebenefitscapturemitigation,adaptation,orboth;anddothebenefitsincludearangeofsustainabledevelopmentconsiderationsincludingeconomic,socialandenvironmentalnetbenefits?

3. Scale:areco-benefitsrealisedatthesameordifferenttemporalorgeographicalscales(e.g.GHGreductionsthatsupportglobalclimateactionandimprovedairqualitylocally)?

Aclassificationbasedonthesethreeelementscouldbetermedataxonomyinthebroadestsenseoftheterm.Thetypeofintentionalityusedbyapolicymakermaydependonthecircumstancesofthepolicyinquestion. For example, a citymay aim to reduce vehicle use based on the objective of reducinggreenhousegases(Fig.1.1a).Anothercitymayalsoaimtoreducevehicleuse–evenusingthesamepolicy instrument – but based on the objective of reducing congestion (Fig. 1.1b). Ideally, bothclimate and non-climate benefits will be assessed as part of a comprehensive risk-adjusted cost-benefitanalysis(Fig.1.1c)asdiscussedinthesectiononframeworksinthisreport.

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Fig.1.1Intentionalityanddirectionalityofco-benefits.(a)Climatebenefitsaretheprimaryobjectiveofthepolicywhichresultsinothernon-climateco-benefits,(b)Non-climatebenefitsaretheprimaryobjectiveofthepolicywhichresultsinclimateco-benefits,(c)Anintegratedpolicyapproachtargetsclimateandnon-climatebenefitssimultaneously.Primaryclimatebenefits

Secondaryclimatebenefits

Integratedpolicy

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A number of organisations define co-benefits in such a way as to allow a taxonomy based on ahierarchical classification (e.g. the US Environmental Protection Agency described in the previoussection). These hierarchical classifications first differentiate between climate mitigation and non-climatebenefits.Co-benefitsthenreferstotheexistenceofat leastoneclimatemitigationbenefitandonenon-climatebenefitassociatedwithapolicyaction.Theseclimatemitigationandnon-climategroupingscanthenbesub-dividedintodifferenttypesofgroups.Forexample,Fig.1.2showsnon-climatebenefitssub-dividedintothefamiliargroupingsofsustainabledevelopment:economic,socialandenvironmentalbenefits.Mitigationbenefitsarealsosub-divided into economic, social and environmental net benefits that may result from reducedclimatechange.Fig.1.2Exampleofataxonomyofmitigationco-benefitsbasedonahierarchicalclassification.

Organisationshavedevotedlessattentiontodefinitionsofclimateadaptationco-benefits.However,asimilartaxonomycanbeused,basedonsustainabledevelopmentnetbenefits(Fig.1.3).Itshouldbenotedthatmanyorganisationsdefinenon-climatebenefitsasshorterterm,localbenefits,ratherthan, for example, the reduction in longer term global economic losses due to reductions ingreenhousegases.Underthesedefinitions,economicnetbenefitscanbeclassifiedasbeingeitherclimatemitigationbenefitsornon-climatebenefits.However,underotherdefinitions,nodistinctionismadebetweenclimateandnon-climategroupsofeconomicnetbenefits.Fig.1.3Exampleofataxonomyofadaptationco-benefitsbasedonahierarchicalclassification.

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C40reportedthatformanyoftheircities,climatechange,whilstacknowledgedasimportant,isnotamongthemostimmediateorurgentpriorities–especiallyforrapidlyurbanisingcitiesindevelopingcountrieswhere basic services, e.g. potablewater and sewerage, are still lacking for a significantproportion of citizens. This led to discussions about a taxonomy thatmight better represent cityprioritiesandtherealitythattheyface.Inaddition,theprincipleofintegrateddecisionmakingwasfelt tobe important; that cities assesspolicyoptionsbasedonoverall netbenefit acrossnotonlyclimate,butalsoeconomic,socialandenvironmentalbenefits.This ledC40 to suggest analternative classificationofpolicybenefits that isnotbasedon the co-benefitsliteratureoronexistingdefinitionsofco-benefitsusedbymajorinternationalorganisations.The classification structure is illustrated in Fig. 1.4. First, the classification uses the term benefitsrather thanco-benefits.Second, theclassification isbasedonastandardsustainabledevelopmentclassification of economic, social and environmental net benefits. Third, this type of classificationgoesbacktothetraditionaltheoreticalframeworkcommonlyusedbeforetheSternReview,whichdefinedclimateactionasanenvironmentalpolicy,ratherthanasocio-economicpolicy.FromaC40perspective,theadvantageofthisapproachisthatasperabove(i)itreflectstherealityincities,i.e.thatclimatechangeisnottheirtoppriority,and(ii)itencouragesintegrateddecisionmakingbasedonoverallnetbenefit.Inaddition,policymakersareoftenmorefamiliarwithit.However,theriskofthisapproachisthatclimatechangeisnotprioritisedasclearlyorstrongly,beingregardedprimarilyasanenvironmentalissueratherthanasocio-economicissue.Fig.1.4Exampleofataxonomyofclimatebenefitsbasedonahierarchicalclassification.

The results of this scoping exercise show the extensive confusion in defining and classifying co-benefitsintheliterature.Oneapproachtothisconfusionistoprovideacomprehensivetaxonomyofco-benefits.Anadvantageofthisapproachisthatitmayattempttobringclaritytoagrowingareaofpolicy interest. However, given the wide range of international organisations with their ownclassifications, it is unlikely that a comprehensive taxonomy would be accepted by all. A secondapproach is toabandontheco-benefitsconceptaltogether.However,giventhe interestshownbypolicy makers, and the strong potential for multiple benefits of particular policy actions, the co-benefitsagendaislikelytogrowatthecityandnationallevels.A third approach is to develop a framework for co-benefits that is not based on a taxonomicclassification, but on strategic sectors that encompass particularly promising policy actions withclimate and non-climate co-benefits. This approach is discussed in the section of this report onframeworks.

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Co-benefitslandscapeLiteraturereviewThereviewidentified287co-benefitsfor76policyactionswithclimate-relatedimpactsacross13sectors.Someoftheseco-benefitsandpolicyactionswererecordedinmorethanonesector.Theco-benefitslistedareonlythosethatcanbedrawnfromthestudiesandreportsreviewed.Nevertheless,whiletheresultsshouldnotbeconsideredcomprehensiveoutsideofthesourcesreferenced,theydocapturetheleadingresearchonco-benefitsasdescribedintheMethodology.Thisapproachhassomelimitationsinthatbroaderco-benefitsfrompolicychoicesthatarenotstrictlyclimaterelatedhavebeenexcluded2.Furtherresearchondiscerningtheseotherwiseestablishedco-benefitsfortheirmitigationandadaptationpotentialshouldbeconsidered.

Keysectorsforclimateco-benefitsHealth,LandUseandTransportwerethetopthreesectorsforthenumberofco-benefits,withover40co-benefitsidentifiedineach(Fig.1.5).Water,Buildings,DigitalandEnergypolicyalsoscoredrelativelyhighlywitharound30co-benefitsineach.Over20co-benefitswereidentifiedforEducation.Disaster&Emergencyhadthelowestnumberofidentifiedco-benefits.Fig.1.5Numberofco-benefitsidentifiedacross13sectors.

2Forexample,transportpoliciesthatdecreaseGHGemissionsthroughmodeshiftingawayfromprivatecars(e.g.,investmentsinmasstransitornon-motorisedmobility)arelikelytohavesocialinclusionandpersonalhealthco-benefits,butthishasnotbeenassessed/linkedintheliterature.

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WhiletheDisaster&Emergencysectorhadthelowestnumberofco-benefitsintheliterature,theseco-benefitswereassociatedmorestronglywithurbanareasthanthoseofothersectors(Fig.1.6).Digital,AirQuality,Buildings,Tourism,CultureandSportalsoscoredhighlyfortheirurbanfocus.Fig.1.6Sectorswithhighurbanco-benefits.Barsrepresenttheproportionofco-benefitspapersintheliteraturethatcontainthekeyword“urban”.

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Co-benefitscanbedividedbroadlyintothreegroupsofsectors:predominantlymitigation,predominantlyadaptation,andacombinationofboth(Fig.1.7).Waste,AirQuality,TransportandEnergyhadparticularlyhighnumbersofmitigationco-benefitsintheliteraturereviewed.Adaptationco-benefitswereparticularlystrongforDisaster&Emergency,FoodSecurityandTourism,Culture&Sport.LandUse,Health,WaterandEducationtendedtobestrongforbothmitigationandadaptationco-benefits.Fig.1.7Sectorsgroupedintoadaptation,mitigationandcombinedco-benefits.

LandUse

Transport

Buildings

Health

Waste

Water

AirQuality

Energy

FoodSecurity

Tourism,Culture&Sport

Education

Digital

Disaster&Emergency

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Literaturewith

adaptationco-ben

efits(%

)

Literaturewithmitigationco-benefits(%ofliteraturereviewed)

Mitigationco-benefits

Mitigation&adaptation

Adaptationco-benefits

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Keysectorsforclimatemitigationandotherco-benefitsThereviewidentified171economic,socialandenvironmentalco-benefitsfor42policyactionswithaclimatemitigationbenefit,across12sectors.Inalmostallcases,theclimatemitigationbenefitwasrelatedtoreducedGHGemissions.Othermitigationbenefitsincludecarbonsequestration.Noco-benefitswereidentifiedintheliteraturereviewedforDisaster&Emergencypolicieswithamitigationimpact.Transport,HealthandDigitalwerethetopthreesectorsforthenumberofmitigation-relatedco-benefits,with20to30co-benefitsidentifiedineach(Fig.1.8a).Health,Digital,TransportandBuildingsrecordedthehighestnumberofmitigation-relatedeconomicco-benefits,rangingbetween8and12foreach(Fig.1.8b).Transportrecorded14mitigation-relatedsocialco-benefits,considerablyhigherthananyothersector.Socialco-benefitswerealsoprominentintheHealthsector(Fig.1.8c).Health,Transport,WasteandEnergyrecordedthehighestnumberofmitigation-relatedenvironmentalco-benefits,rangingbetween6and7foreach(Fig.1.8d).TheseresultssuggestthattheTransportandHealthsectorsareparticularlyrichinmitigation-relatedco-benefits.Itshouldbenotedthatbothofthesesectorshadarelativelylargenumberofsub-sectorswhichmayhavebiasedtheresultstosomedegree.However,theinclusionofthesesub-sectorsreflectedinparttheimportanceofbothsectorsintheliterature.Ofthetop10policyactionsformitigationco-benefits,fivearetransport-related(Fig1.9).Fig.1.8aTotalnumberofco-benefitsofmitigation-relatedpolicies,bysector.

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Fig.1.8bEconomicco-benefitsofmitigation-relatedpolicies,bysector.

Fig.1.8cSocialco-benefitsofmitigation-relatedpolicies,bysector.

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Fig.1.8dEnvironmentalco-benefitsofmitigation-relatedpolicies,bysector.

Fig.1.9Top10policyactionsformitigation-relatedco-benefits.

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Keysectorsforclimateadaptationandco-benefitsThereviewidentified116economic,socialandenvironmentalco-benefitsfor34policyactionswithaclimateadaptationbenefit,across11sectors.Noco-benefitswereidentifiedintheliteraturereviewedforAirQualityandWastepolicieswithanadaptationimpact.LandUseandHealthwerethetoptwosectorsforthenumberofadaptation-relatedco-benefits,with19to25co-benefitsidentifiedineach(Fig.1.10a).ThesectorsHealth,LandUseandBuildingsheldthehighestnumberofadaptation-relatedeconomicco-benefits,rangingbetween7and9foreach(Fig.1.10b).LandUse,HealthandEducationrecordedthehighestnumberofadaptation-relatedsocialco-benefits,rangingbetween7and11foreach(Fig.1.10c).LandUse,WaterandFoodSecuritydocumentedthehighestnumberofadaptation-relatedenvironmentalco-benefits,rangingbetween3and5foreach(Fig.1.10d).TheseresultssuggestthattheLandUseandHealthsectorsareparticularlyrichinadaptation-relatedco-benefits.Asnotedinthemitigationsection,thesearesectorsthathadarelativelylargenumberofsub-sectorsinthereviewwhichmayhavebiasedtheresultsintermsofhighernumbersofco-benefits.However,theinclusionofthesesub-sectorsreflectedinparttheimportanceofbothsectorsintheliterature.Ofthetop10policyactionsforadaptationco-benefits,fourarerelatedtoflooddefence(Fig.1.11).Fig.1.10aTotalnumberofco-benefitsofadaptation-relatedpolicies,bysector.

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Fig.1.10bEconomicco-benefitsofadaptation-relatedpolicies,bysector.

Fig.1.10cSocialco-benefitsofadaptation-relatedpolicies,bysector.

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Fig.1.10dEnvironmentalco-benefitsofadaptation-relatedpolicies,bysector.

Fig.1.11Top10policyactionsforadaptation-relatedco-benefits.

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CityinterviewsC40consultedasampleofmembercitiesontheirapproachtoco-benefitsinapolicy-makingenvironment.Theaimoftheconsultationwastoestablish:(1)whyandhowcitiescurrentlymeasureco-benefitsandusethisdata;(2)howcitieswouldliketomeasureco-benefitsanduseco-benefitdata;(3)howfutureC40andpartnerresearchcanbestsupportcitiestoachievethis;and(4)importantly,tocheckthatfindingsfromtheliteratureanddatareviewwerebroadlyconsistentwithcityfeedback.Semi-structuredinterviewswereundertakenwith14cities,twofromeachregioninordertogiveglobalcoverage.Theinterviewssupportedthefindingsfromtheliteratureanddatareview:citieswereexpressingarequirementforco-benefitsdata,butthatcurrentlytherewasverylimiteddataavailable.Belowisasummaryofthekeyfindingsfromtheinterviews.Differentcitiesdouseco-benefitstomakethecaseforactiononclimatechange;yet,climatechangemitigationoradaptationbenefitsareoftenpresentedassecondarybenefitsaftereconomicdevelopmentorhealthpriorities.Thekeyco-benefitsthatcitiescitedwerecostsavingsandeconomicdevelopment,followedbyhealth,qualityoflifeandequityissues.Citiesfeltitwasimportanttoquantifytheco-benefits,evenifthelevelanddetailpresentedwoulddependonthestakeholder.Manycitiesconsideredthateventsdirectlyimpactingthelivesofurbancitizens,suchasfloods,blackouts,droughtsorcongestionaremajordriversofpolicyactionandassuchconstitutethemostimpactfulco-benefitsofclimatechangepolicies.Anycurrentorrecentdirectexperiencehasastrongimpactontheperceptionoftheclimatethreat.Inthisway,citizens’concernsonclimatechangedirecttheprioritiesofmunicipalpoliticians.Whetherclimatechangehashighawarenessinacityhasaneffectonhowtheco-benefitsarepresented;insomecases,itiscitizensmakingthecasetothecitygovernmentratherthanviceversa.Howeverleadershipdoeshaveamajorimpactonwhetherclimatechangeisapriorityandmanycitiespointedouttheneedforpoliticalcapitaltobeinvestedinorderforchangetooccur.Stronggovernanceorcitizenawarenessmakesiteasiertomakethecaseforclimatechangepoliciesbutarobustcaseforactionisstillrequired.Thevisibilityoftheco-benefitscasetocitizensisessentialasitcreatesamorepositivevoter-response.TheviewfromC40citieswasthattheaudienceformakingthecaseonclimatechangeco-benefitsaffectshowthatcasewasassessed.Inmostcases,thefirststepistoconvinceinternalmunicipalgovernment,suchasseniorpoliticiansandtheirstaff;thisisdoneonthebasisofthecitystrategy,thepersonalprioritiesofleaders,voting-impactandvisibility,andcostandpracticality.Citiesmadethepointthatmakingthecaseforclimateactionismosteffectivewhenlinkedtothedirectimpactonthelifeandworkofcitizens,combinedwiththeimpactonbasicservices,securityandemployment.Citiesperceivethattheprivatesectorjudgestheclimatecaseonthebasisoffinanceandcompetitiveness.Somecitiesmentionedotherstakeholders,rangingfromuniversities,nationalgovernments,NGOs,labourorganisationsandtransportauthorities(suchasportsorairports).Ingeneral,theimportanceofdifferentstakeholdersdependsonthepolicyissue.

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Theneedforconsistentdatawassupportedbyallcitiesconsulted.Manycitiesrequestedstandardiseddataforbenchmarkingandmonitoringinordertocapturethebenefitsmoreconsistently,althoughcomparisonsweremostmeaningfuliftheywerewithsimilarcities.Insomelocations,localdatawasthoughttohavemoreimpactthanglobaldata,orcomparisonswithdissimilarcities.Somecitiesfelttheywerelackingthemethodstoconvertdataintoscenariosandpolicydecisions,alongwiththemeansofassessing‘difficult’data,suchasqualityoflifeorclimateawareness.Furthermoresomecitiesfeltthattheywerelackingthecapacitytocollectandanalysethedata.Manycitiesconsideredeffectivemarketingwasessential,somecitingtheneedfortoolslikeinfographics.Othermaterialrequestedincludedcasestudiesandexamplesofwheresolutionshadworked,ideallycomingfromsimilarcitiesinordertomaximisetheimpact.Intermsofassessingtheimpactofcertainpolicies,somecitiesareusingtoolssuchasMarginalAbatementCurves,BusinessasUsualvsActionscenarios,orassessingCO2intensityasaproportionofGDP.

