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TRIUMF Summer Institute
July 6 – 20, 2007
Semiconductor Detectors and Electronics
Helmuth SpielerPhysics Division
Lawrence Berkeley National LaboratoryBerkeley, CA 94720
These course notes and additional tutorials athttp://www-physics.lbl.gov/~spieler
or simply Google “spieler detectors”
More detailed discussions inH. Spieler: Semiconductor Detector Systems, Oxford University Press, 2005
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Introduction Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
2
Outline
Detector Applications and RequirementsEnergy MeasurementsFast TimingPosition Sensing
Strip and Pixel DetectorsSignals and Noise
Sensor Physics ISignal Magnitude and Fluctuations
Fano FactorSignal Formation
Induced CurrentSensors + Amplifiers
Semiconductor Diodespn-JunctionsDepletion Width
Sensor Physics IICharge Collection in
pad detectors
Charge collection in strip and pixeldetectors
TrappingSensor Materials
ElectronicsElectronic NoisePulse ShapingThreshold Discriminator SystemsTiming MeasurementsDigital Electronics
Analog-to-Digital ConversionPulse Processing
Readout Systems
Detector Structures II – Pixel DevicesHybrid pixel devices, CCDs, SiliconDrift Chambers, DEPFETs, MAPS
Why Things Don’t Work
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Introduction Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
3
When first introduced in the 1960s,semiconductor detectors wereused primarily for high-resolutionx-ray and gamma spectroscopy.
Typical signal-to-noise ratio ~1000
0 500 1000 1500 2000ENERGY (keV)
10
10
10
10
10
10
6
5
4
3
2
CO
UN
TS
NaI(Tl) SCINTILLATOR
Ge DETECTOR
(J.Cl. Philippot, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. NS-17/3 (1970) 446)
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Introduction Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
4
A major scientific and industrial application is x-ray fluorescence
When excited by radiation of sufficient energy, atoms emit characteristic x-rays thatcan be used to detect trace contaminants.
Experimental Arrangement
The incident radiation can be broad-band, as long as it contains components of higherenergy than the atomic transitions of the atoms to be detected.
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Introduction Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
5
High-rate high-resolutionx-ray fluorescence systemsopened a wealth of applications inscience and industry.
Example:Detection of trace contaminants
Human blood sample prior tointroduction of unleaded gasoline:
log scale!
Necessary to measure lowintensity peaks adjacent to verystrong signals
concentrations in ppm
Fig. courtesy of Joe Jaklevic, LBNL
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Introduction Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
6
As explained in previous lectures, the interaction mechanisms of gamma raysdepend on energy. Absorption coefficient µ in Si:
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000PHOTON ENERGY (MeV)
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
1000
10000
ABSO
RP
TIO
N C
OEF
FIC
IEN
T (c
m-1
)
RAYLEIGH
COMPTON
PHOTOELECTRIC
PAIR
Fraction of particle interactions:0
1 exp( )N
xN
µ= − −
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Introduction Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
7
Distinguish between
• Detection
• Energy measurement
Detection possible with fraction ofphoton energy.
For full energy absorption, typicallymultiple processes are involved.
If the detector volume is sufficientlylarge, the full photon energy will bemeasured.
“Full energy peak”:
From Knoll,Radiation Detection and Measurement
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Introduction Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
8
With a small detector volume,secondary particles canleave the detector volume,so only a fraction of theincident photon energyis measured.
From Knoll,Radiation Detection and Measurement
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Introduction Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
9
Fraction of photons fully absorbed vs. energy for different thicknesses ofSi and Ge.
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Introduction Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
10
Thin Si detectors have ns collectiontimes and provide ps time resolution.
Nuclear time-of-flight system:
Flight path s= 20 cm, σt ≈ 20 ps
Spieler et al., Z. Physik A278 (1976) 241
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Introduction Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
11
Position Sensing – Rethinking Requirements
“Traditional” Si detector system Tracking Detector Module (CDF SVX)for charged particle measurements 512 electronics channels on 50 µm pitch
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Introduction Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
12
Spectroscopy systems highly optimized!By the late 1970s improvements were measured in %.