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Aframeworkforclimateco-benefitsOnewaytosupportpolicygoalsthatdeliverclimateco-benefitsistouseframeworks:setsofprinciples,focusareas,andprocessesrelatedtolong-termgoalsthatcreateabasisforactionsandinterventions.Theyareconceptualpolicytoolsthathelpidentifythearrayofpossibleco-benefitsofpolicychoices.Theysupportdecision-makingthroughaconsistent,analyticalapproachtoachievethehighestnet-benefitwithregardtoclimate,economicandsocialdevelopmental,andlocalenvironmentaldimensions.Frameworksestablishprinciples,boundaries,anddesiredresults,withoutprescribingactions.Discerningappropriateactionsreliesonarangeofmethodologiesandtoolsto:understandexistingconditionsandcapacities;setbaselinesandtargets,andmeasuresandindicatorsinsupportofthese;identifypossiblepathways/realmsforintervention;reconcilescale,temporal,anddataqualitymisalignments;andqualifyandquantifyinputsandoutputs/outcomes.Theexistingliteratureisrichwithexamplesofmethodologiesandtoolsforclimatechangepolicyanalysisandpolicy-makingatthecityscale.Manyofthesewerenotcreatedascity-specificbutareappropriateforthatlevelnonetheless.However,theliteratureisfarlessrichinclimateco-benefitframeworksthataresufficientlybroadandcomprehensivetocapturethecomplexitiesandinterdependenciesofcitysystems.Theprojectteamreviewedexistingframeworksandidentifiedthreeimportantgeneralapproachesintheliteratureforassessinganddeliveringco-benefits.Thesewere(1)thegreeneconomy,focusedonintegratingclimatemitigationandeconomicbenefits,(2)benefit-costapproaches,whichprovideaninsightintohowgovernmentsmayassessmultiplebenefitsandcostseffectively,efficientlyandequitably,and(3)resilienceframeworks,whichfocusonclimateadaptationandpotentialco-benefits.Greeneconomyframeworks

Greengrowth,orthegreeneconomy,isanoverarchingprinciplefordeliveringeconomicgrowthanddevelopmentwhilereducingtheenvironmentalimpact,forexample:lowairpollutionandCO2emissions;lowconsumptionofnaturalresourcesincludingwater,energyandundevelopedland;andtheprotectionofecologicalservices(Floateretal.2013,2014a,2014b,2014c;OECD2013).Linkingeconomicgrowthtoenvironmental/low-carbonoutcomesascomplementary,eveninterdependent,isclearlyconsistentwithco-benefitobjectives.Moreover,countriesandcitiesarepromotinggreengrowthasanexpliciteconomicdevelopmentstrategybytargetinggreengoodsandservicesasgrowthsectorsthatcreateavirtuouscycleofinnovation,newtechnologydevelopmentanddeployment,jobsandskills,andimprovedenvironmentalconditions.OneexampleistheKoreangovernment,whichhasmadegreengrowthpartofnationalpolicy,outlinedthroughthreeobjectives(below),whichinturnaresupportedbytenspecificstrategies(seeCho2009):

1. paradigmshifttoalow-carbonsocietywithlowergreenhousegasemissionsandenhancedenvironmentalprotection;

2. greentechnologiesasfuturegrowthengines;and3. enhancedcorporatecompetitiveness,asanewexporterofgreenindustries.

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Atthecitylevel,urbandevelopmentwhichispoorlymanagedresultsinmarketfailuresthathinderproductivityandeconomicgrowth,andnegativelyimpactthequalityoflifeofcitizens.Thesemarketfailuresincludeurbansprawl,congestionandlongertraveltimes,negativeexternalitiesofpollutionandcarbonemissions,networkexternalities,reducedagglomerationeffectsoninnovationandskillsmatching,andimperfectandasymmetricinformation(Floateretal.2014a).WorldBankliteraturepromotesgreengrowthasageneralisedmethodforreducingmarketfailuresthatpreventoptimaleconomicandenvironmentaloutcomes.Correctingthesemarketfailurescanincreaseefficiencyandboostshort-termgrowth,andthusyieldbenefitsthatgobeyondtheenvironment.Forthis,greengrowthpoliciesmayinclude:increasingnaturalcapitalthroughenvironmentalmanagement;increasinglabourproductivitythroughimprovedhealth;increasingphysicalcapitalthroughassetprotectionfromextremeevents;improvedresourceefficiency;andstimulusthroughpublicinvestmentingreeninfrastructure(WorldBank2012).Effectiveclimatemitigationandgreengrowthareideallydeliveredthroughpolicyalignmentfromnationaltolocallevels.Greengrowthpoliciesbenefitfromthesepolicycomplementaritiesandcanthusbemoreeffectivewhenappliedatalocalscale(Hammer,S.etal.2011).TheOECDframeworkforurbangreengrowthoffersastructuredapproachtoformulatingpro-growthpolicieswithinvariouspolicyinstrumentsavailabletocitygovernments(rangingfromtheregulatorytothepersuasive)formultipletargetedoutcomesofjobcreation,greensupplyandconsumption,andurbanattractiveness.TheOECDframeworkrecognisesthatlocalgovernmentlevelsofcontrolandresponsibilityinsectorsandassetsthatcanbepolicytargetsforclimatechangeandco-benefitsdoesvary,andthatactionsandcollaborationswillneedtobegeneratedtosuitlocalcircumstances.Generally,modesofcitygovernancecanbecharacterisedas:

• Self-governing:ahighdegreeofcontrolovercity-ownedassets,decision-makinganduseofresources,withminimalgoverninginputrequiredfromotheractors.

• Governingbyauthority:relianceonregulationandsanctions,whichcanbeusedtoincorporateclimatepolicygoalsintothestrategicplanningofkeysectorssuchastransport,energy,andlanduseplanning.

• Governingbyprovision:multi-stakeholderenvironmentswherethecityisoneofseveralkeyagentsinthedeliveryofservicestothepublic(e.g.,developmentandoperationofurbaninfrastructuresuchasenergy,water,waste,androadandrailnetworks).

• Governingbyenabling:alessdirectroleforcitygovernmentthatreliesoncoordinatingandfacilitatingclimateactionthroughpartnershipsandcollaborationswithprivateandcivilsocietyactors,andthroughengagementwithaffectedcommunities.

Citiescanbehighlyeffectiveagentsforaddressingclimatechangeandgreengrowthallalongthiscontinuum(C402015).Powertoownandoperateassetsandfunctionsisbeneficial.Butintheabsenceofthis,citiesareusinginnovativeapproachesincollaborationandpartnerships,target-setting,andinfluencingtosteerpublicandprivateinvestmenttowardgreengrowthandtoimproveorganisationalcapacitytoplanandrespondtoclimatechallenges.

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ResearchbyLSECitiesfortheNewClimateEconomyhasresultedinamodelforurbandevelopmentandwell-managedgrowththatpromotestheco-benefitsofurbanform,productivityandgrowth,improvedhealthandreducedGHGemissionscalledthe‘3Cmodel’whichstandsforCompact,ConnectedandCoordinated(Floateretal.2014a,2014b).Thismodeloffersasetofinstitutionalandorganisingelementstolockinpathwayswitheconomic,climateandotherbenefitsforcities:

• Compacturbangrowthisbasedonexpansionand/orretrofittingthatencourageshigherdensities,contiguousdevelopmentandmixedneighbourhoods.Itfocusesonhowurbanexpansionismanagedinordertodevelopdense,transit-orientedurbanforms.

• ConnectedinfrastructureisachievedthroughinvestmentininnovativeurbaninfrastructureandtechnologysuchasBusRapidTransitsystems,cyclesuperhighways,electricvehicles,smartgrids,energyefficientbuildingsandessentialwater,sanitationandwasteservices.

• Coordinatedgovernanceisimplementedthrougheffectiveandaccountableinstitutionsthatsupportthecoordinatedplanningandimplementationofprogrammesofactivityandinvestmentacrosspublicandprivatesectorsandcivilsociety,particularlyforlandusechangeandtransport.

Greeneconomicgrowthanddevelopmentnecessarilyrequiresfocusacrossmultipleissuesandfactorsrelatedtothebuiltform,economy,andsocialwelfareelementsofcities.Greengrowthandmaximisingclimatechangeco-benefitsshouldbeviewedasaprocessforcitiesto:createcompetitiveadvantagesforeconomicproductivity;deliverenvironmentalperformancewhichconfersnaturalcapitalandqualityoflifebenefits;andachievesustainablegrowthinoutputandwelfareoverthelongertermthroughstrategicpolicydecisionsthatlockinlow-carbon,high-growthpathways.Manyofthesecanpotentiallybemanagedthroughfiscalorfinancialinterventionsbygovernmentorganisationssothattheeffectsarelikelytobeshort-termandonthewholeminorwhenbroaderbenefitscanbecaptured(note,however,thetoolstomanagetheseimpactsoftensitatthenationalratherthancity-level).Theabovesuggeststhatequityissuesneedtobeconsideredandintegratedintodecisionmaking.Socialequityco-benefitsareclearlypossiblewithingreengrowthandcity-levelclimatepolicies,buttheyrequirepolicyemphasistoberealised.

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Table1.1Examplesofgreeneconomyframeworks.

Framework Citygoals Climatebenefits

Co-benefitsEconomic Social Environmental

UrbanGreenGrowthOECD

Increasegreeneconomicgrowth

ReducedGHGemissions

JobcreationEconomicgrowth

Socialhousing Urbanattractiveness

GreenEconomyLeaders,8DriversFrameworkLSECities

Increasegreengrowth

ReducedGHGemissions

ProductivityandcompacturbangrowthInnovation,investment,skillsandemployment,enterprise

ReducedfuelpovertythroughbetterbuildingstandardsHealthbenefitsofairqualitySocialinclusionandqualityoflifeinmixeddevelopments

IncreasedenergyandresourceefficiencyIncreasedairandwaterqualityEnhancedgreenspace

3CModelofNewClimateEconomyLSECities

Increaselowcarboneconomicgrowth

ReducedGHGemissions

ProductivityandcompacturbangrowthConnectedinfrastructure&efficientservicesAccesstolabourpools

HealthbenefitsofairqualitySocialinclusionandqualityoflifeinmixeddevelopmentsReducedroaddeaths

IncreasedenergyandresourceefficiencyIncreasedairqualityEnhancedgreenspace

Benefit-CostapproachesIntheory,policyandinvestmentdecisionsshouldbeguidedbycomparisonbetweenthecostsofactionandthevalueoftheoutcomesandco-benefits(Krupnicketal.2000).Unlikeclimatemitigation,thebenefitsofwhicharedispersedgloballyandaccrueinthelong-term,co-benefitsoftenhavemorelocalandmoreimmediateimpactsandrealisationwhichistocities’advantage.However,notallco-benefitscanbemonetisedorevenfullyquantified.Thismeansthatsomeco-benefitsareoftennottakenintoaccountintraditionaleconomicmodelsandcost-benefitcalculations.Furthermore,citieshavewidelydivergenttechnicalcapacitiesandstandardsrelatedtothemonitoringandmeasuringwhichformsthebasisofbenefit-costanalyses.Thispresentschallengesforcitydecision-makersforunderstandingoptionsandopportunities,andforquantifyingcostsanddirectandco-benefitimpactsofclimate-relatedpoliciesandinvestments.

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Measurementandquantificationiscomplicatedbysomeofthefeaturesofgreengrowth/climatechangemitigationandadaptationthatgobeyondsimpleeconomicusefunctionsofenvironmentalassets(e.g.,harvestingforestsfortimberproducts),thoughtoolsdoexist.Contingentvaluationapproachesusedtoestimateeconomicvaluesforallkindsofecosystemandenvironmentalservicesisanavailableandestablishedtechniquewithinanexpandingfieldofaccountingmethodologies.Inordertoassessenvironmentalimpactsandbenefits,decision-makerswillideallyhaveaccessto‘naturalcapital’accountsinthesamewayeconomicstatisticsaregatheredandbuiltassetsarecapitalisedandaccountedforinbalancesheets.Havingthisinformationsetwouldenumeratethenaturalassetbaseandthusallowtrackingofchangesinthecapitalbalanceovertime.Determiningtheeconomicvaluesforenvironmentalassetsinwaysthatarecomparabletoothereconomicvaluespromotesgoodeconomicmanagement,identifiessituationsinwhicheconomicgrowthisnotwealthcreating(becausethegrowthdegradesnaturalresourcesfasterthanitcreateswealth),andassesseswhetheracountry’seconomictrajectoryissustainable.TheWorldBankGroupleadsapartnershiptoadvancenaturalcapitalaccountinginternationally(principallyatthenational,notcity,level).TheWealthAccountingandtheValuationofEcosystemServices(WAVES)partnershipaimstopromotesustainabledevelopmentbyensuringthatnaturalresourcesaremainstreamedintodevelopmentplanningandnationaleconomicaccounts.3Establishedapproachesforquantifyingimpactsonhealthandbyextensionmorbidityandmortality,relevantformatterssuchasairqualityandextremeweatherevents,alsoexist.Theserelyonassigningeconomicvaluetoindividualsbasedontheirproductivecapacityandpotential(VSL,orvalueofstatisticallife),plusothermoreobjectivelyquantifiedfactorssuchasthecostsoftreatingillness.Applyingdiscountrates(i.e.thetimevalueofmoney)isalsoanacceptedandrelevantfactor.Eachofthesedorelyatleasttoadegreeonpreferencesandassumptionsthatcreatealevelofcomplexitythatisgreaterthansimplefinancial-basedinput/outputaccountingmethods.TheCo-BenefitsRiskAssessment(COBRA)ScreeningModeldevelopedbytheUSEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)(v2.7,revisedJune20154)isanexampleofaframeworkforairquality3Seehttps://www.wavespartnership.org/formoredetail.4See:http://www3.epa.gov/statelocalclimate/resources/cobra.htmlformoredetail.

Box1.4.ISO37120-CityindicatorsforservicedeliveryandqualityoflifeThe International Standards Organisation (ISO) has, as part of a new series of InternationalStandards being developed for a holistic and integrated approach to sustainable developmentand resilience, created ISO 37120. This can help address the reality that city indicators andaccountingstandardsareoftennotstandardised,consistent,orcomparableovertimeoracrosscities.ISO 37120 is a set of standardised indicators and provides a uniform approach to what ismeasured, and how thatmeasurement is to beundertaken to track andmonitor awhole citysystemand city performance related to sustainability.Using the standarddoes notmean thatsustainable/green growth outcomes have been achieved, but rather that measurements andmonitoringfollowsverifiablebestpracticefor thoseoutcomes. ISO37120methodologyappliestothefollowingthemes:Economy,Education,Energy,Environment,Recreation,Safety,Shelter,Solid waste, Telecommunications and innovation, Finance, Fire and emergency response,Governance,Health,Transportation,Urbanplanning,Wastewater,andWaterandsanitation.

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improvementsthatcanbeusedtoquantifychangesinairqualityandtheresultingcalculatedhealthoutcomesinbothepidemiologicalandmonetaryterms.COBRAaswellasotherworkfromtheUSEPA5suggeststhatmeasuresforproducingbothlocalairqualityandassociatedGHGco-benefitsoffercompellingvalueforhealthandwellbeingthatcanbepursuedirrespectiveofaclimatechangeagenda.Asunderstandinggrowsanddatabecomemorereadilyavailable,frameworksandanalysescanconsideradditionalco-benefitssuchasecosystembenefitsoravoidedmaterialdamages,aswellaspotentialeconomicopportunitiestodevelopanddeployinnovativecleantechnologies(USEPA2004).Techniquesandmethodologiesusedforthehealtheconomicsevaluationandclimatechangeimpactsandadaptationhavestronglevelsofoverlap.TosupporthealthadaptationplanninginEUMemberStates,theWHOEuropeanRegionalOfficecreatedguidanceandastep-by-steptoolforestimating(a)thecostsassociatedwithdamagetohealthduetoclimatechange,(b)thecostsforadaptationinvarioussectorstoprotecthealthfromclimatechangeand(c)theefficiencyofadaptationmeasures,i.e.thecostofadaptationversustheexpectedreturns,oravertedhealthcosts(WorldHealthOrganisation2013).Itattemptstoquantifyhealthdamagecostsrelatedtoclimatechangeabsentofadaptationactions;thecostsofadaptationtominimiseorpreventthehealthdamage;andtheresultingeconomicperformanceofadaptationmeasures,intermsofeithercost–effectivenessoreconomicbenefitsversuscosts.Thusitaimstocharacterisethepositiveeconomiccontributionsthatmayresultfromclimateaction.Benefit-costanalysescaninformwhetherclimatepoliciesresultinazero-sumoutcome,thatis,someeconomicsectorsorenvironmentalindicatorsimprovewhileothersdeclineduetochangesinprioritiesorinvestments(Hammer,S.etal.2011).Managinguncertaintyisanotherriskarea.Withtheexistinglevelsofuncertaintieswithlinkingchangesinemissionstoexternalities(e.g.healthimpacts,extremeweather),determiningifdecreasesinemissionsresultinnetancillarybenefitscanbemodelledbutwillalwaysbesubjecttoranges.Becausemodelswillneedtobelocalisedtomatchhighlyspecificcircumstancesofindividualcities,city-levelestimatesofcostsandbenefitswilllikelyshowgreatvariances.Transparencyinsettingbaselineconditionsfromwhichinterventionscanbeanalysedwillgosomewaytocreatingcomparabilitybetweencities.

5Forexample,TheIntegratedEnvironmentalStrategies(IES)Handbook(2004)includesguidanceonemissionsandairqualitymodellingforhealthimpactsandeconomicbenefits.

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Table1.2Examplesofbenefit-costapproaches.

Framework Citygoals Climatebenefits

Co-benefitsEconomic Social Environmental

AncillaryBenefitsofClimateChangePolicyKrupnicketal.

Increasewelfarebenefitsfromclimatemitigationpolicies

ReducedGHGemissions

Economicsystembenefits:workplacehealthandsafety,employment,energysecurity,inducedtechnologicalchange

WorkplacehealthandsafetyReducedmortalityandmorbidityfrompollutionEquity

Ecologicalsystemsimprovements

Co-BenefitsRiskAssessment(COBRA)USEPA

Quantifyairqualityandhealthoutcomes

ReducedGHGemissions

Economicvalue,illnessanddeathavoided

Emissionsreductions/airqualityimprovements

ClimateChangeandHealth:ATooltoEstimateHealthandAdaptationCostsWHORegionalOfficeforEurope

Quantifyadaptationandhealthoutcomes

Adaptation Economicvalue,illnessanddeathavoided

Resiliencetoextremeheat,weathereventsImprovedpreparedness,healthservicesdelivery,disasterresponse

Protection,maintenanceandincreaseinnaturalandman-madeassets

ResilienceframeworksAdaptationbenefitsdifferfrommitigationactionsandoutcomesinthattheyarebroadlyanticipatoryandgenerallyonlyvaluedfollowinganeventorwhenasetofclimate-inducedcircumstanceshavebeenmadeapparent.Theco-benefitsarelikelytobelessimmediateandmoredistant,andgenerallyhardertoquantify,comparedtothosederivedfrommitigation.Furthermore,adaptationtendstobepursuedthroughawiderrangeof‘hard’(engineered,infrastructure)and‘soft’(capacitybuilding,institutionalorsocialnetworksstrengthening)measures.Softmeasuresareoftenmeasuredsubjectively,ifmeasuredatall,andmanyofthesemeasurescannotbequantifiedormonetisedinameaningfullycomparativeway.ProgrammessuchastheRockefellerFoundation100ResilientCities(100RC)initiative,theAsianCitiesClimateChangeResilienceNetwork(ACCCRN),andtheUrbanAdaptationAssessment(UAA)FrameworkoftheUniversityofNotreDameGlobalAdaptationIndex(ND-GAIN)areevidenceofincreasingattentionandresourcesdirectedtocity-scaleadaptationandresiliency.Adaptationandresiliencehavebecomegenerallysynonymous,thougharenotstrictlyinterchangeable.Adaptationisoftentakentomeandiscreteactions,suchasbuildingflood-protectionsystemsormangroverestoration,developedtoaddressspecificvulnerabilitiesorproblems.Resilienceisanongoingprocessasvulnerabilityandclimateriskareconstantlyevolving,

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asaretheagentsandinstitutionswithincitiesthatcontributetoresilience(MacCluneandReed2012).Resilienceisafeatureofadaptation,butcanbebroaderthanjustclimatechangeadaptation.Adaptationorresilienceisassessedanddeliveredthroughacombinationofexposuretoclimateimpacts,sensitivitytothoseimpacts(whoorwhatisaffected),andadaptivecapacityorresiliencetowhoorwhatisaffected.Identifyingvulnerabilities(sensitivityandexposure)anddevelopingpoliciestoaddressadaptivecapacity(orimproveresilience)aredependentonappropriatedatapoints,informationgathering,andmonitoringandsurveillanceatthelocallevel.Prioritisingfocusareastoimproveadaptivecapacitycanfollowsimilarcost-benefitsassessmentstothosedescribedinthesectionabove.Tothatend,theND-GainUrbanAdaptationFrameworkAssessment(Climate-Eval.org2015),presentlyindevelopmentfortrialinUScities,isstructuredtoleadcitiesthrough:

• anevaluationofbaselinerisks:understandingthebaselineofthemostlikelyhazards,andthebaselinecapabilitiesacityhastodealwiththeimpacts;

• anadaptationgapanalysis:thedistancebetweentargetsthecitysetsforgainsachievedorlossesavoidedthroughclimatechangeadaptationandthepresentcapabilitiestomeetthosetargets;and

• ananalysisofadaptivecapacity:city-levelinfluenceandopportunitiestoimprovesocial,economicandgovernancecapacitiesthathelptoshapeavarietyofspecificadaptiveresponses.

Thelastpoint-adaptivecapacity–isconsiderablywidenedinaframeworkdevelopedforthe100RC,whichlistseightcityfunctionswhicharecriticaltoresilience.Thesefunctionsare:

1. deliversbasicneeds;2. safeguardshumanlife;3. protects,maintainsandenhancesassets;4. facilitateshumanrelationshipsandidentity;5. promotesknowledge;6. defendstheruleoflaw,justiceandequity;7. supportslivelihoods;and8. stimulateseconomicprosperity.

Acity’sabilitytoperformthesefunctionsdetermineswhetheritisresilientornot(RockefellerFoundation2014).Astheseare(orarguablyshouldbe)corefunctionsofcitygovernments,determiningco-benefitswillneedtoquantifyandcharacterisewhattheRockefellerFoundationreferstoasthe‘resiliencedividend’–thevalue-addedtocitiesfromhigh-performingsocial,institutional,andeconomicsystemsthatarebetterenabledtomanagestresses.The100RCframeworkaswellasthatoftheInstituteforSocialandEnvironmentalTransition-Internationalshowthestrongfocusonnon-financialandsocial/institutionalinputs,thewiderangeofinformationandawarenessfactors,andtheneedforformalisedassessmentandcollaborativeactionforimprovementfrombaselineconditions.TheEconomicsofClimateAdaptationworkinggroup6notethatadaptationassessmentandeconomicsisanewfield.Assuchtherearepresentlylimitstoquantifyingrisksinawaythatisrobustandthatfacilitatescomparisonbetweendifferenthazardsindifferentgeographies.Thereisalsoalackofsupporttoolsfordecision-makingtoaddressclimateriskinasystematicandresource-efficientway(ECA2009).Soastoalignwithacceptedmethods,theECAworkinggroupsuggestsa6ApartnershipoforganisationsformedtounderstandclimaterisksandmodeladaptationresponsesformedoftheClimateWorksFoundation,EuropeanCommission,GlobalEnvironmentalFacility,McKinsey&Company,RockefellerFoundation,StandardCharteredBank,SwissRe,andUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme.

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processbasedoncomprehensiveriskmanagementtocapturealllocation-specificclimatehazardsandeconomicsectors,andscenarioplanningtohelpinselectingandprioritisingadaptationandresiliencemeasuresbasedonadegreeofuncertainty.Theresultcanbeaninventoryofresponseswhichcanbesubjectedtocost-benefitanalyses.WhilethemodellingtheECAworkinggrouphasundertakenshowssignificantrisksbothtodayandinthefuture,itsuggeststhatmuchoftheprojectedlosscanbeavertedandthatdoingsocanboosteconomicdevelopment.Table1.3Examplesofresilienceframeworks.

Framework Citygoals Climatebenefits

Co-benefitsEconomic Social Environmental

UrbanAdaptationFrameworkAssessmentUniversityofNotreDame

AssessvulnerabilitytonaturaldisastersPrioritiseadaptationmeasures

Adaptation Resilienturbanareas,Infrastructureandeconomy

Foodsupply/securityHealthprotectionStrongsocialsystems

Watersupply/securityProtectionofecosystemservices

CityResilienceIndexRockefellerFoundation

Increasecityresiliencetophysical,socialandeconomicchallenges

Adaptation KnowledgeandlearningJobcreationEconomicgrowth

ServicedeliverytomeetbasicneedsHumanhealthandlifeprotectedHumanrelationshipsandidentityfacilitatedSocialstability(ruleoflaw,justiceandequity)

Protection,maintenanceandincreaseinnaturalandman-madeassets

ClimateResilienceFrameworkISET(InstituteforSocialandEnvironmentalTransition)

Assessvulnerabilityandresponsestoclimatechange

Adaptation Flexible,diverseandredundantsystems

Greaterresilienceofvulnerablecommunities

Whyanewframeworkforcityco-benefitsisneededThereviewofframeworksdiscussedabovehighlightstheneedfordevelopinganewco-benefitsframeworkforcities.Arangeofgreeneconomyframeworkshasemergedoverthelastdecade,whichprovidesarigorousfoundationforassessingtheco-benefitsofalowcarbontransition.Thegreeneconomyapproachhasanumberofadvantages.Inparticular,theeconomyisakeyelementofeverycity’sstrategy;impactsarequantifiable,measurableandcanbemonetisedinacomparableway.Consequently,anynewco-benefitsframeworkforcitiesshouldincludethegreeneconomyasanimportantpillar.However,thegreeneconomyisnotsufficientasanoverarchingframeworkfor

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co-benefitsasitdoesnotincludeclimateadaptationoracomprehensivecoverageofsocialandenvironmentalco-benefits.Thebenefit-costapproachisapotentiallyusefultoolforassessingdifferentoptionsforpolicyactionsthatdeliverco-benefits.Inmanycases,traditionalcost-benefitanalysisfailstointernalisethenegativeexternalitiesofclimatechange,airpollutionandarangeofothermarketfailuresdiscussedinprevioussections.Inaddition,benefitsthatcannotbemonetisedorevenfullyquantifiedareoftenexcludedfromtraditionaleconomiccost-benefitapproaches.Arisk-adjustedapproachtocostsandbenefitswouldaddressthesefailures.However,eventherisk-adjustedbenefit-costapproachisnotaframeworkofprinciplesforassessingco-benefits.Rather,itisanassessmentmethodology.Furthermore,thefeasibilityofthisapproachwilldependondataavailabilityandthecapacityofcitygovernmentstoundertakedataanalysis.Theresilienceframeworksareusefulforassessingtheavertedlossesfromclimateimpacts(suchasflooddamages,orreducedproductivityresultingfromtheurbanheatislandeffect),alongwiththecosts of adaptation measures. However, non-climate co-benefits of adaptation can be relativelysmallcomparedtothecostsofresilientinfrastructuremeasures,andadistinctionneedstobemadebetween costly adaptation measures (e.g. sea walls) with minor co-benefits (e.g. employmentcreationthatsubstitutesemploymentcreationinothersectors),andinfrastructurethatmeetsnon-climateobjectives(e.g.metrolines)thatcanbefuture-proofedagainstclimateimpacts(e.g.resilientmetrolines).AnewframeworkInthissection,anewframeworkisdevelopedforassessingco-benefitsaroundstrategicsectorsthatare central tomayoral action inmost cities (see Table 1.4). The five strategic sectors are:Health,Mobility,Resources,Buildings,andEconomy.Thesestrategicsectorsarethendividedintocitygoals,policyactionsandco-benefits.Thestrategicsectorswerecreatedusingtwomaincriteria.First,thestrategicsectorsarecollectivelyexhaustive,withalltheco-benefitsidentifiedinthereviewassignedtooneofthestrategicsectors.Thestrategicsectorsarenotmutuallyexclusive,andinmanycasesajudgementwasmadeoverwhichstrategicsectoraco-benefitshouldbeassignedto,whenstrongargumentscouldbemadeforassigningtheco-benefittoanotherstrategicsector.Giventhatthisisascopingreport,theassignmentofco-benefitsmayberefinedinfutureresearch.Second,thestrategicsectorswerebasedonpolicyareaswheremanycitygovernmentsalreadyhavestrategicgoalsthatresonatewithurbancitizens.Allfivestrategicsectorsincludeanelementofimprovingqualityoflife,withperceivedbenefitsforcitizensthatarebothdirectandtangible.TheevidenceforthiswasdrawnfromapreviousLSECitiessurveyofpolicymakersin100citiesworldwidealongwithevidenceonmayoralcitypowersbyC40.

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Table1.4Co-benefitsframeworkaroundfivestrategicsectors.Strategicsectors

Citygoals(examples)

Policyactions(examples)

Co-benefits Coordinatedgovernance

HEALTHImproveoutdoorairquality

Reduceconventionalvehicleuse

Reducedprematuredeathsandhealthproblems

Health,Transport,LandUse,Energy,Digital,Economy,AirQuality,Buildings,Tourism

MOBILITY

Reducecongestion

Reducevehicleuse

Increasedeconomicefficiency,qualityoflife,airquality

Transport,Economy,LandUse,Digital,Energy,Education,Tourism,AirQuality

RESOURCES

Improvefoodsecurity

Promoteagriculturalproduction

Increasedeconomicefficiency,qualityoflife,reducedhealthimpacts

FoodSecurity,Waste,Water,Health,LandUse,Transport,Buildings,Energy,Education,Disaster&Emergency

BUILDINGS

Reducefuelpoverty

Increasebuildingenergyefficiency

Costsavings Buildings,Energy,Health,Education

ECONOMY

Supporteconomicgrowth

Establishcleantechbusinessclustersandincentives

Innovation,productivity,SMEgrowthintechnologysector

Economy,Education,Transport,Buildings,Digital,Water,Waste

Thefivestrategicsectorsencompasstheco-benefitsinthe13sectorsreviewedinthisreport.Forexample,manyoftheco-benefitsintheAirQualitysectorareintegratedintothestrategicsectorofHealth.Mobilityincludesco-benefitsintheTransportsector,butalsoinLandUse.ResourcesincludeEnergy,WaterandWaste.Focusingonthesefivestrategicsectorsforco-benefitsprovidesanumberofadvantagesforcitymayors:theyresonatewithcitizenswithadirectimpactontheirqualityoflife;theyarealreadycorestrategicareasformanycities;theyarekeytocitiesindeveloped,emerginganddevelopingcountries;theyarecross-cuttingandrequirecoordinationacrossseveralgovernmentdepartmentswhilealsoallowingforonecitydepartmenttotakethelead;theyallhavesubstantialclimatemitigationandadaptationpotential;andtheyareallrichinco-benefits.Anotheradvantageofthisframeworkisthatmostcitygovernmentshaveadegreeofpolicyresponsibilityoverthesefivestrategicareas.Forexample,thestrategicsectorofHealthisanissueofhighconcernforcitizens.Directresponsibilityforhealthcareisoftenheldbycentralgovernmentlevelorbyspecificpublicbodies.However,citygovernmentsholdimportantpolicyleversthatinfluenceurbanhealthdirectly(e.g.airquality)andwillbeheldtoaccountforhowtheydeliverinthisarea.

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Figure1.12providesabreakdownofthenumberofco-benefitsidentifiedintheliteraturereviewforeachofthestrategicsectors,withregardtobothmitigationandadaptationpotential.

Fig.1.12Mitigationco-benefitsacrossfivestrategicsectors.

Withineachstrategicsector,authoritieswillhavearangeofcitygoals.Thesearegoalsonwhichtheelectoratearelikelytojudgetheirrecord.Forexample,themayorofacitywithhighlevelsofairpollutionmayhaveacitygoaltoimproveoutdoorairquality(seeTable1.4).Forthepurposesofthisframeworkwehavecharacterisedimprovingoutdoorairqualityasacitygoal,whoseultimateobjectiveistosupportthehealthoftheurbanpopulation(thestrategicsector).