Separate system components:1. detector2. preamplifier3. amplifier
adjustable gainadjustable shaping
(unipolar + bipolar)adjustable pole-zero cancellationbaseline restorer
Beam times typ. few days with changing configurations, so equipment must bemodular and adaptable.
In large systems as in HEP power dissipation and size are critical, so systemsare not designed for optimum noise, but adequate noise, and circuitry designedfor specific detector requirements.
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Introduction Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
13
In high energy physics the largest Si detector arrays are used for positionsensing.
The ability to pattern electrodes on micron scales coupled with high rate capability andradiation resistance makes semiconductor detectors the system of choice for at small radii.Robust operation also facilitates large area systems (ATLAS: 60 m2, CMS: 260 m2).
E
PARTICLETRACK
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Introduction Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
14
Resolution determined by precision of micron scale patterning
Two options:
1. Binary Readout 2. Analog Readout
Interpolationyieldsresolution < pitch -15 -10 -5 5 10 15 [ m]µ
TRANSVERSE DIFFUSION
PARTICLE TRACK
To Threshold Discriminators
Position resolution set directly bystrip pitch, i.e.strip center-to-center distance:
12x
pitchσ =Relies on transverse diffusion: x colltσ ∝e.g. collt ≈10 ns ⇒ σx= 5 µmInterpolation precision depends on S/N and strip pitch
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Introduction Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
15
In tracking systems the biggest challenge is reducing mass.
Impact parameter resolution
⇒ a) the ratio of outer to inner radius should be large
b) the resolution of the inner layer σ1 sets a lower bound on the overall resolution
c) the acceptable resolution of the outer layer scales with r2 /r1.
If the layers have equal resolution σ1= σ2 = σ
The geometrical impact parameter resolution is determined by the ratio of the outer to inner radius.
The obtainable impact parameter resolution decreases rapidly from
σb /σ = 7.8 at r2 /r1 =1.2 to σb /σ = 2.2 at r2 /r1= 2 and σb /σ < 1.3 at r2 /r1 > 5.
The inner radius is limited by the beam pipe, typically r= 5 cm.At high luminosities, e.g. LHC, radiation damage is a serious concern, which tends to drive the innerlayer to larger radii.
2
12
2
21
2
1/1
/11
−
+
−
≈
rrrrb
σσ
2
12
22
21
12
12
122
12
212
1//1
−
+
−
=
−
+
−
≈rrrrrr
rrr
rb
σσσσσ
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Introduction Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
16
Amount of material and its distribution is critical:
Small angle scattering:[ ]
0 0
0.0136 /1 0.038 lnrms
GeV c x xp X X⊥
Θ = + ⋅
Assume a Be beam pipe of x= 1 mm thickness and R= 5 cm radius:
The radiation length of Be is X0= 35.3 cm ⇒ x/X0= 2.8.10-3
⇒ For p⊥= 1 GeV/c the scattering angle Θrms= 0.56 mrad.
This corresponds to σb = RΘrms= 28 µm
Exceeds the impact parameter resolution typically achievable by the detector:
For σ = 10 µm and r2 /r1 ≈ 3: σb ≈ 25 µm.
Scattering originating at small radii is more serious ⇒Important to limit material at small radii.
Especially critical at ILC!
For comparison: 300 µm of Si (typ. strip detector) → 0.3% X0
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Introduction Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
17
Two-Dimensional Position Sensing
Crossed Strips
n readout channels ⇒ n2 resolution elements
y
x
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Introduction Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
18
Problem: Ambiguities with multiple simultaneous hits (“ghosting”)
HITGHOST
n hits in acceptance field ⇒ n x-coordinatesn y-coordinates
⇒ n2 combinations
of which 2n n− are “ghosts”
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Introduction Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
19
Reduce ambiguities by small-angle stereo
In collider geometries often advantageous, as z resolution less important than rϕ
The width of the shaded area subject to confusion is 22
1
tanp
L pp
α +
Example: ATLAS SCT uses 40 mrad small-angle stereoTwo single-sided strip detectors glued back-to-back
L
p1
p2
αW
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Introduction Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
20
Eliminate “ghosting” in non-projective configurations.
Example: hybrid pixel detector (also CCDs, MAPS)
Example: ATLAS pixel detector (just installed), ~1m2, 80 million channelsChallenge: power dissipation, but with optimized design
power per m2 comparable to strip detector systems.