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Bycomparingtheimpactsofdifferentpolicyactions,citygovernmentscanmakeevidence-baseddecisionsonthemosteffective,efficientandequitablepolicyactions,bothforclimateandnon-climateobjectives.Thebenefitsofthepolicyactionwillbeboththerealisationofthecitygoal(improvingairquality)andtheintendedimpactontheclimate.Forexample,reducingconventionalcarusewouldreduceGHGemissionsaswellasPMpollutants,andhavearangeofotherco-benefitsinaddition.Therearelikelytobeanumberofpolicyactionsthatcoulddeliveracitygoal.Amongtheseactions,somewillhaveagreaterimpactonclimatemitigationandadaptationthanothers.Forexample,somepolicyactionsmayimproveairqualitybutnotreducecarbonemissions(e.g.reducingpollutantsfromvehicleexhausts,butnotCO2emissions).Ontheotherhand,somepolicyactionsaimedprimarilyatreducingGHGemissionsmaydelivergreaterorlessernon-climatebenefits.Inthecaseofdieselcars,regardlessoftheimpactonvehiclecarbonemissions,thecostsofairpollutionmayberelativelyhigh.Inthesecases,theclimatebenefitsmaybeoutweighedbyotherbenefitsornetcosts.Thishighlightstheimportanceofdevelopinganassessmentapproachwherebythenetbenefitsforclimateactionaswellasnon-climatenetbenefitscanbeevaluatedtoguidecitypolicymakerstothemosteffectivepolicyactionoverall–notsimplythemosteffectiveintermsofclimateaction.Therisk-adjustedbenefit-costassessmentacrossalternativepolicyactionsisthereforeanimportantstepinthepolicydecision-makingprocess.Anassessmentcouldbeusedtodeterminewhichpolicyactionshavethegreatestclimatebenefits,andhavethemostsignificanteconomic,socialandenvironmentalbenefits.Suchinformationisessentialforevidence-basedpolicydecision-makingwhendeliveringonacitygoal.Inourexample,oneofthecitygoalsforHealthmaybetoimproveurbanoutdoorairquality.Consequently,thepolicyactioncouldcoverpollutioncausedbyenergyproduction,manufacturingplantsortransport.ThepolicyactionexampleusedinTable1.4istoreduceconventionalvehicleuse.Inthisexample,thepolicyactioncanimproveairqualityaswellasreducingcarbonemissions.However,itwouldneedtobeassessedagainstotherpolicyactions,andcouldalsobepartofasuiteofcomplementarypolicyactions(e.g.eachtargetingadifferentcarbonemissionssource).Furthermore,reducingconventionalvehicleusecouldtaketheformofanumberofmeasures,includingdemand-sidemeasures(e.g.congestioncharges,lowemissionzonesorparkingmanagement)andsupply-sidemeasures(e.g.masstransitservice,cycleroutesandcycle-shareprogrammes).Thenon-climatebenefitsmaybeeconomic,socialorenvironmental.Usingthiscategorisationofco-benefitsisconsistentwithastandardsustainabledevelopmentapproachwhichisalreadyusedandunderstoodbymanycitygovernments.Forexample,theeconomicbenefitsofreducedconventionalvehicleusecouldincludereducedcongestionandreducedtraveltimes,increasedproductivityofhealthierworkersandreducedhealthcostsassociatedwithairpollution.Congestionchargingorparkingfeescouldalsobeconsideredasameansofrevenueraisingforthegovernmenttouseforpublicspending.Thesocialbenefitscouldincludereducedprematuredeathsandhealthproblems,suchasrespiratorydiseases,reducedinjuryandmortalityfromroadaccidentsandreducednoisestressandgreatersocialinclusion.Theenvironmentalbenefitscouldincludeimprovedairqualityandreducedenvironmentalnoise.

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Finally,theframeworkprovidesanopportunitytoidentifycross-sectoralpolicyobjectivesandthedevelopmentofintegratedpolicyprogrammestomaximiseco-benefitsacrossarangeofsectorssimultaneously.Traditionally,manypolicyactionsarecompartmentalised,consignedtospecificpolicydepartments.Forexample,outdoorairpollutionhastraditionallybeenregardedasanenvironmentalpolicyareaprimarilyandatransportpolicysecondarily.However,airpollutionhasamajorimpactonhealthandshouldarguablybeacentralpolicyintheoverarchingstrategicsectorofHealth.Italsohasimplicationsforlanduseplanning,theeconomy,tourism,educationandenergysecuritypolicies(seeTable1.4).Fig.1.13Importanceofassessingclimateandnon-climateco-benefitsofalternativepolicyactions.

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Inordertoassistcitiesindevelopingstrategiesandtoolsforassessingtheimpactofalternativepolicyactionsonclimateandnon-climatebenefits,Table1.5providesasummaryofexamplesofthedecision-makingapproachforeachofthefivestrategicsectorsoftheco-benefitsframework.Table1.5Examplesofpolicyactionsforco-benefitsinfivestrategicsectors.

Strategic

sectors

Citygoals(examples)

Policyactions(examples)

Co-benefits Climatemitigationbenefits

Climateadaptationbenefits

Timehorizon

Publicfinancerequired

Coordinatedgovernance

HEAL

TH

Improveoutdoorairquality

Reduceconventionalvehicleuse

Reducedprematuredeathsandhealthproblems

High Low Shortterm

Low Health,Transport,LandUse,Energy,Digital,Economy,AirQuality,Buildings,Tourism

MOBILITY

Reducecongestion

Reducevehicleuse

Increasedeconomicefficiency,qualityoflife,airquality

High Low Mediumterm

Medium Transport,Economy,LandUse,Digital,Energy,Education,Tourism,AirQuality

RESO

URCE

S

Improvefoodsecurity

Promoteagriculturalproduction

Increasedeconomicefficiency,qualityoflife,reducedhealthimpacts

High High Longterm

Low FoodSecurity,Waste,Water,Health,LandUse,Transport,Buildings,Energy,Education,Disaster&Emergency

BUILDING

S Reducefuelpoverty

Increasebuildingenergyefficiency

Costsavings Medium Medium Shortterm

Potentialpayback

Buildings,Energy,Health,Education

ECONO

MY

Supporteconomicgrowth

Establishcleantechbusinessclustersandincentives

Innovation,productivity,SMEgrowthintechnologysector

Medium Medium Shortterm

Low Economy,Education,Transport,Buildings,Digital,Water,Waste

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UrbanindicatorsanddataIndicatorsthatcitiescanmeasureandmonitorIndicatorsareessentialformeasuringandmonitoringtheimpactofpolicyactions.Theyareindicativeofdatapointsthatmayhelpassesstheefficacyofpolicyactionsandcausationbetweenthepolicyactionandtheclimateco-benefits.InTable1.6anexampleisprovidedofanindicatorthatcouldpotentiallybeusedtomeasuretheresultsofapolicyaction.AmoredetailedexaminationofpotentialindicatorsthatmaybeusedbycitiestomeasureandmonitortheimpactofpolicyactionsissetoutinAnnex3ofthereport.Table1.6Examplesofpotentialindicatorsforassessingco-benefits.Strategicsector Citygoal

(example)

Policyaction(example)

Indicator(example)

HEALTH Improveoutdoorairquality

Reduceconventionalvehicleuse

Vehiclekilometrestravelledinurbancore

MOBILITY Reducecongestion Reduceprivatevehicleuse

Modalsplit(percentageoftripsusingpublictransport)

RESOURCES Improvefoodsecurity Promoteagriculturalproduction

Volumeoffoodproducedwithinmunicipalboundary

BUILDINGS Reducefuelpoverty Increasebuildingenergyefficiency

Numberofhouseholdsinfuelpoverty(afterfuelcoststheywouldbeleftwitharesidualincomebelowtheofficialpovertyline.)

ECONOMY Supporteconomicgrowth

Establishcleantechbusinessclustersandincentives

Newfirmformationannuallybysector

DatagapsandcapacitybuildingOneoutcomefromtheliteraturereviewwascatalogingthedatasetsavailableformeasuringclimateco-benefitpolicyresults.Ofthe795documentsidentifiedintheliteraturereview,peer-reviewedacademicpapersmadeup66%,followedbyintergovernmentalreports(16%),NGOreports(9%)andnationalgovernmentreports(6%)(Fig.1.11).Furthermore,24%oftheliteraturecontainedexclusivelyprimarydata,withmostoftheliteraturebasedsolelyonsecondarydata(59%).Inaddition,17%ofarticlesusedbothprimaryandsecondarydata(Fig.1.12).Basedontheinitialreviewof795documents,75datasourceswereidentifiedrelatingtotheco-benefitsofurbanclimateaction.Ofthese,27sourcescontaineddataordatabases,28containedcasestudies,and20containedmodels,oftenwithassociateddatasets.Furthermore,manyofthe27datasourcesrelatingtoactualdataanddatabaseswerefoundtocontaindatathatwasnotrelevantforindividualgovernmentstoassessco-benefitsintheirowncities.Insomecases,thiswasbecausethedatawerenotatanappropriatescale.Inothercases,thedatawerenotsufficientforestimatingarelevantindicatorthatcouldbeusedforpolicymonitoring.Furthermore,veryfewdatasetsprovidedataforacomprehensiverangeofcities,sothatevenifthetypeofdatamaybeusefulforacity,amunicipalgovernmentwouldnotbeabletoaccessdataspecifictoitsowncity.Thismajorgapindataindicatesahugebarrierforcitiestouseco-benefitsaspartoftheirclimateaction.

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Evidencesuggeststhatricherdataexistsatthecitylevel,butiscurrentlyinaccessible,unpublished,uncollatedorunanalysed.Thisshouldbeexaminedfurther.AdiscussionofthechallengesfacingcitiesintermsofcollectingandanalysingdataissetoutinBox1.5.Fig.1.11Breakdownofco-benefitsdatasourcesidentifiedintheliteraturesearch.

Fig.1.12Breakdownofprimaryandsecondaryco-benefitsdataidentifiedintheliteraturesearch.

66%

16%

6%

9%

1% 1% 1%

Academic

Intergovernment

Government

NGO

Industry

Media

Other

24%

17%59%

Primary

Both

Secondary

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Box 1.5 LSE Cities analysis on the data challenge for cities and the need for accountingframeworksandmetricsAspartoftheNewClimateEconomyresearch,LSECitiessetoutsomeofthechallengesthatcitiesfaceintermsofdatagaps,alongwiththeneedforastandardisedintegratedaccountsmodelforthefuture.Thefollowingisanextractfromthefindings.“A keybarrierpreventing governments fromassuminggreater leadership tomanagecitiesmoreeffectivelyisthelackofcapacitytomeasureandmonitorthevastamountsofdatathatarecentraltoplanningandimplementingcity-basedpolicies.Forexample,recentanalysisbyWorldBankstaffsuggeststhatcurrentlyonlyaround20%oftheworld’s150 largestcitieshave thebasicanalyticsrequiredforlow-carbonplanning(WorldBank2013a).Twoareasofreformstandout:governance,policyandfinanceformunicipalfinancialaccountingandbuildingabetterunderstandingofcarbonemissions.Astandardaccountingframework,similartothoseusedbynationalgovernments,wouldprovidemunicipal governments with a stronger basis for short-term and long-term decision making. Itwouldalsoallowgreatertransparency,trustandaccountabilityfor localgovernments,givingcivilsocietyaclearer insight into government affairs and contributing to national efforts to track theflowsofclimatefinance.Inmovingtoan‘integratedaccounts’model,animportantfirststepforcitieswouldbetodevelopa framework similar to the Standard National Accounting system (UN Statistics Division 2009;Severinson 2010). This means a clear, reliable and integrated set of macroeconomic accountsbasedoncommonstandards.Asanexampleofgreaterconsistency incity-basedaccounting,theUSGovernmentalAccountingStandardsBoardhasbeenworkingwithstateandlocalgovernmentsoncommonprinciples. Ina2008survey,theyfoundthat67–72%ofstateandlocalgovernmentalauthorities included in the study followed the ‘generally accepted accounting principles’ (GASB2008). The development of common standard accounts should be complemented by municipalcapacitybuilding,particularlythe introductionofaccountingsoftware thatcanprovideadequatefeedbacktomunicipaladministrations(Abraham2013).The development of an internationally recognised system ofmunicipal accounts would form animportantpartofestablishingamunicipalcreditratingsystem.Havingastandardbaselineagainstwhich to measure the financial management of municipalities enables potential investors todifferentiate between more and less creditworthy local actors. It would also provideadministrations with a tool to improve their credit rating, by understanding how their accountsaffect their rating. Cities could then build on this by introducing into their accounting practicessome of the core principles of the ‘integrated reporting model’, such as the recognition ofenvironmental or social capital. Reform could take the shapeof developingaccountingmethodsthatcanadequatelyvaluethebenefitsofgreeninfrastructure,oncost-benefitscales,comparedtogreyinfrastructure(Pickle2014).

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(Continued)Metrics for cities to measure and monitor carbon emissions are also inconsistent. This is achallenge for all cities – even higher income cities with relatively high levels of technicalcapacity.Inasurveyofover100citiesworldwideforthispaper,only60hadpublishedcarbonemissions, and only 40 had published recent carbon emissions between 2010 and 2013. Ofthese, only 29 cities had a breakdownby scopeand sectors for these emissions andmost ofthese breakdownswere not comparable. For example, some cities include Scope 3 emissionsfrom aviation, marine transport or shipping, while others do not report these emissions. Acommon challenge is emissions double counting, where several institutions are sometimescredited with overlapping emissions activities. The level of detail in reporting is also highlyvariable, providing further challenges to benchmarking and comparability. Overall, only 12cities includedaclear breakdownofcarbon emissions from industry, transport, buildingsandelectricityconsumption,fourofthemainsourcesofemissionsfromenergyuseinmostcities.The lack of a commonly agreedmethodology onmeasuring emissions is one challenge, withdiffering perspectives on which sectors to include and whether methodologies should befocusedonproductionorconsumption(McCarney,Blancoetal.2011).Asaresult,manycitiesareunable to set out evidence-basedplans formitigatingcarbon emissions or tocollaborateregionallyandgloballywithothermunicipalitiesonreductionefforts.Encouragingly,moresub-national governments are utilising platforms such as the Carbon Climate Registry and theCarbon Disclosure Project (CDP). The Global Protocol for Community Scale Emissions projectcurrentlybeingdevelopedbyICLEI,IEAP,WRIandC40,andsupportedbytheWorldBank,UN-Habitat and UNEP, aims to produce a new comprehensive methodology for accounting forgreenhouse gas emissions associated with city-based economic activity and consumption(GreenhouseGasProtocol2012).Acomplementaryprogrammewillbedeveloped tohelpcityofficials and private sector actors build greenhouse gas emissions inventories using the newmethodology.”Source: Floater et al. 2014. Steering urban growth: governance, policy and finance. New ClimateEconomyPaper2.Note:TheGlobalProtocolforCommunityScaleactionhasnowbeendevelopedby ICLEI,WRIandC40toprovideanewstandardforGHGemissionsaccounting,seehttp://www.c40.org/gpc

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Part3:FutureresearchTheevidencesuggeststhatcitizensaremorelikelytotakeactiononclimatechange,ormorelikelytosupportgovernmentsthattakeactiononclimatechange,ifthewiderco-benefitsofthoseactionsareemphasised.Atthesametime,policiesthatareaimedatsupportinginnovation,deliveringeconomicbenefitsandenhancingthequalityoflifeofcitizenscanpotentiallyleadtomajorclimateco-benefits(e.g.reducedgreenhousegasemissions)whichwouldbemorechallengingtoachieveifclimateactionweretheprimaryobjective.Atthecitylevel,thepotentialofco-benefitsisparticularlygreatascitizenscanoftenwitnesstheresultsofpolicyactionsmoredirectlyontheirdailylives.Thetermco-benefitshasawiderangeofdefinitionsintheclimateliterature,withover20termsidentifiedintheliteraturethatareusedsynonymouslyorinasimilarcontext.Thetermco-benefitsvariesinintentionality(e.g.isclimatetheprimaryorsecondaryobjective,orsimplyanunintentionalbenefit),scope(e.g.doesitincludemitigationbenefits,adaptationbenefitsorboth),andscale(e.g.arethebenefitsshorttermandlocal,orlongtermandglobal).Co-benefitsmaybe(1)secondarybenefitsfromclimatepolicyaction,(2)secondaryclimatebenefitsfromotherpolicyactions,orthecombinationofclimateandnon-climatebenefitsbothofwhicharetargetedunderanintegratedpolicyprogramme.Thewiderangeofestablisheddefinitionsofco-benefitsusedbyauthoritativeorganisationsmeansthatformulatingataxonomyofco-benefitswithbroadbuy-infrompolicymakersischallenging.Currentco-benefitsframeworkstendtobefocusedonthreeareas:(1)thegreeneconomy,(2)benefit-costapproaches,and(3)resilienceframeworks.Inmanyoftheseframeworks,thetermco-benefitsisnotexplicitlyused.However,noneoftheseframeworksaresufficienttocapturethefulllandscapeofco-benefitscomprehensively.Thisreportsuggestsanewpotentialframeworkforcityco-benefitsaroundfivestrategicsectors:Health,Mobility,Buildings,Resources,andEconomy.Thefivestrategicsectorsarecentraltothestrategyofmanycities,includingthoseindeveloped,emerginganddevelopingcountries.Thestrategicsectorscanbesubdividedintocitygoalsandassociatedpolicyactions.Alternativepolicyactionscanbeassessedbasedontheirclimateandnon-climateimpacts.Basedonthefindingsoftheliteraturereviewinthisreport,promisingareasforfutureresearchwhereco-benefitsarepotentiallyhighinclude:1.Trafficpollution,2.Healthylifestyles,3.Smarttransportsystems(includingBusRapidTransit),4.Floodingandbuildingdamage,5.Valuingthesizeoftheenvironmentalgoodsmarket.Citiesalsoneedrobustdataandstandardindicatorstomeasureandmonitortheimpactofpolicyactionsonco-benefits.Thereviewidentifiedthreetypesofdatasourcewithpotentialtoquantifyco-benefits:data,casestudiesandmodels.However,muchofthedatacontainedinthesesourcesareoflittlevaluetoindividualcities.Theevidencesuggeststhatcurrentlyfewcitieshavebenchmarkindicatorsagainstwhichauthoritiescanmeasureandmonitorpolicyimpactsonco-benefits.Wherethesedoexist,theyarenotstandardisedacrossdifferentcities.Theevidencefromtheliteraturealsosuggeststhatmanycitiesdonotcollecttheprimarydatatoestimatesuchindicators.Othercitiesmayholdrelevantdata,butarecurrentlynotusingiteitherduetolackofcapacityorthelackofaco-benefitsframework.Gapsindataandtechnicalcapacityforanalysingdataaremajorbarrierstoimplementingpolicyactionsthatmaximiseco-benefits.Giventhegapsandinconsistenciesindefining,framing,measurement,communicationandpolicyactionfordeliveringclimateco-benefits,thisreviewprovidesasetofrecommendationsforfutureresearchandcityaction.

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RecommendationsRecommendation 1. Develop a co-benefits framework based on five strategic sectors: Health,Mobility,Resources,BuildingsandEconomy.

• Initiateagloballevelcollaborationtodevelopaco-benefitsframework.• Build on and extend the LSE/C40 co-benefits framework (Annex 1 and 2) for the five

strategicsectors,toprovideamorecomprehensivelandscapeofco-benefits,linkingthemtoC40’sClimateActioninMegacities.

• Developamethodologyformeasuringthegreeneconomyandrelatedco-benefits.• Upgrade existing methods for measuring economic, social and environmental co-benefits

andadjusttoaclimateresilienceframework.• Using pilot studies, develop an integrated accounting framework for municipal

governmentsthatincludesclimate,economic,socialandenvironmentalindicatorsanddata.Recommendation2.Improvethecollectionandanalysisofclimateco-benefitsdata.

• Using pilot cities, build a detailed database of co-benefits data and indicators beginningwiththefollowingareas:1.Trafficpollution,2.Healthylifestyles,3.Smarttransportsystems(including Bus Rapid Transit), 4. Flooding and building damage, 5. Valuing the size of theenvironmentalgoodsmarket.

• Supportadatacapacitybuildingprogrammeforcitiesbysharingbestpracticeondataandindicators.

Recommendation 3. Implement a research programme on governance and finance required fordeliveringco-benefits.

• Develop best practice guidance for departmental and multi-level governance to delivercross-departmentalco-benefitsthroughintegratedpolicy.

• Developactionplansforallocatingpublicfinancemoreeffectivelyandefficientlytodelivercross-departmentalco-benefitsandleverageprivatefinance.

• Developplanningframeworkscapableofintegratingconsiderationsacrosssectoral,spatialandtemporalscales.

• Develop a tool for prioritising policy programmes thatmaximise climate impacts and co-benefits.

Recommendation4.Developacommunicationstrategyfortakingactionbasedonco-benefits.Develop an evidence base for best practice to communicate co-benefits to mayors, senior cityofficials,business,citizensandNGOs.

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Annex1:Frameworkofmitigationco-benefits

Mitigation

Co-Benefits

StrategicSectors CityGoals PolicyActions Economic Social Environmental

ClimateMitigationBenefits

SupportingData(example)

CoordinatedGovernance

Resources

Improveenergysecurity

Diversify/increaselocalrenewableandlow-carbonenergysupply(solar,wind,CHP,geothermal,andwaste-to-energygeneration)

LocaljobcreationRevenuefromenergygeneration(e.g.landfillmethanecapture)StablepowersupplyforcommercialoperationsReducedpricevolatilityforenergyservices

ReducedfuelpovertyImprovedhealthviareductioninoutdoorairpollutionProvisionofhealth/socialservicestopoorandvulnerablepopulationsduringgridoutages

ImprovedairqualityReducedlandfillwaste

GHGemissionsreductionsfromlessrelianceonfossilfuels,methaneemissionreductions

Energyproductionfromrenewablesources,MWhperannum

Energy,Waste,Health,LandUse,Buildings,Disaster&Emergency,Economy

Improveenergysecurity

Fosterbehaviourchange(energyefficiency)

EnergysecurityCostsavingstooccupiers

Healthimpactsfromimprovedairquality

Improvedairquality GHGemissionsreductions

Percapitaelectricityconsumption(kWh)

Energy,Education,Buildings,Economy,Health

Createsmarterutilities

Deliverdecentralisedenergynetworksandsmartgrids

Costsavingsfromenergyandresourceefficiencymeasures,demandmanagementCostsavingstobuildingownersandoccupiersLocaljobcreation(mainlyshortterm)TechnologyinnovationIncreasedproductivity(commercialbuildings)

ReducedfuelpovertyImprovedhealthviareductioninoutdoorairpollutionProvisionofhealth/socialservicestopoorandvulnerablepopulationsduringgridoutages

Improvedairquality(loadshifting/demandmanagementtoreduceuseofdirty/leastefficient'peaker'plants)

GHGemissionsreductions

Numberofutilitycustomerswithsmartmeters(2-waycommunication)

Energy,Buildings,Transport,Economy,Disaster&Emergency,Water,Digital,Health

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Improvedservicereliabilityandlong-termcoststructures

Providebasicservices(electricity,water,etc.)

Investincompacturbangrowthandqualityinfrastructure

Increasedeconomicefficiency

Qualityoflife Reducedhealthimpacts

GHGemissionsreductions

Numberofutilityconnections(percentageofhouseholdsconnected),electricity,water,andwastewater

Energy,Water,Waste,Buildings,Digital,FoodSecurity,Health,LandUse,Transport,Disaster&Emergency,Economy

Providebasicservices(electricity,water,etc.)

Improvewaterefficiency

Costsavingsforhouseholdersandindustry

Increasedwatersecurityforthevulnerableincitiesimpactedbydrought

Reduceddroughtsandwatershortages

GHGemissionsreductionsfromreducedpumping,waterheating

Percapitawaterconsumption

Water,Buildings,Energy,Waste,Food,Economy

Providebasicservices(electricity,water,etc.)

Improvewastewatermanagementpractices

CostsavingswithwastewatertreatmentRevenuestreamsfromby-productprocessingLessvirginresourceextraction

FoodSecurityfromtherecoveryoforganicmaterialforfertilisersHealthimpactsfromlesscontaminationofwaterandfewerdiseaseoutbreaks

Reducedpollution GHGemissionsreductions

Bacteriaconcentrationsinreceivingwaterways(averageandpeak);leakagerates

Waste,Water,Health,LandUse,Disaster&Emergency,Energy,FoodSecurity

Improvefoodsecurity

Promoteagriculturalproduction

PossiblereductioninfoodpricevolatilityRevenuegenerationforurbanlow-incomegroupsIncreasedeconomicefficiency

FoodsecurityQualityoflife

Increasedurbangreenspace,biodiversityImprovedairqualityfromreductionintransportReducedhealthimpacts

GHGemissionsreductionsfromlowerfoodmiles

Volumeoffoodproducedwithinmunicipalboundary

FoodSecurity,Waste,Water,Health,LandUse,Transport,Buildings,Energy,Education,Disaster&Emergency

Improvefoodsecurity

Facilitateurbancomposting

Potentialrevenuesinagriculture

Organicfertilisers Methaneemissionreductionsandtransportationcarbonemissionreductions

Volumeoforganicwastedivertedfromlandfill;amountofbiogasproducedfromFoodWasteCogeneration

Foodsecurity,Waste,Economy,LandUse,Education

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Health

Improveoutdoorairquality

Reduceairpollutionfrompowerstations

Reducedcosts(frompoorhealthordamagefromacidrain)Increasedproductivityofhealthierworkers

Improvedhealth(e.g.reducedrespiratorydiseases,prematuredeathsfromairpollution)

Improvedairquality GHGemissionsreductions

Numberandlocationofhospitaladmittancesforasthma

Health,AirQuality,Energy,Buildings,Economy

Improveoutdoorairquality

Reduceconventionalvehicleuse(bycongestioncharging,lowemissionzonesorparkingmanagement)

ReducedcongestionReducedhealthcostsassociatedwithpoorairqualityMunicipalrevenues(congestioncharging,parkingfees)

ImprovedaccessReducedmortalityandinjuriesfromroad-relatedaccidentsReducedprematuredeathsandhealthimpactsfromairpollution

Improvedairquality(reducedPMs,SO2,NOx,otherpollutants)Reducedenvironmentalnoise

GHGemissionsreductions

Vehiclekilometrestravelledinurbancore

Health,Transport,LandUse,Energy,Digital,Economy,AirQuality,Buildings,Tourism

Improveoutdoorairquality

Increasetheproportionoflow-carbonvehicles(electric,hydrogen,compressednaturalgas,biofuels)

Energysecurity(reducedoildependenceandexposuretopricevolatility)Technologicalspillovers(e.g.batterytechnologiesforconsumerelectronics)

ReducedhealthimpactsfromairpollutionImprovedaccess

Improvedairquality(reducedPMs,SO2,NOx,otherpollutants)Reducedenvironmentalnoise

GHGemissionsreductions

Numberofalternativefuel/poweredvehicles

Health,Transport,LandUse,Digital,Economy,Energy,Education,Tourism,AirQuality

Improveoutdoorairquality

Reduceurbanindustrialpollution

IncreasedproductivityofhealthierworkersReducedhealthcostsassociatedwithairpollution

Reducedprematuredeathsandhealthimpactsfromairpollution

Improvedairquality(reducedPMs,SO2,NOx,otherpollutants)

PotentialGHGemissionsreductions

Numberofenforcementactionsagainstindustrialcompanies

Health,AirQuality,Energy,Buildings,Economy,LandUse

Improveindoorairquality

Improvebuildinginsulationandbuildingstandards

IncreasedproductivityofhealthierworkersReducedhealthcostsassociatedwithairpollution

Reducedprematuredeathsandhealthimpactsfromairpollution

Improvedairquality GHGemissionsreductions

Averagehouseholdandcommercialenergyconsumption,electricandthermal(kWhperm2offloorarea)

Health,AirQuality,Energy,Buildings,Economy

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Improveindoorairquality

Facilitateshifttolow-carboncookingmethods(e.g.improvedcookstoves)

Reducedhealthcostsassociatedwithairpollution

Reducedprematuredeathsandhealthimpactsfromairpollution

ReducedPMs,SO2,NOx,otherpollutants

GHGemissionsreductionsBlackcarbonreductions

PM10andPM2.5measurements(averageandpeak)

Health,Buildings,Energy,Education,AirQuality

Facilitateactivelifestyles

Increasecyclingandwalkingnetworks

Reducedcongestion Improvedphysicalhealth,suchasreductionofcardiovasculardisease,somecancers,diabetesandobesityReducedmortalityandinjuriesfromroad-relatedaccidentsImprovedaccessQualityoflife

Improvedairquality GHGemissionsreductions

Modalsplit(percentageofworktripsbybicycle,walking)

Health,Transport,LandUse,Digital,Education,Tourism,Culture,AirQuality,Economy

Improvewastemanagementpractices

Improvewastediversionandreducelandfill

Localjobcreation,especiallyindevelopingcountriesRevenuefromdivertedmaterialandby-productstreams

Improvedpublicsanitationat/nearlandfillsites

ReducedextractionofprimaryresourcesReducedlandcontamination

Methaneemissionsreductions

Volumeofwastetolandfill

Health,Waste,LandUse,Health,Energy,FoodSecurity,Economy

Improvehealthservicedelivery

Investinsmarterhealthsystems

ReducedcostsforserviceprovidersDecreasedneedforbrickandmortardevelopment

Strengtheneddiagnosisandhealthservicesdelivery

Smarterhealthsystems

GHGemissionsreductionsinhospitals,healthservicedelivery

Yearlyinvestmentindigitaltechnologyforpatientservices

Health,Digital,Education,Disaster&Emergency

Mob

ility

Increaseaffordabletransport

Increasemassinfrastructure/routes

Increasedproductivity(reducedcongestion)

ImprovedmobilityImprovedroadsafetyReducedhealthimpactsfromairpollution

ImprovedairqualityReducedenvironmentalnoise

GHGemissionsreductions

Aggregatelengthofscheduledmasstransitservices;modalsplit(percentageoftripsusingpublictransport)

Transport,LandUse,Energy,Tourism,AirQuality,Disaster&Emergency,Economy

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Reducecongestion

Reduceprivatevehicleuse

Increasedproductivityandeconomicefficiency

ImprovedqualityoflifeReducedhealthimpactsfromairpollution

ImprovedairqualityReducedenvironmentalnoise

GHGemissionsreductions

Numberofcarregistrations;motorisationrates(carsper1000inhabitants);modalsplit(percentageoftripsusingprivatevehicles)

Transport,Economy,LandUse,Digital,Energy,Education,Tourism,AirQuality

Improveaccessibility

Increasesharedmobilityservices(car/bikesharing)

ReducedcongestionReducedconsumercostsforvehiclemaintenance,parking,taxesetc.

ReducedhealthimpactsfromairpollutionReducedneedforcarparking

Reducedneedforparkingspace,withpotentialformorecompacturbanformandgreenspace

GHGemissionsreductions

Numberofcarregistrations;modalsplit(percentageoftripsusingactivetransportvsprivatevehicles)

Transport,LandUse,Digital,Economy,Health,Buildings,AirQuality,Tourism

Improveaccessibility

Investinsmarterpublictransportnetworks

ReducedcongestionIncreasedproductivityandgrowth

ImprovedaccessandqualityoflifeReducedmortalityandinjuriesfromroad-relatedaccidentsReducedhealthimpactsfromairpollution

ImprovedairqualityReducedenvironmentalnoise

GHGemissionsreductionsfromlowervehicleuse

Percentageoftransittrips/serviceswithin5minutesofscheduledtime

Transport,LandUse,Digital,Economy,Health,Buildings,AirQuality,Energy,Tourism,Disaster&Emergency

Buildings

Reducefuelpoverty

Increasebuildingenergyefficiency(e.g.insulation)

CostsavingstobuildingownersandoccupiersIncreaseinpropertyvaluesthroughefficiency,‘green’brandedbuildingsLocaljobcreation(mainlyshortterm)Increasedproductivity(commercialbuildings)

HealthimprovementsfromimprovedairqualityIncreasedthermalcomfort

ImprovedairqualityEcosystemservices(greenroofs)

GHGemissionsreductions

Elderlywintertimemortality;numberofhouseholdsinfuelpoverty(afterfuelcoststheywouldbeleftwitharesidualincomebelowtheofficialpovertyline)

Buildings,Energy,Health,Education

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Reduceoperatingcosts

Developlowcarbonhospitals,publicbuildings,schoolsanduniversities

Costsavingsthroughenergyefficiency

Improvedstudentperformanceatcomforttemperatures

GHGemissionsreductions

Totalenergyconsumption(electricandthermal),publicbuildings,kWhperm2

Buildings,Health,Energy,Digital,Economy,Education

Reduceoperatingcosts

Buildandretrofitsportsstadiums,museumsandconcerthallsforlowcarbon

Localjobcreation(particularlyshortterm)Lowerenergydemandincity

GHGemissionsreductions

Valueofinvestmentsmadeinenergyefficiencyretrofits(energyperformancecontracts,energyservicesagreements)

Buildings,Health,Energy,Digital,Tourism,Economy

Econ

omy

Managegrowth

Planforcompacturbangrowth

Increasedproductivity(reducedurbancongestionandtraveltimes)Reducedinfrastructureexpenditurefrommoreefficientbuiltform

HealthierlifestylesReducedcardependency

Protectagriculture,forestry,ecosystemservicesReducedenergyconsumption

GHGemissionsreductions

Residentialandworkerdensity(averageandpeak)

Economy,LandUse,Transport,Buildings,Energy,Water,Waste,AirQuality,Tourism

Stimulateeconomicgrowth

Undertakeurbanregeneration

Increaseinvestmentinbuildingsandinfrastructure

Increasedaffordablehousing

Reducedurbansprawlthroughuseofbrownfieldsites

GHGemissionsreductions

Acresofbrownfieldredevelopment

Economy,LandUse,Transport,Buildings,Energy,Water,Waste,AirQuality,Tourism

Stimulateeconomicgrowth

Increaseeco-friendlytourism

Economicbenefitsofeco/low-impacttourismsector

IncreasedresourceandenergyefficiencyReductioninurbanwasteMaintenanceandincreaseinurbanbiodiversityIncreasedgreenspace

GHGemissionsreductions

Numbersoftouristsinternationallyandinspecificcountries

Economy,Tourism,Energy,Water,Waste,Buildings

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Stimulateeconomicgrowth

Establishcleantechbusinessclustersandincentives

InnovationFirmproductivitySMEgrowthintechnologysector

GHGemissionsreductionsfromenergyandresourceefficiency

Newfirmformationannuallybysector

Economy,Education,Transport,Buildings,Digital,Water,Waste

Improveresourceefficiency/allocation

Increasewatersecurity

Reducedeconomicimpactsofwatervariability

SecurityforthevulnerableincitiesimpactedbydroughtResourceequity

Aquiferprotection-increaseinnaturalbuffers

GHGemissionsreductions:reductioninvehiculartransportofwater;centralizedsystemshaveefficienciesofscale;resilience/protectionofsourcesrequireslessprocessingofsourcewater;reductionintransmissionlosses

Annualvolumeofgreywater,stormwaterrecycling

Economy,Water,Waste,LandUse,Energy,Buildings,Education,Disaster&Emergency

Improveresourceefficiency/allocation

Promoteclimateeducationandawareness

Reducedenvironmentalimpactsthroughassociatedawareness

GHGemissionsreductionsthroughbehaviourchangeforlife

Economy,Education,Health,Disaster&Emergency,Energy

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Annex2:Frameworkofadaptationco-benefits

Adaptation

Co-Benefits

StrategicSectors CityGoals PolicyActions Economic Social Environmental

ClimateMitigationBenefits StrategicSectors CityGoals

Resources

Improveenergysecurity

Increaseresilienceofenergyinfrastructure

Costsavingsfromclimate-relateddamagesReducedenergylossesStabilityofenergysupplyforproductionShorttermjobcreationfromupgradinginfrastructure

Stabledeliveryofessentialservices

Improvedairquality(fromgasnetworklosses)Reducedlandcontamination

Adaptationtoextremeweather

Annualinstancesandtotalhoursofelectricandgasgriddisruption

Energy,Buildings,Health,AirQuality,Disaster&Emergency,Economy,Digital

Improvewatersecurity

Increasesourcesofwatersupplylesssubjecttodrought

ReducedeconomicimpactsofwatervariabilitySecurityofwatercoolingforpowerstations

SecurityforthevulnerableincitiesimpactedbydroughtImprovedaccesstocleanwaterImprovedsanitation

Reducedaquiferdepletion

Reducedwatershortages

Annualvolumeofgreywater,stormwaterrecycling

Water,Energy,LandUse,Buildings,Economy,Health,Disaster&Emergency

Providebasicservices(electricity,water,etc.)