READOUTCHIP
SENSORCHIP
BUMPBONDS
READOUTCONTROLCIRCUITRY
WIRE-BOND PADS FORDATA OUTPUT, POWER,AND CONTROL SIGNALS
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Introduction Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
21
Baseline Fluctuations (Electronic Noise)
Choose a time when no signal is present.
Amplifier’s quiescent output level (baseline):
In the presence of a signal, noise + signal add.
Signal: Signal+Noise (S/N = 1)
TIME
TIMETIME
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Introduction Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
22
Measurement of peak amplitude yields signal amplitude + noise fluctuation
The preceding example could imply that the fluctuations tend to increase the measured amplitude, sincethe noise fluctuations vary more rapidly than the signal.
In an optimized system, the time scale of the fluctuation is comparable to the signal peaking time.
Then the measured amplitude fluctuates positive and negative relative to the ideal signal.
Measurements taken at 4 differenttimes:
noiseless signal superimposed forcomparison
S/N = 20
Noise affects
Peak signal
Time distribution
TIME TIME
TIME TIME
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Introduction Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
23
Electronic noise is purely random.
⇒ amplitude distribution isGaussian
⇒ noise modulates baseline
⇒ baseline fluctuationssuperimposed on signal
⇒ output signal has Gaussiandistribution
Measuring ResolutionInject an input signal with known charge using a pulse generator set to approximate thedetector signal shape.
Measure the pulse height spectrum. peak centroid ⇒ signal magnitudepeak width ⇒ noise (FWHM= 2.35 Qn)
0
0.5
1
Q s /Q n
NO
RM
ALI
ZED
CO
UN
T R
ATE
Q n
FWHM=2.35Q n
0.78
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Introduction Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
24
Signal-to-Noise Ratio vs. Detector Capacitance
if Ri x (Cdet + Ci) >> collection time,
peak voltage at amplifier input ss sin
det i
i dtQ QV
C C C C= = =
+∫
↑Magnitude of voltage depends on total capacitance at input!
R
AMPLIFIER
Vin
DETECTOR
CC idet i
v
q
t
dq
Qs
c
s
s
t
t
t
dt
VELOCITY OFCHARGE CARRIERS
RATE OF INDUCEDCHARGE ON SENSORELECTRODES
SIGNAL CHARGE
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Introduction Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
25
The peak amplifier signal SV is inversely proportional to the total capacitance at theinput, i.e. the sum of
1. detector capacitance,
2. input capacitance of the amplifier, and
3. stray capacitances.
Assume an amplifier with a noise voltage nv at the input.
Then the signal-to-noise ratio
1S
n
VSN v C
= ∝
• However, /S N does not become infinite as 0C → (see Part III)
• The result that / 1/S N C∝ generally applies to systems that measure signal charge
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
Sensor Physics – Part I
Any form of elementary excitation can be used to detect the radiation signal.
An electrical signal can be formed directly by ionization.
Incident radiation quanta impart sufficient energy to individual atomic electrons to form electron-ionpairs (in gases) or electron-hole pairs (in semiconductors and metals).
Other detection mechanisms areExcitation of optical states (scintillators)Excitation of lattice vibrations (phonons)Breakup of Cooper pairs in superconductorsFormation of superheated droplets in superfluid He
Typical excitation energiesIonization in gases ~30 eVIonization in semiconductors 1 – 5 eVScintillation ~10 eVPhonons meVBreakup of Cooper Pairs meV
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
Band Structure in Crystals
Example: Lattice structure of diamond, Si, Ge (“diamond lattice”)
dimension a: lattice constant Diamond: 3.56 ÅGe: 5.65 ÅSi: 5.43 Å
a
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
Extent of wavefunctions of typical constituent atoms:
(following Shockley)
CARBON ( = 6)Z SILICON ( =14)Z GERMANIUM ( = 32)Z
1 AAPPROXIMATE SCALE:
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
Crystal Bonds
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
SiSILICON ATOM WITH FOURVALENCE ELECTRONS
SYMBOLIC PLANE VIEW USINGLINES TO REPRESENT BONDS
SILICON “CORES” WITH ELECTRON“CLOUDS” SHOWING VALENCE PAIR BONDS
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
When isolated atoms are brought together to form a lattice, the discrete atomic states shift to formenergy bands:
Filled band formed by bondingstates: Ψ= Ψa + Ψa
(Ψa = wavefunction of individualatom)
Empty band formed by anti-bonding states: Ψ= Ψa − Ψa
(vanishing occupancy at mid-pointbetween atoms)
Each atom in the lattice contributesits quantum states to each band:The number of quantum states in the band is equal to the number of states from which the band wasformed.The bands are extended states, i.e. the state contributed by an individual atom extends throughout thecrystal.
E
E
p
s
ENERGY
FORBIDDENGAP
ANTI-BONDING STATES(EMPTY ORBITALS) CONDUCTION BAND−
BONDING STATES( FILLED ORBITALS)
VALENCE BAND−
DENSITY
ISOLATED ATOMS
METAL COVALENTSOLID
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
Energy band structure
Typical band gaps(valence – conduction band)
Ge 0.7 eV
GaAs 1.4 eV
Si 1.1 eV
Diamond 5.5 eV
DISTANCEDENSITY OF STATES
ENE
RG
Y
ENE
RG
Y
CONDUCTION BAND CONDUCTION BAND
VALENCE BAND VALENCE BAND
CORE ELECTRONS
FORBIDDEN GAP
FORBIDDEN GAP
(following Shockley)
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
At 0K all electrons occupy bonding states, completely filling the valence band.
If an electric field is applied to the crystal, no current can flow, as this requires that the electrons acquireenergy, which they can’t, as no higher energy states are available in the valence band.
If energy is imparted to a bond by incident radiation,for example a photon, the bond can be broken,
• exciting an electron into the conduction band and
• leaving back a vacant state in the valence band, a“hole”.
SiSi
SiSi
SiSi
SiSi
SiSi
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
INCIDENT PHOTON BREAKS BOND
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
The electron can move freely in its extended state.The hole can be filled by an electron from a nearby atom, thereby moving to another position.
The motion of the electron and hole canbe directed by an electric field.
Holes can be treated as positive chargecarriers just like the electrons
However, they tend to move more slowlyas hole transport involves sequentialtransition probabilities (the wavefunctionoverlap of the hole and its replacementelectron).
SiSi
SiSi
SiSi
SiSi
SiSi
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
NET MOTIONOF ELECTRON
NET MOTIONOF HOLE
MOTION OFREPLACEMENTELECTRONS
ELECTRIC FIELD
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
Ionization energy in solids is proportional to the band gap
small band gap ⇒ ~ conductorelectric field smallDC current >> signal current
large band gap ⇒ insulatorhigh electric fieldsmall signal charge+ small DC currentexample: diamond
moderate band gap ⇒ semiconductorhigh electric field“large” signal chargesmall DC current, but“pn-junction” required.
examples: Si, Ge, GaAs
Although phonons have been represented as a penalty that increases the ionization energy, asmentioned above they are another form of elementary excitation that can be used to measure the signal.More about this in the final lecture.
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
Detector Sensitivity
Example: Ionization signal in semiconductordetectors
a) visible light (energies near band gap)
Detection threshold = energy required toproduce an electron-hole pair ≈ band gap
In indirect bandgap semiconductors (Si),additional momentum required:provided by phonons
(from Sze)
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
Band Structure
Energy of the conduction and valence band edges vs. wave vector (momentum)(from Sze)
Note that in Si and Ge theminimum of the conduction bandis offset from the maximum of thevalence band.
⇒ Promotion of an electronfrom the valence to theconduction band using anenergy equal to the minimumgap spacing requiresadditional momentumtransfer
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
b) high energy quanta ( gE E )
It is experimentally observed that the energyrequired to form an electron-hole pair exceeds thebandgap.
Why?
When particle deposits energy one mustconserve both
energy and momentum
momentum conservation not fulfilled bytransition across gap
⇒ excite phonons
C.A. Klein, J. Applied Physics 39 (1968) 2029
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
Phonon energy vs. momentum (wavevector k)
In a semiconductor ionizationdetector ~60% of thedeposited energy goes intophonon excitation.