Investincompacturbangrowthandqualityinfrastructure

Increasedeconomicefficiency

Qualityoflife Reducedhealthimpacts

Uninterruptedorminimallydisruptedutilitysuppliesduringextremeweather

Numberofutilityconnections(percentageofhouseholdsconnected),electricity,water,andwastewater

Water,Energy,Waste,LandUse,Transport,Health,Buildings,Digital,FoodSecurity,AirQuality,Disaster&Emergency,Economy

Improvefoodsecurity

Maintainandincreaseurbanagriculture

Revenuegenerationpotentialandlocaljobcreation,particularlyforlow-

Increasedfoodsecurity

Maintainedandincreasedbiodiversityandgreenspace

IncreasedfoodsecurityDecreasedurbanflooding

Volumeoffoodproducedwithinmunicipalboundary

FoodSecurity,LandUse,Transport,Buildings,Water,Waste

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incomegroupsPossiblereductioninfoodpricevolatility

Improvedairqualityfromdecreasedfoodtransport

Health

Protectvulnerablepopulations

Improvehealthplanningforheatwaves

IncreasedlabourproductivityandeconomicproductionthroughreducedheatstressReduceddirecthealthcosts

Reducedmortalityandhealthimpactsfromheat

Heatadaptation Heat-relatedmortalityandmorbidityinelderlyresidents

Health,Energy,Buildings,AirQuality,Economy,Disaster&Emergency,Digital,Education

Protectvulnerablepopulations

Reduceimpactsoffloodingonhealth

ReduceddamagecostsReduceddirecthealthcostsIncreasedpropertyvalues

Reducedmortalityandhealthimpactsfromfloodingdirectly,fromwater-bornediseasesandfromcontaminationofdrinkingwater

Reducedcontamination

Urbanfloodingadaptation

Incidencesofdiseaseoutbreakstiedtofloodconditions

Health,Water,LandUse,Buildings,Economy,Disaster&Emergency,Digital

Improvepublichealthservices

Improvediseaseinformationandprotection

Reduceddirecthealthcosts

Reducedmortalityandhealthimpactsfromspecificdiseases

Reducedpost-eventdisease

Incidencesofheat-relatedvector-bornediseases

Health,Disaster&Emergency,AirQuality,Waste,Water,Education,Digital

Improvepublicsafetyandsecurity

Improvedisasterplanningandmanagement

ReduceddamagecostsReduceddisruptionofenergy,transport,waterandcommunicationsnetworksIncreasedeconomicresilience

Reducedmortalityandhealthimpactsfromdisasters

Reducedimpactsfromextremeweatherevents

Averageresponsetime,firstresponders

Health,Disaster&Emergency,Transport,Education,Digital,Buildings,Tourism

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Improvepublichealth

Increaseurbangreenspace

IncreasedlabourproductivityandeconomicproductionthroughreducedheatstressIncreasedpropertyvaluesfromproximitytogreenspaces

ReducedhealthimpactsfromheatandfloodingIncreasedphysicalandmentalhealthEnhancedpublicamenity

ImprovedbiodiversityandecosystemsMaintainedandincreasedgreenspace

Reducedurbanheatislandeffectandreducedflooding

Percentageofurbanlandareadedicatedtogreen/openspace

Health,LandUse,Transport,Economy,Water,Buildings,Tourism

Improvepublichealthandsafety

Increaseawarenessofclimateimpactsandpromotebehaviourchange

Reducedimpactsonproductivity

Reducedimpactsonvulnerablegroups

Reducedenvironmentalimpactsthroughassociatedawareness

Increasedresilience Evidenceineducationcurricula,trainingprogrammesforcivilservants

Health,Education,Digital,Tourism,Energy,Water,Transport,Disaster&Emergency,Economy

Facilitateactivelifestyles

Protectandincreasegreenspaceforsportsandrecreation,schools/universities,andtourism

Increasedlabourproductivity,economicproductionandschoolperformancethroughreducedheatstressIncreasedpropertyvaluesfromproximitytogreenspacesLongertermproductivitybenefitsfromhealthy,educatedpopulation

ReducedhealthimpactsfromheatandfloodingImprovedpublicamenityImprovedhealthfromphysicalactivityImprovedstudentperformanceImprovedstudentmentalperformance

IncreasedbiodiversityandecosystemservicesMaintainedandincreasedgreenspace

Reducedurbanheatislandeffectandreducedflooding

Numberofadultsundertakingregularphysicalactivity

Health,Education,Tourism,LandUse,Water,Transport,Disaster&Emergency,Economy

Facilitateactivelifestyles

Increasecyclingandwalkingnetworks

Reducedcongestion Improvedphysicalhealth,suchasreductionofcardiovasculardisease,somecancers,diabetesandobesityReducedmortalityandinjuriesfromroad-related

Improvedairquality Reducedurbanheatislandeffectandreducedflooding

Modalsplit(percentageoftripswalkingorcycling)

Health,Transport,LandUse,Digital,Education,Tourism,Culture,Health,Economy

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accidentsImprovedaccessQualityoflife

Mob

ility

Maintainandimproveservicelevels

Floodresistanttransportinfrastructure(e.g.overheadcabling,raisedtracks)

ReduceddamagecostsReducedtraveldisruptionsleadingtoproductivitygains

Reduceimpactoffutureclimatechangeevents

Reducedfloodingimpacts

Percentageoftransittrips/serviceswithin5minutesofscheduledtimeduringextremeweatherevents(precipitation,wind,etc.);costsofrestartingtransitservicesfollowingflooding

Transport,LandUse,Energy,Tourism,Health,Disaster&Emergency,Economy

Maintainandimproveservicelevels

Heatresistantrailinfrastructure(e.g.hightemperatureconstructionmaterials)

ReduceddamagecostsReducedtraveldisruptionsleadingtoproductivitygains

Reduceimpactoffutureclimatechangeevents

Reducedimpactsofrailbuckling

Percentageoftransittrips/serviceswithin5minutesofscheduledtimeduringextremeheatevents

Transport,LandUse,Tourism,Health,Disaster&Emergency,Economy

Buildings

Maintainandimprovebuildingstocks

Promotepassiveandactivecoolingstrategiesfornewbuildings,existingbuildingretrofits(housing,commercial,publicandinstitutional,sports/cultural/leisure)

IncreasedlabourproductivityandeconomicproductionthroughreducedheatstressReduceddirecthealthcosts

ReducedmortalityandhealthimpactsfromheatImprovedstudentperformance

Heatresilientbuildings(inhigheraveragetemperatures,extremeheatevents)

Heat-relatedmorbidityandmortality

Buildings,Energy,Health,Education,Economy,Tourism,Digital,Disaster&Emergency

Maintainandimprovebuildingstocks

Promotedesignstrategiesfornewbuildings,existingbuildingretrofitstomitigatefloodrisks(housing,commercial,publicand

CostsavingsfromreducedfloodingdamagesReduceddirecthealthcostsIncreasedlabourproductivityand

ReducedmortalityandhealthimpactsImprovedstudentperformance(minimisedisruption)

Floodresilientbuildings

Levelofinsured,non-insuredlossesfromflood-relatedpropertydamage

Buildings,Health,Water,LandUse,Economy,Education,Tourism,Disaster&Emergency

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institutional,sports/cultural/leisure)

economicproductionthroughreducedflooddisruptionIncreasedpropertyvalues

Maintainandimprovebuildingstocks

Promotedesignstrategiesfornewbuildings,existingbuildingretrofitstomitigateextremestormrisks,e.g.winddamage(housing,commercial,publicandinstitutional,sports/cultural/leisure)

ReduceddamagecostsReduceddirecthealthcosts

Reducedmortalityandhealthimpactsfromstorms

Resiliencefromstormsandhighwinds

Levelofinsured,non-insuredlossesfromstorm-relatedpropertydamage

Buildings,Health,Water,LandUse,Economy,Education,Tourism,Disaster&Emergency

Reducefuelpoverty

Increasebuildingenergyefficiency(e.g.insulation)

CostsavingstobuildingownersandoccupiersIncreaseinpropertyvaluesthroughefficiency,‘green’brandedbuildingsLocaljobcreation(mainlyshortterm)Increasedproductivity(commercialbuildings)

HealthimprovementsfromimprovedairqualityIncreasedthermalcomfort

ImprovedairqualityEcosystemservices(greenroofs)

Coldresilient(extremeweatherevents)housing

Elderlywintertimemortality;numberofhouseholdsinfuelpoverty(afterfuelcoststheywouldbeleftwitharesidualincomebelowtheofficialpovertyline)

Buildings,Energy,Health,Education

Econ

omy

Maintainandimprovelevelsofeconomicgrowth

Improveresiliencyofinfrastructure

ReduceddamagecostsReduceddisruptiontoutilitiesandtravel

ReducedmortalityReducedhealthimpactsoffloodingReducednumberofhouseholdersforcedfromhomes

ReducedwaterpollutionEffective/uninterruptedwatercollectionandsecurity

Reducedclimate-relatedimpactsontransport,energy,water,communicationsnetworksandbuildings

Annualinstancesandtotalhoursofmasstransitservicedisruption

Economy,LandUse,Transport,Buildings,Energy,Water,Waste,Tourism,Digital,Education,Disaster&Emergency

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Maintainandimprovelevelsofcriticalinfrastructure

Improvestormwatermanagement

Reducedcostsfromflood-relateddamages

ReducedmortalityReducedhealthimpactsoffloodingReducednumberofhouseholders,businessesforcedfromhomes,placesofwork

ReducedwaterpollutionWatercollectionandsecurity

Reducedflooding Averageandpeakreceivingwaterqualitymeasures(e.g.,bacteria,suspendedsolids)

Economy,Water,Buildings,Economy,LandUse,Health,Tourism,Digital,Education,Digital,Disaster&Emergency

Maintainandimprovelevelsofcriticalinfrastructure

Improveflooddefences

Reducedcostsfromflood-relateddamages

ReducedmortalityReducedhealthimpactsoffloodingReducednumberofhouseholders,businessesforcedfromhomes,placesofwork

ErosioncontrolEnhancedbiodiversityEnhancedgreenspace

Reducedflooding Levelofinvestmentinengineeredflooddefence

Economy,Water,Buildings,LandUse,Health,Tourism,Education,Digital,Disaster&Emergency

Maintainandimprovelevelsofcriticalinfrastructure

Improveliveabilitythrough'greenandblue'infrastructure

Higherpropertypricesneartogreenspace

Recreation Enhancedbiodiversityandgreenspace

Reducedheatandfloodingimpacts

Percentageofurbanlandareadedicatedtogreenandblueinfrastructure

Economy,Water,Buildings,LandUse,Energy,Health,Tourism,Education,Digital,Disaster&Emergency

Bringforwardnewdevelopmentareasforurbanexpansion

Improvelandplanninganddevelopmentcontrol

ReduceddamagecostsHigherpropertyvalues

SocialinclusionProtectionofmorevulnerablegroups

Floodplainareasprotected

Reducedevelopmentrisksinfloodplains/floodzones

Numberofdevelopmentapprovalsinflood-proneareas

Economy,LandUse,Transport,Buildings,Water,Tourism

Stimulateeconomicgrowth

Establishcleantechbusinessclustersandincentives

InnovationFirmproductivitySMEgrowthintechnologysector

Improvedresiliencethroughutilisationofadaptation-relatedgoodsandservices

Newfirmformationannuallybysector

Economy,Education,Transport,Buildings,Digital,Water,Waste

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Stimulateeconomicgrowth

IncreaseICTinadaptationsystems

ReduceddamagecostsReduceddisruptiontotransport,energy,waterandcommunicationsnetworksReducedhealthcosts

Reducedmortalityandhealthimpacts

Moreeffectivepre-,during,andpost-eventcommunicationsandresponse

Annualinstancesandtotalhoursofmobiletelephonyservicedisruption

Economy,Digital,Disaster&Emergency,Water,Energy,Transport,Buildings

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Annex3:Co-benefitsframeworkinaction-fiveexamplesIn order to assist cities in developing strategies and tools for assessing the impact of alternativepolicy actions on climate and non-climate benefits, Annex 3 provides examples of the decision-making approach for each of the five strategic sectors of the co-benefits framework. Table 1.7providesasummaryofthesefiveexamples.The process begins with five high-level strategic sectors in which local governments have stronginstitutional andgovernance settings;Health,Mobility,Buildings, ResourcesandEconomy.All fivestrategicsectorsincludeanelementofimprovingqualityoflife,withperceivedbenefitsforcitizensthatarebothdirectandtangible.Thestrategicsectorsarenotindividualgovernmentdepartmentsper se, but rather represent core functional abilities of governments and expectations of urbancitizens. In fact, thepolicyactions foreffectiveoutcomes ineachof theseareas requireactionbymultipledepartmentsandinstitutions(seeCoordinatedGovernanceinTable1.5).

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Table1.7.Examplesofpolicyactionsforco-benefitsinfivestrategicsectors.Strategic

sectors

Citygoals(examples)

Policyactions(examples)

Co-benefits Climatemitigationbenefits

Climateadaptationbenefits

Timehorizon

Publicfinancerequired

CoordinatedgovernanceHE

ALTH

Improveoutdoorairquality

Reduceconventionalvehicleuse

Reducedprematuredeathsandhealthproblems

High Low Shortterm Low Health,Transport,LandUse,Energy,Digital,Economy,AirQuality,Buildings,Tourism

MOBILITY Reduce

congestionReducevehicleuse

Increasedeconomicefficiency,qualityoflife,airquality

High Low Mediumterm

Medium Transport,Economy,LandUse,Digital,Energy,Education,Tourism,AirQuality

RESO

URCE

S Improvefoodsecurity

Promoteagriculturalproduction

Increasedeconomicefficiency,qualityoflife,reducedhealthimpacts

High High Longterm Low FoodSecurity,Waste,Water,Health,LandUse,Transport,Buildings,Energy,Education,Disaster&Emergency

BUILDING

S

Reducefuelpoverty

Increasebuildingenergyefficiency

Costsavings Medium Medium Shortterm Potentialpayback

Buildings,Energy,Health,Education

ECONO

MY

Supporteconomicgrowth

Establishcleantechbusinessclustersandincentives

Innovation,productivity,SMEgrowthintechnologysector

Medium Medium Shortterm Low Economy,Education,Transport,Buildings,Digital,Water,Waste

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1. HEALTH

Example:Improveoutdoorairquality

Strategic

sectors

Citygoals(example)

Policyactions(example)

Co-benefits Climatemitigationbenefits

Climateadaptationbenefits

Timehorizon

Publicfinancerequired

Coordinatedgovernance

HEAL

TH Improve

outdoorairquality

Reduceconventionalvehicleuse

Reducedprematuredeathsandhealthproblems

High Low Shortterm

Low Health,Transport,LandUse,Energy,Digital,Economy,AirQuality,Buildings,Tourism

Thechallengeofimprovingoutdoorairquality

Air quality in most cities is deteriorating due to an increase in internal combustion engine (ICE)privatemotorvehicles,relianceonfossilfuelsforstationaryenergysuchascoalfiredpowerplants,andairpollutionfromspaceheatingandcoolinginbuildings,amongstotherfactors.Thegrowthinvehicle-derived urban air pollution in some large emerging economy cities has been particularlyrapid.ThecityofBangalore, forexample,experienceda34% increase inairpollutantsonaveragebetween2002and2010 (Alpert,ShvainshteinandKishcha2012),ofwhich41%ofparticulatematter(PM10)and67%ofNOxemissionswereemittedbyroadvehicles(CPCB2010).Airpollution isprojected tobecomethe topenvironmental causeofprematuremortalityby2050(OECD 2012). The World Bank has estimated total deaths attributable to transport-related airpollutionataminimumof184,000ayear for2010,with thenumberofdeaths increasingbyover10%intheprevioustwodecades(WorldBank2014).AsimilarstudybytheInternationalCouncilforClean Transportation estimates mortality attributable to ambient particulate matter PM2.5 frommotorvehiclesat230,000deathsperyearin2005(Bhallaetal.2014).Citiesareparticularlyexposedtotransport-relatedemissionsbecausehighnumbersofvehiclesemitatgroundlevelinareasthatarehighlypopulated(WorldBank2002).Policyactionexample:reduceconventionalvehicleuse

Transport generates more than 80% of the air pollution in cities in developing countries (UNEP2011).Reducingconventionalvehicleusecanreducecarbonemissionswhilstalsoreducingoutdoorairpollution.Reducingvehicleusecanbeinfluencedbyanumberofmeasures, includingdemand-side (e.g. congestion charges, low emission zones or parking management) and supply-side (e.g.mass transit service, cycle routesandcycle-shareprogramme)actions.Cleaner fuel standardsandswitching to electric vehicles can deliver significant air-quality related health benefits whilecontributing modestly to carbon mitigation (i.e. black carbon 7 and non-absorbing aerosolsreductions8).