Instead of detecting electron-hole pairs, detect heat or phonons
Energy scale: 10 meV ⇒ lower energy threshold
Another possibility: Breakup of Cooper pairs in superconductorsThe energy gap 2∆ (order 1 meV) is equivalent to the band gap in semiconductors.
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
Signal Fluctuations in a Scintillation Detector
Example: Scintillation Detector - a typical NaI(Tl) system(from Derenzo)
Resolution of energy measurement determined bystatistical variance of produced signal quanta.
1E N NE N N N
∆ ∆= = =
Resolution determined by smallest number of quanta inchain, i.e. number of photoelectrons arriving at firstdynode.
In this example
12% rms = 5% FWHM
3000
EE∆
= =
Typically 7 – 8% obtained, due to non-uniformity of lightcollection and gain.
511 keV gamma ray
⇓25000 photons in scintillator
⇓15000 photons at photocathode
⇓3000 photoelectrons at first dynode
⇓3.109 electrons at anode
2 mA peak current
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
Fluctuations in the Signal Charge: the Fano Factor
The mean ionization energy exceeds the bandgap for two reasons
1. Conservation of momentum requires excitation of lattice vibrations
2. Many modes are available for the energy transfer with an excitation energy lessthan the bandgap.
Two types of collisions are possible:
a) Lattice excitation, i.e. phonon production (with no formation of mobile charge).
b) Ionization, i.e. formation of a mobile charge pair.
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
Fano Factor in Semiconductors
The incident photon energy goes into two modes:
1. ionization (excitation of electrons into the conduction band)characterized by the bandgap energy gE
2. phonons (lattice vibrations),characterized by the average phonon energy phE
The total energy
0 phph g gE n E n E= + (1)
Since the absorbed energy is fixed, any variation in energy going into phonon modes must be balancedby an opposite change in ionization, so
phph g gn E n Eδ δ= (2)
Thus, provided the number of phonon excitations is large, so that Gaussian statistics apply
( ) ( )2 2
2 2ph ph
g ph phg g
E En n n
E Eδ δ
= ⋅ = ⋅
(3)
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
Assume that the ratio of the total energy required to form an electron-hole pair to the bandgap /i gE E isconstant. Then for a given number of electron-hole pairs gn the total absorbed energy
0i
g gg
EE n E
E
=
(4)
and eqn 1 can be rewritten as
1g iph g
ph g
E En n
EE
= −
(5)
Inserting this into eqn 3 yields
( )2 1ph ig g
g g
EEn n
E Eδ
= − ⋅
(6)
Simple statistics would imply that ( )2g gn nδ = , so eqn 6 shows that the variance in the number ofelectron-hole pairs is reduced by the Fano factor
1ph i
g g
EEF
E E
= −
(7)
Since / 3i gE E ≈ and ph gE E , the Fano factor 1F < .
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
In Silicon phE =0.037 eV gE = 1.1 eV iE = 3.6 eV
for which the above expression yields F= 0.08, in reasonable agreement with the measured valueF =0.1.
⇒ The variance of the signal charge is smaller than naively expected:
0.3Q QNσ ≈
A similar treatment can be applied if the degrees of freedom are much more limited and Poissonstatistics are necessary.
However, when applying Poisson statistics to the situation of a fixed energy deposition, which imposesan upper bound on the variance, one can not use the usual expression for the variance var N N=Instead, the variance is 2( )N N F N− = as shown by Fano [1] in the original paper.
An accurate calculation of the Fano factor requires a detailed accounting of the energy dependent crosssections and the density of states of the phonon modes. This is discussed by Alkhazov [2] and vanRoosbroeck [3].
References: 1. U. Fano, Phys. Rev. 72 ( 1947) 262. G.D. Alkhazov et al., NIM 48 (1967) 13. W. van Roosbroeck, Phys. Rev. 139 (1963) A1702
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
Intrinsic Resolution of Semiconductor Detectors
2.35 2.35 2.35FWHM i Q i ii
EE FN F FEE
Eε ε∆ = ⋅ = ⋅ = ⋅
Si: iE = 3.6 eV F = 0.1
Ge: iE = 2.9 eV F = 0.1
Detectors with good efficiency for thisenergy range have sufficiently smallcapacitance to allow electronic noise of~100 eV FWHM, so the variance of thedetector signal is a significantcontribution.
At energies >100 keV the detector sizesrequired tend to increase the electronicnoise to dominant levels. 0 5 10 15 20 25
ENERGY (keV)
0
50
100
150
200
250
RE
SOLU
TIO
N(e
VFW
HM
)
SILICON
GERMANIUM
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
3. Signal Formation
Semiconductor Detectors are Ionization Chambers:Detection volume with electric field
Energy deposited → positive and negative charge pairs
Charges move in field → external electrical signal current
If ( )i d iR C C⋅ + collection time ct the peak voltage at the amplifier inputdet
ss
i
QV
C C=
+
R
DETECTOR
CVC iid i
v
q
t
dq
Qs
c
s
s
t
t
t
dt
VELOCITY OFCHARGE CARRIERS
RATE OF INDUCEDCHARGE ON SENSORELECTRODES
SIGNAL CHARGE
AMPLIFIER
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
Ionization chambers can be made with any medium that allows charge collection to a pair of electrodes.
Medium can be gasliquidsolid
Crude comparison of relevant properties
gas liquid soliddensity low moderate highatomic number Z low moderate moderateionization energy εi moderate moderate lowsignal speed moderate moderate fast
Desirable properties:
• low ionization energy ⇒ 1. increased charge yield dq/dE
2. superior resolution1 1
/i
i
EE
E N E E
∆∝ ∝ ∝
• high field in detection volume ⇒ 1. fast response2. improved charge collection efficiency (reduced trapping)
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
Formation of a High-Field Region
To form a current that can be measured in the external circuit, the signal charge carriers must bebrought into motion. This is done by establishing a field in the detection volume. Increasing the field willsweep the charge more rapidly from the detection volume.
The conduction band is only empty at 0K.
As the temperature is increased, thermal excitation can promote electrons across the band gap into theconduction band.
Pure Si: carrier concentration ~ 1010 cm-3 at 300K (resistivity ≈ 400 kΩ.cm)
Since the Si lattice comprises 5 . 1022 atoms/cm3, many states are available in the conduction band toallow carrier motion.
In reality, crystal imperfections and minute impurity concentrations limit Si carrier concentrations to~1011 cm-3 at 300K.
This is too high for use in a simple crystal detector.A crystal detector is feasible with diamond,but the charge yield is smaller due to the larger band gap.High-field region with low DC current in semiconductorsis most easily achieved utilizing a pn-junction.
⇒ Introduction of impurities to control conductivity.
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
Doping
The conductivity of semiconductors can be controlled by introducing special impurities.required concentrations: ~1012 – 1018 cm-3
Replacing a silicon atom (group 4 in periodic table, i.e. 4 valence electrons) by an atom with 5 valenceelectrons, e.g. P, As, Sb, leaves one valence electron without a partner.Since the impurity contributes an excess electron to the lattice, it is called a donor.
SiSi
SiSi
SiSi
SiSi
SiSi
Si
Si
Si
P
Si
Si
Si
Si
ELECTRIC FIELD
PHOSPHORUS ATOM WITHNET POSITIVE CHARGE
NUCLEUS WITHCHARGE +5
EXCESS ELECTRON FROM PHOSPHORUS ATOM
Radiation Detectors and Signal Processing - II. Signal Formation Helmuth SpielerOct. 8 – Oct. 12, 2001; Univ. Heidelberg LBNL
The wavefunction of the dopant atom extends over many neighbors.
(following Shockley)
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
P
EXCESS ELECTRON FROM PHOSPHORUS ATOM
Radiation Detectors and Signal Processing - II. Signal Formation Helmuth SpielerOct. 8 – Oct. 12, 2001; Univ. Heidelberg LBNL
The excess electron is only loosely bound, as the Coulomb force is reduced by the dielectric constant εof the medium (ε =12 in Si).
2
( )( ) i
i
E atomE lattice
ε∝
The bound level of this unpaired electron is of order 0.01 eV below the conduction band (e.g. for P: Ec -0.045 eV).