7Blackcarbonisashort-livedpollutantthatabsorbssolarradiationandamplifiesthegreenhouseeffect.Ona20yearscale,itcausesaround3,200timesmoreradiativeforcingthanCO2onaper-unitbasis.8Non-absorbingaerosolsincreasethealbedooftheatmosphere,decreasingtheirradianceattheearthsurface.

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There are other policies that aim to reduce carbon emissions that have a negative impact on airquality(suchas increasingtheuseofbiomass).Butreducingconventionalvehicleuseisonepolicythatcanimproveairqualityaswellasreducecarbonemissions.

Mitigationpotentialofreducingtheuseofconventionalvehicles

• Businessasusualprojectionsshowthattheglobalvehiclefleetissettomultiplythreeorfourfoldinthenextfewdecades,whichissurpassingthepaceoftechnologyfactorssuchasfuelefficiencyoralternativepowersourcestokeepcarbonemissionsfromthesectorincheck(UNEP2011).Thishighlightstheimportanceofdemandreduction.

• AscenariostudyforUSmetropolitanareasincitiessuchasAtlantaandPhoenixsuggestsareductionof7to10%incarbonemissionsasaresultofa20to40%reductioninvehicle-miles-travelledduetocompacturbandevelopment(Ewingetal.2008).

• Controllingforotherfactors,thedifferenceintransportintensitybetweenhigh-andlow-densityareascanbemorethan40%invehicle-miles-travelledpercapita(Ewingetal.2008).

o InHongKong,acitywhichisverydenseandwell-servedbymasstransit,annualcarbonemissionsfrompassengertransportareestimatedat378kgperperson,comparedwitharound1,000kginEuropeancitiesandover5,000kginHouston,USA(RodeandFloater2013).

o PoliciesinShanghaiwhichhavelimitedprivate(light-duty)vehicleuse(e.g.anexpensivelicenseauctionandinvestmentsinmasstransitinlieuofroadcapacity)havecreatedsignificantdifferencescomparedtoBeijingwhichhassimilarlevelsofpopulationandaffluencebutthreetimesasmanylight-dutyvehicles(Simsetal.2014).

o TheforecastedrangefromseveralstudiesofUScitiesofa5-12%vehiclekilometrestravelledreductionwasshownbasedondoublingresidentialdensities,withahigher25%forecastproducedwhencombinedwithotherstrategiessuchasroadpricing(NRC2014).

Adaptationpotentialofreducingtheuseofconventionalvehicles

• Thisdependsonthealternativetransportused,ifatall.• Respiratorydiseaseswillincreasewithclimatechangeduetoheat,particulatesinwildfires

andchangesinallergens.Areductioninairpollutionmayoffsettheriseinrespiratoryproblemstosomedegree.

Potentialforimprovingoutdoorairquality

• FewercarsontheroaddirectlyreducesGHGemissionsaswellasPM10,SO2,NOxandotherairpollutants.

• InastudyoffourIndianmegacities,vehicleemissionsalreadycomprise20–50%offineparticulatematter(PM2.5)emissionsalone(Chowdhuryetal.2007).

• InEuropeoptionsfordecarbonisationandenergyefficiency(largelyintransport)couldreduceaggregateNOxemissionsbyafurther38%relativetoabaselinescenarioinclusiveofcurrentandplannedairqualitylegislationby2030(Coletteetal.2012).

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Otherco-benefitsofreducingtheuseofconventionalvehicles

• Reducedprematuredeathsandhealthproblems,suchasrespiratorydiseases• Increasedproductivityofhealthierworkersandreducedhealthcostsassociatedwithair

pollution• Improvedairquality(reducedPM,SO2,NOxandotherpollutants)andreduced

environmentalnoise• Reducedcongestionandtraveltimes,raisingpotentialproductivity• Reducedinjuryandmortalityfromroadaccidentsandreducingnoisestress• Improvedaccess• Municipalrevenues(congestioncharging,parkingfees)

Keyurbandataformeasuringpolicyimpact

• Numbersofcarsontheroadandvehiclekilometrestravelled• Accessibilitymetrics(tojobs,shopping,etc.)byauto,transit,andnon-motorisedmobility• LevelsofGHGemissionsfromtransportsector• LevelsofPM,SO2,NOxandotherpollutants• Levelsandgrowthofrespiratorydiseasesinurbanpopulationgroups

Timehorizon

Thispolicyimpliesashort-termhorizonforimplementationbecausereducingcarusehasanalmostimmediateeffectonairquality.RelativetoCO2whichhasalongeratmosphericlifetime,pollutantsfrom ICE vehicles (i.e. aerosols and ozone) are short-lived and reduction benefits realised quickly(UNEP2011).

Reducing vehicle kilometres travelled (VKT) requires medium/long-term planning andimplementation/measurement periods for infrastructure changes and for influencing travelbehaviours,alongsideintegratedactionrelatedtolanduseanddevelopmentform.

• Policycombinations(e.g.VKTcharges,upgradingtransit,andmorecompactdevelopment)fromsimulationstudiesinHelsinki,Dortmund,EdinburghandSacramentoyieldedestimatesof14.5%reductionsinVKTwithin10yearsand24%declinesover40years(Rodier2014).

Coordinationofgovernanceandfinance

Outdoor air pollutionhas traditionally been regardedas anenvironmental policymatter primarilyand a transport issue secondarily. Amore strategic approach to reducing the use of conventionalvehicleswouldinvolveothergovernmentdepartments:

• Thewayurbanplannersuseland,specificallytheinvestmentintransportinfrastructure,willlockintransport-relatedemissionpatternsformanyyears.Adigitalpolicythatreducesjourneys(whetherbysupportinghomeworkingorelectronicbasedpublicservices)willalsoaffecttransport-relatedemissions.

• Airpollutionisputtingincreasingpressureonurbanhealthservicesasaresultoftherisinglevelsofrespiratorydiseases.Thisknock-oneffectonworkerproductivityhasaneffectontheeconomy.Similarly,tourismpolicycanbeaffectedbythequalityoftheairinthecity.

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• Reducingacity’srelianceonpetrolanddieselwhilstpromotingalternativeenergyuseinurbantransportoptionscanincreaseenergysecurity(reducedoildependenceandexposuretopricevolatility).

• Finally,educationplaysasignificantroleinpromotingnewbehavioursthatreduceconventionalvehicleuse.

Intermsofpublicfinancing,thecostofreducingcaruseinmanycitiesthroughinvestmentinpublictransport,walkingandcyclingisloweronacapacityfactorbasisthaninvestmentneededinroadstoserve lowerdensitydevelopmentpatterns (Rodeet al. 2014).Cities are increasingly fundingmasstransit investments through value capture mechanisms, which in turn are supported by thesubstantial evidence for increases in land values around new and existing transit stations (IPCC2014).

Thesecostscouldalsobeoffsettosomedegreeinthelongertermbyreducedhealthservicecostsofair-pollutionrelatedillnessesandotherhealthproblems.Neteconomiccostsandsavingswouldalsobeaffectedthroughtraveltimesavings,raisedworkproductivityandreducedvehiclepollution.

Thecostsofinactionalsoneedtobefactoredin:theOECDestimatesthatroadtransportaccountedforapproximatelyhalfofthetotalestimatedannualcostofoutdoorairpollutionofUS$1.7trillionin2010, inadditiontorepresentingasubstantialpercentageoftheeconomiccost inChinaandIndia(US$1.4trillionandUS$500billionrespectively)(OECD2014).ArecentestimatesuggestedthattheheavyhazeinChinainJanuary2013alonecausedUS$3.7billionindirectlossestosociety(MuandZhang2013).

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2. MOBILITY

Example:Reducecongestion

Strategic

sectors

Citygoals(example)

Policyactions(example)

Co-benefits Climatemitigationbenefits

Climateadaptationbenefits

Timehorizon

Publicfinancerequired

Coordinatedgovernance

MOBILITY

Reducecongestion

Reducevehicleuse

Increasedeconomicefficiency,qualityoflife,airquality

High Low Mediumterm

Medium Transport,Economy,LandUse,Digital,Energy,Education,Tourism,AirQuality

Thechallengeofcongestion

Congestionariseswhenurbantrafficvolumesexceedthecapacityofthelocalinfrastructure.Peakstend to be linked to commuters andoverall trip demanddrivenby the rise in urbanpopulations.High rates of urbanisation suggest a worsening of congestion;modelling under business as usualscenarios suggests that theglobal vehicle fleet is set tomultiply threeor fourfold in thenext fewdecades,withmostof thisgrowth indevelopingcountries (UNEP2011).Transport congestionhasnegativeeconomicandhealtheffects,raisesfuelconsumptionandincreasesairpollution.

Thefinancialandwelfarecostsofcongestiontocitiesandcitizenscanbesubstantial.Forexample,theNewYorkCitymetropolitanregionaloneisestimatedtoloseUS$13billionannuallyasadirectresultoftrafficcongestion,resultinginanotionallossofabout52,000jobsannually(PFNYC2013).The costs of congestion are frequently even higher in relative terms for developing and middleincomecountries,withestimatesofupto2.6%ofGDP inMexicoCityand3.4%ofGDP inBuenosAiresandDakar(WorldBank2002).

Policyactionexample:reducevehicleuse

Reducing vehicle use can reduce carbon emissions whilst also easing congestion. Congestioncharges, such as those in Stockholm and London, and newmass transit BRT systems, such as inBogotá, Lagos, Ahmadabad, Guangzhou, and Johannesburg, have demonstrated the potential forreducingcongestioncostsbornebycityresidents(UNEP2011).

Mitigationpotentialofreducingvehicleuse• Transportisthesecondhighestsourceofglobalenergy-relatedCO2emissions,andthe

fastest-growingsector.ReducingvehicleuseandcongestioncutsGHGemissionsfromcarsaswellasPMs,SO2,NOxandotherairpollutants.

• Forexample,inCuritaba,whichhasthehighestrateofmasstransituseinBrazil,thereductionincongestionmeansmuchlessfueliswastedintrafficjams;onlyUS$930,000,comparedwithanestimatedUS$13.4millioninRiodeJaneiro(Suzukietal.2010).

Adaptationpotentialofreducingvehicleuse• Thisdependsonthealternativetransportused,ifatall.• Respiratorydiseaseswillincreasewithclimatechangeduetoheat,particulatesinwildfires

andchangesinallergens.Areductioninairpollutionmayoffsetthistosomedegree.

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Potentialforreducingcongestion• FewercarsontheroaddirectlyreducesGHGemissionsaswellasPMs,SO2,NOxandother

airpollutants.Fewercarsmeanslesscongestion,whichreducesfuelconsumption.• Reducingvehicledemandthroughplanningfordense,mixed-useenvironmentscreates

shortertripdistancesandimprovedtraveloptions.Thesetypesofurbanenvironmentstendtohavelowerpercapitacongestiondelaysthanmoresprawling,single-use,auto-dependenturbanenvironments(Litman2015).

Otherco-benefitsofreducinguseofvehicles• Increasedeconomicefficiency–lesstimespentintrafficjamsandlesspublicandprivate

expenditureforautomobilesandassociatedinfrastructure• Improvedairqualityandreducedenvironmentalnoise• Reducedprematuredeathsandhealthproblems,suchasrespiratorydiseases• Reducedinjuryandmortalityfromroadaccidents

Keyurbandataformeasuringpolicyimpact

• Numbersofcarsontheroad• Vehiclekilometrestravelled• Averagetraveltimes• Accessibilitymetrics(tojobs,shopping,etc.)byauto,transit,andnon-motorisedmobility• LevelsofGHGemissions• LevelsofPMs,SO2,NOxandotherpollutants• Levelsandgrowthofrespiratorydiseasesinurbanpopulationgroups

Timehorizon

This policy implies a medium-term horizon for implementation because alternative forms oftransportneed tobeput inplaceaswellas the infrastructure to reducevehicleuse (e.g.demandmanagementorcongestioncharging).

Coordinationofgovernanceandfinance

Congestionhastraditionallybeenregardedasatransportissueandyet,amorestrategicapproachtoreducingvehicleusewouldinvolveothergovernmentdepartments:

• Congestionhasadirectimpactontheurbaneconomy:traveltimesincreaseandproductivitydecreases.Longerjourneysarefactoredintotravellingtimes.

• Thewayurbanplannersuseland,specificallytheinvestmentintransportinfrastructure,willlockintransport-relatedemissionpatternsformanyyears.Adigitalpolicythatreducesjourneys(suchasbysupportinghomeworkingorelectronicbasedpublicservices)willalsoaffecttransport-relatedemissions.

• Reducingacity’srelianceonpetrolanddieselwhilstpromotingalternativeenergyuseinurbantransportoptions,canincreaseenergysecurity(reducedoildependenceandexposuretopricevolatility).

• Educationplaysasignificantroleinpromotingnewbehavioursthatreduceconventionalvehicleuse.

• Aheavilycongestedcityreducesitstouristappeal.

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Intermsofpublicfinancing,thecostofreducingcaruseinmanycitiesisrelatedtoplanningpoliciesandinvestmentsformorecompact,transit-orientedgrowth.Modellingshowsthatareallocationof0.34%of globalGDP in support of public transport infrastructure and efficiency improvements toroadvehicleswouldreducetheexpectedincreaseintravelvolumeofroadvehiclesbyaroundone-thirdby2050(UNEP2011).Theseinvestmentswouldaddresstheeconomicinefficiencies(e.g.traveltime savings and raised work productivity) that result from congestion. For example, congestioncostsin439urbanareasoftheUnitedStatesexceededUS$100billionin2009,whilecongestioninTorontocostthecitymorethanUS$3.3billioninproductivity(1.2%ofToronto’sGDP)9(UNEP2011).

Costs for reducing congestions would be further offset to some degree in the longer term byreducedcosts to thehealthserviceofair-pollution related illnessesandotherhealthproblems. Inaddition,municipalrevenuescanberaisedfromcongestionchargingorparkingfees.

9Economiclossesindevelopingcountriesaredifficulttoquantifyduetolackoftrafficdata,thoughitisestimatedthatlossesaregenerallyofahigherorderofmagnitude.

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3. RESOURCES

Example:Improvefoodsecurity

Strategic

sectors

Citygoals(example)

Policyactions(example)

Co-benefits Climatemitigationbenefits

Climateadaptationbenefits

Timehorizon

Publicfinancerequired

Coordinatedgovernance

RESO

URCE

S

Improvefoodsecurity

Promoteagriculturalproduction

Increasedeconomicefficiency,qualityoflife,reducedhealthimpacts

High High Longterm

Low FoodSecurity,Waste,Water,Health,LandUse,Transport,Buildings,Energy,Education,Disaster&Emergency

Thechallengeoffoodinsecurity

AccordingtotheFAOabout793millionpeoplegloballywereundernourishedin2015(FAO,IFAD&WFP2015).Ariseinurbanfoodinsecurityisseenwheregrowingpopulationsincreasethedemandforfoodaswellas,insomecases,displaceagriculturalproduction.Thepressureonthefoodsupply,compounded by price instability and climate variability, can leave the urban poor unable to feedthemselvesadequately.Negativeclimatechangeimpactsonagriculturalproductionareexpectedtobefeltmostindevelopingcountrieswhichatpresentfacethemostacuterisksfromdecreasedcropyieldsandmalnutrition(RosenzweigandParry1994).

Policyactionexample:promoteagriculturalproduction

Urbanagriculturecanenhancefoodsecurityfortheurbanpoor(deZeeuw2011),whileatthesametime reducing carbon emissions due to the reduction of mechanised agriculture and need fortransport(i.e.‘foodmiles’)(RUAF2014a).Urbanagriculturealsoactsasacarbonsinkandbenefitsfromthefactthatplants’captivecapacityisatitshighestinthegrowthphaseofvegetation.Theuseofurbanagriculturekeepsthesecityecosystemsmorecontinuouslyinaproductionphase(highestcarbonabsorptioncapacity),resultinginmoreCO2persurfaceareacapturedthaninnaturalsystemsliketropicalforests(DeelstraandGirardet2000).

Mitigationpotentialofmaintainingandincreasingurbanagriculture• Globally,Agriculture,Forestry,andOtherLandUseisresponsibleforroughly25%of

anthropogenicGHGemissionsmainlyfromdeforestationandagriculturalemissionsfromlivestock,soilandnutrientmanagement(Smithetal.2014).

• Localisedfoodproductionoffersanopportunitytoreducethecarbonintensityofthefoodsystemofindividualcities.Forexample,anurbanfoodsystemsscenariostudyundertakenbyanNGO10in2014foundthatinRosario,Brazil,95%ofthecity’sCO2emissionsrelatedtofoodtransportsandcoolingcouldbereducedbyproducingthesixmainvegetablesconsumedbythepopulationintheurbanandperi-urbanarea.Thetotalproductionareaneededforthiswas6,150hectaresandcouldbeaccommodatedthrougharealanduseplans.

• Increasedgreenareasinandaroundcitiescandampentheurbanheatislandeffect,therebyreducingcoolingenergyrequiredforcityinhabitants.

10theInternationalnetworkofResourceCentresonUrbanAgricultureandFoodsecurity

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• Urbanagriculturalproductioncancreateclosed-loopnutrientrecyclingopportunities,reducingGHGemissionsfrommunicipalsolidwasteandsewagestreams.

Adaptationpotentialofmaintainingandincreasingurbanagriculture

• Greenspacefromtheuseofurbanagriculturecanimproveurbanmicro-climatesby:alleviatingtheurbanheatislandeffect;bycontributingtostormwatermanagementandfloodcontrolduringtimesofincreasedrainfall;andbyreducingwinderosionofsoils.

• Totheextentthatclimatechangebringsfurtheruncertaintytocropyields,prices,deliveryreliability,foodqualityandfoodsafety,maintainingsomelocalfoodproductioncanhelpurbanpopulationsreducethoserisks.Abetterfedpopulationisalsomoreresilienttoclimatechange.

Potentialforreducingfoodinsecurity

• Urbanagriculturecurrentlyaccountsfor5-15%oftotalagriculturalproductioninmostdevelopingcountries(Fritscheetal.2015)andthuspresentsapotentiallyscalablemodel.World-leadingexamplesshowthepotentialforindividualcitiesinbothdevelopinganddevelopedcontexts:Singaporeisfullyself-reliantinmeatandproduces25%ofitsvegetableneeds;andBamako,Mali,isself-sufficientinvegetablesandproduceshalformoreofthechickensitconsumes(DeelstraandGirardet2000).

Otherco-benefitsofmaintainingandincreasingurbanagriculture

• Revenuegenerationpotentialandlocaljobcreation,particularlyforlow-incomegroups• Possiblereductioninfoodpricevolatility• Increasedurbangreenspace,biodiversityandqualityoflife• Improvedhealthimpactsfromincreasedavailabilityoffruitsandvegetables• Improvedairqualityfromreductionintransportandincreasedurbangreenspace• Increasedjobopportunitiesinlow-income/informalcommunities

Keyurbandataformeasuringpolicyimpact

• Acreageoflanddevotedtourbanagriculturalproduction• Areaavailable/in-useforrooftopagriculturalproduction• Volume/percentageoffoodproducedandconsumedwithinlocalarea(e.g.20or50km

radius)• Theprevalenceofmalnutritionandmalnourishmentinspecificurbanpopulations,suchas

theproportionofunderweightchildrenunder5• Levelsandgrowthofdiseaseslinkedtomalnutrition• LevelsofGHGemissions• LevelsofPMs,SO2,NOxandotherpollutants

Timehorizon

Implementationof thispolicywouldprobably requirea long-termhorizonbecauseof theongoingneedtomaintainproductiveland.

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Coordinationofgovernanceandfinance

The reducing of food insecurity is a cross-cutting policy challenge, involving many governmentsectorsbeyondthehealthdepartments:

• Ensuringthecontinuedavailabilityofagriculturallanddependsoneffectiveplanningrulesaboutlanduseaswellasbuildingpolicies.

• Transportinfrastructureisneededforeffectivedistribution.• Solidwaste,wastewater,andpotablewaterinfrastructurecanallcontributetofertiliserand

irrigationinputsneededforproductionandcanbepartofanintegratedwasteandwatermanagementscheme.

• Increasedunderstandingaboutgoodnutritionandpreparationmethodslieswithhealthdepartmentsandcanbepartofeducationpolicy.

Thecostofreducingfoodinsecurityinmanycitieswilldependonlandavailabilityandland/propertymarkets.Undertakingplanningandpolicydevelopment, rather thandirectexpenditureon landorinfrastructure, is likely to be the primary role for local governments. The value-added from localagricultural production to the local economymay be significant. The 1980 US census found thaturbanmetropolitanareasproduced30%ofthedollarvalueofUSagriculturalproduction.By1990,thisfigurehadincreasedto40%(DeelstraandGirardet2000). Inmanycases, low-valueorderelictland that otherwise would be a liability or have little other use can be relied upon for localproduction.Therearenumerousexamplesofwherederelict (post-industrial) landhasbeenput toproductiveagriculturalusesintheUnitedStates,Britain,andGermany(e.g.Detroit,NewYorkCity,Essen)(DeelstraandGirardet2000).

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4. BUILDINGS

Example:Reducefuelpoverty

Strategic

sectors

Citygoals(example)

Policyactions(example)

Co-benefits Climatemitigationbenefits

Climateadaptationbenefits

Timehorizon

Publicfinancerequired

Coordinatedgovernance

BUILDING

S Reducefuelpoverty

Increasebuildingenergyefficiency

Costsavings Medium Medium Shortterm

Potentialpayback

Buildings,Energy,Health,Education

Thechallengeoffuelpoverty

Fuelpoverty,wheninhabitantscannotaffordtokeeptheirhomeheatedtoareasonablelevel,isagrowing problem in many cities. It is dependent on income, the price of energy and the energyefficiencyofthehome.Fuelpovertyappliesprincipallytoheatingrequirementsbutismeaningfulforcoolingconsiderationsaswell,givenanticipatedincreasesinaverageandextremeheatconditions.Thesocialcostsonhouseholds’healthandwellbeingaresignificant;under-orover-heatedhomeslead toexcesswinterandsummermortality,estimatedatbetween10and40% forwinterdeaths(Luconetal.2014).AccordingtoTheInstituteofHealthEquity,aBritishNGO,livingincoldhomesdoublesthelikelihoodofarespiratoryillnesssuchasasthmainchildrenandquadruplestheriskofmentalhealthproblemsforteenagers(MarmotReviewTeam2011).Policyactionexample:increasebuildingenergyefficiency

Increasingtheenergyefficiencyofdomesticbuildingscanreduceclimatechangeemissionsbutalsocontributetotacklingfuelpoverty.

Mitigationpotentialofincreasedbuildingenergyefficiency• Energydemandfromthebuildingssectorgloballyaccountsforapproximately30%ofenergy

relatedGHGemissionsglobally(UNEP2014).TheIPPCFourthAssessmentreportshowedthebuildingssectorashavingthelargestpotentialforlow-costCO2mitigationintheshorttomediumterm.

Adaptationpotentialofincreasedbuildingenergyefficiency

• Thermallyefficientbuildingsarebettersuitedtomaintainingoccupancycomfortandreducingenergydemandduringweatherextremes.Thisincludespassivedesignforcoolinghouseholdswheremechanicalaircoolingisunaffordable,giventhatseveralhundredmillionurbandwellersinlow-andmiddle-incomenationslackmechanicalcooling(IPCC2014a).

• Improvedbuildingenergy/thermalperformanceallowscomfortableconditionstobemaintainedduringshort-periodsofcentralisedenergyoutages.Italsoincreasestheviabilityofmicrogenerationtomaintainbaseloadheating,coolingandpoweratindividualbuildingsattimeswhencentralisedenergynetworksareunavailable.

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Potentialforaddressingfuelpoverty

• Ofthemonetisedbenefitsofenergyefficiencyinvestments,evidencesuggeststhatapproximatelyone-thirdofthetotalarebasedonthevalueaccruedfromalleviatingfuelpoverty(IPCC2014b).

• Communityhousingtrialsconductedtomeasurethebenefitsofinstallinginsulationandeffectiveheatingonhouseholds’healthandwellbeingandfoundimprovedwell-being,andreducedhospitalisationsandexcesswintermortality(Howden-Chapmanetal.2015).

• Addressingfuelpovertyanddeliveringtheresultinghealthimpactsareofgreatersignificanceindevelopingnationsasagreatershareofthepopulationisaffected(WHO2011).

Otherco-benefitsofincreasedbuildingenergyefficiency

• Costsavingstobuildingownersandoccupiersfromlowerenergybills• Reducednegativepublichealthimpactsfromimprovedairqualityandincreasedthermal

comfort• Improvedairqualityandecosystems(greenroofs)• Increasedpropertyvalue• Increasedlocaljobopportunitiesinhousingrenovation/retrofitindustries

Keyurbandataformeasuringpolicyimpact

• Numbersofnewbuildsmeetingenergyefficiencystandards• Peakcoolingandheatingdemands• Numbersofhouseholdsretrofittingforthermalefficiency,microgenerationand/ortakingup

publicincentiveschemes• LevelsofGHGemissionsfromhousing• LevelsofPMs,SO2,NOxandotherpollutants• Hospitaladmittancesfromextremeheatorcoldevents• Levelsofwinterandsummermortalityandresultingfrompersistentorextremecoldand

extremeheatevents

Timehorizon

The implementationof thispolicywould likely requirea short-termhorizonbecause theskillsandmaterialsneededaregenerallyavailable.Theuptakeof thispolicydependsontheavailabilityandextent of public and market information and incentive schemes, and any supply or servicebottlenecksindeliveringtheservice.

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Coordinationofgovernanceandfinance

Increasedenergyefficiencyinbuildingshastraditionallybeenseenasanissueforeithertheenergyorbuildings(planningandpermitting)department,butitinvolvesmanyotherpolicyareas:

• Ensuringenergyefficiencyisintegratedintothedesignofnewbuildingscanonlybeachievedwiththeactiveplanningofmunicipalauthoritiesinlanduseanddevelopmentpolicy.

• ImprovingenergyefficiencyinhomescanhavepositiveimpactsonHealthandhospitalisations.Healthdelivery/healthandsocialcareserviceshavearoletoplayinidentifyingpeopleatriskfromcoldhomesattimesofroutine/non-emergencyvisitsandatpointofdischarge.

• Educationpolicyhasaroletoplayininformingurbanpopulationsaboutthebenefitsofimprovinginsulationorheatingefficiency,aswellasaboutanyfinancingavailable.

For financing, there is a broad portfolio of effective policy instruments available that showreductions of emissions at low and negative costs (IPCC 2014b). Numerous barriers and marketfailuresarepreventingtheseinvestmentsrangingfrom:highupfrontcosts;informationasymmetry;principal/agentmotivations;andaccesstofinancing.Policymeasuresareavailablethatcanspreadthecostofincreasingenergyefficiencybetweenindividualhouseholds,energysuppliersandpublicauthorities.Inmanycases,thesecostsarepaidbackintheformoflowerenergybillsandincreasedpropertyvaluation.

Evenwithout the carbonmitigation gains, the immediate health co-benefits of thermal envelopeimprovementsarelikelytomorethanjustifynewinvestmentsintermsofthecostsofavoidedsickdays,doctorvisitsandhospitalisation(WHO2011).

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5. ECONOMY

Example:Supporteconomicgrowth

Strategic

sectors

Citygoals(example)

Policyactions(example)

Co-benefits Climatemitigationbenefits

Climateadaptationbenefits

Timehorizon

Publicfinancerequired

Coordinatedgovernance

ECONO

MY

Supporteconomicgrowth

Establishcleantechbusinessclustersandincentives

Innovation,productivity,SMEgrowthintechnologysector

Medium Medium Shortterm

Low Economy,Education,Transport,Buildings,Digital,Water,Waste

Thechallengeofstimulatingeconomicgrowth

Aprolongedperiodofsloweconomicgrowth,stagnationor recessionhasadeleterious impactonurban populations through prices, wages and public spending. In cities where the population isshrinking, economic stagnation canbeparticularly acute. In contextsof sloworno growth, urbanpovertytendstostagnateorriseandunemploymentcanbecomeaparticularchallenge.Policyactionexample:establishcleantechbusinessclustersandincentives

Through the agglomeration effect, cities are uniquely placed to drive innovation and cleantechgrowth. Compared to lower-density, sprawling settlements, agglomeration offers inherentadvantagesforbothdevelopedanddevelopingcountries11intermsofreducedinfrastructurecostsandknowledgespill-overs.Asameansofbringingtogetherbusinesseswhicharedevelopingcleantechnologiesandinnovations,cleantechclusterscanhaveapositiveimpactoneconomicgrowthaswell as on developing and applying products and services for emission reductions and climateresilience.

Mitigationpotentialofestablishingcleantechbusinessclustersandincentives• AccordingtotheIPCC,urbanareasareassociatedwitharound70%ofglobalenergy

consumptionandover70%ofenergy-relatedcarbonemissions,andareexpectedtoriseonabusinessasusualtrajectoryupto2050.

• EmergingeconomycitiesareexpectedtobethelargestcontributorstoGHGgrowththrough2050.Inthesecities,amajorityoftheinfrastructuretobeinplacebythisdatehasyettobebuilt(Floateretal.2014).Investmentflowstogreenurbaninfrastructurecanavoidthelock-ineffectfromhigh-carbon/high-pollutingactivitiesandcreatejobopportunitiesinsupportofthisrequiredinvestment.

• SuccessfulcleantechbusinessestargetingthemarketforurbancarbonemissionscanprovideproductsorservicesthatdirectlyorindirectlyreduceGHGlevels.TheglobalmarketforsuchproductandservicesisestimatedatmorethanUS$0.5trillionperannum(RodeandFloater2013).

11Empiricalstudiesindevelopedcountriesfindthatdoublingtheemploymentdensityofanurbanareatypicallyraisesitslabourproductivitybyaround6%.Indevelopingeconomies,similarprocessesboostproductiveefficiencybyloweringtransportcostsandwideningtradenetworks(UNEP2011).

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Adaptationpotentialofestablishingcleantechbusinessclustersandincentives• Somecleantechbusinessesmayprovideproductsorservicesthatreducevulnerabilitytothe

effectsofclimatechange.

Potentialforaddressingeconomicstagnation

• Boostingjobsinnewindustriesandattractinginwardinvestmentforenvironmentallyfriendlytechnologiesandservices(e.g.intransport,energyservices,wastemanagement,resource-efficientproductdesignandmaterials)areviewedbymanycitiesaskeymotivationsforpursinggreengrowth.

o Inasurveyandstudyof90citiesworldwideonhowcitiesaretransitioningtourbangreeneconomies,65%ofrespondentsdescribedeconomicgrowthasaprimarygoaloftheirgreenpolicies(RodeandFloater2013).

• DenmarkandCopenhagenhavebothcreatedexplicitpoliciestolinkgreengrowthtoeconomicdevelopment.TurnoverintheDanishcleantechsectorcreatedmorethan10%ofDanishexportearningsin2010,withgreenexportsfromtheCopenhagencapitalregionincreasing77%between2004and2009(Floater,RodeandZenghelis2014)

• Greenbuildingtechnologiesandretrofitsofferstronglocaleconomicbenefitstocitiesthatpursuelow-carbonbuildingstrategies.

o Forbuilding-efficiencyretrofits,itisgenerallyacceptedthateveryUS$1millioninvestedcreates10-14directjobsand3-4indirectjobs(UNEP2011).

o EstimatesbytheUSDepartmentEnergyshowthatbyadoptingstandardsforwashingmachines,waterheaters,andfluorescentlamps,120,000USjobscouldbecreatedby2020(Bainetal.2015).

Otherco-benefitsofestablishingcleantechbusinessclustersandincentives

• Increaseinnovationandfirmproductivity• Highratesofworkerproductivityandvalueaddedingoodsandservices• Increasedinwardinvestment• SMEgrowthintechnologysector

Keyurbandataformeasuringpolicyimpact

• Numbersofcleantechbusinesses,numberofclusters• Economicgrowthincleantechbusinesses• Levelsofnewfirmformationandpatents• Indicatorsofinwardinvestment• Numberofhigh-speedinternetconnections• LevelsofGHGemissions• LevelsofPMs,SO2,NOxandotherpollutants

Timehorizon

Implementationof thispolicywouldprobably requireamedium- to long-termhorizondue to thetime needed to generate a critical mass of business/industries that are contributing pieces to a

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larger green economy, and the pace of infrastructure investment throughwhich government canfacilitatedemandforgreengoodsandservices.

Coordinationofgovernanceandfinance

Addressing economic stagnation is a cross-cutting policy challenge, involving many governmentsectorsoutsidetheeconomicdepartment:

• Aneducationpolicythatdeliverstherightskillsfortheinnovationandhigh-technologysectorsisaprerequisitetothesuccessofcleantechclusters.

• Infrastructureplanningandmanagementwillcontributetostandards,specificationsandprocurementofnewinfrastructureinvestmentsinwater,wastewaterandsolidwaste,energysupply,buildings,andenergy.

• Economicdevelopmentandskillspolicywillbeneededtosetlong-termobjectivesforgreenbusinesscreationandattraction,andsupportingincentivesandinfrastructure(R&Dfacilities,technologyandmanufacturingcorridors,taxorfiscalincentives).

• Digitalpolicythatcreatesalignmentbetween‘smartcity’and‘greencity’developmentcanhelpharnessITinvestmentsforresourceandcarbonefficiencyandthatextendemploymentopportunitiestosmallbusinessorworkersexcludedfromthemainstreameconomythroughinvestmentsinhigh-speedbroadband.

• Transport,Buildings,Digital,Water,Wastepoliciesthatcreatemarketsfornewlowcarbonandclimateresilienttechnologiesandsolutions.

Thecostofcreatingcleantechbusinessclustersand incentiveswillvary,but inmanycitiescanbeseenasashiftofemphasisratherthan increase inexpenditurewhereeconomicdevelopmentandinfrastructure spending already planned can incorporate goals for resource efficiency and carbonemissionsreductions.

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