⇒ substantial ionization probability at room temperature (E= 0.026 eV) – “donor”
⇒ electrons in conduction band
CONDUCTION BAND
VALENCE BAND
DONOR LEVEL
E
Radiation Detectors and Signal Processing - II. Signal Formation Helmuth SpielerOct. 8 – Oct. 12, 2001; Univ. Heidelberg LBNL
Conversely, introducing a group 3 atom (B, Al, Ga, In) leaves a Si valence electron without a partner.
(following Shockley)
To close its shell the B atom “borrows” an electron from a lattice atom in the vicinity.
This type of dopant is called an “acceptor”.
The “borrowed” electron is bound, but somewhat less than other valence electrons since the B nucleusonly has charge 3.
SiSi
SiSi
SiSi
SiSi
SiSi
Si
Si
Si
B
Si
Si
Si
Si BORON ATOM WITHNET NEGATIVE CHARGE
NUCLEUS WITHCHARGE +3
HOLE LEFT BY “BORROWED” ELECTRON
BORON ATOM “BORROWS”AN ELECTRON TO FILL ITSADJACENT VALENCE BONDS
Radiation Detectors and Signal Processing - II. Signal Formation Helmuth SpielerOct. 8 – Oct. 12, 2001; Univ. Heidelberg LBNL
This introduces a bound state close to the valence band, also of order 0.01 eV from the band edge.
For example, a B atom in Si forms a state at Ev + 0.045 eV.
Again, as this energy is comparable to kT at room temperature, electrons from the valence band can beexcited to fill a substantial fraction of these states.The electrons missing from the valence band form mobile charge states called “holes”, which behavesimilarly to an electron in the conduction band, i.e. they can move freely throughout the crystal.
Since the charge carriers in the donor region are electrons, i.e. negative, it is called “n-type”.Conversely, as the charge carriers in the acceptor region are holes, i.e. positive, it is called “p-type”.
CONDUCTION BAND
VALENCE BAND
ACCEPTOR LEVEL
E
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
pn-Junction
Consider a crystal suitably doped that a donorregion and an acceptor adjoin each other,a “pn-junction”.
Thermal diffusion will drive holes and electronsacross the junction.
Although the p and n regions were originallyelectrically neutral, as electrons diffuse from the nto the p region, they uncover their respective donoratoms, leaving a net positive charge in the n region.
This positive space charge exerts a restrainingforce on the electrons that diffused into the pregion, i.e. diffusion of electrons into the p regionbuilds up a potential. The diffusion depth is limitedwhen the space charge potential exceeds theavailable energy for thermal diffusion.
The corresponding process also limits the diffusionof holes into the n-region.
JUNCTION COORDINATE
x = 0
EFp
EFn
Vbi
FIXED CHARGE OF ATOMIC CORES
PO
TEN
TIAL
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
The diffusion of holes and electrons across the junction leads to a region free of mobile carriers – the“depletion region”, bounded by conductive regions, which are n- and p-doped, respectively.
Strictly speaking, the depletion region is not completely devoid of mobile carriers, as the diffusionprofile is a gradual transition.
Nevertheless, since the carrier concentration is substantially reduced, it is convenient to treat thedepletion zone as an abrupt transition between bulk and 0 carrier concentration.
Furthermore, the formation of the two adjacent space charge regions builds up a potential barrierbetween the n and p regions, which impedes the further flow of charge.
The magnitude of this potential barrier is typically 50 – 90%of the band-gap, depending on relative doping levels.
This represents the situation in thermal equilibrium. By application of an external potential, two distinctlydifferent non-equilibrium modes can be established.
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
a) positive potential applied to the p regionnegative potential applied to the n region
The externally applied voltage reduces the potential barrier, allowing increased charge transfer acrossthe junction.
⇒ “forward bias”
Electrons flowing from the n-region across the junction are replenished from the external voltage supplyand large current flow is possible.
p n
V
FORWARD BIAS
JUNCTION COORDINATE
x = 0
EFp EFn
POTE
NTI
AL
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
b) negative potential applied to the p regionpositive potential applied to the n region
This arrangement increases the potential barrier across the junction, impeding the flow of current.
⇒ “reverse bias”
Potential across junction is increased ⇒ wider depletion region
p n
V
REVERSE BIAS
JUNCTION COORDINATE
x = 0
EFp
EFn
POTE
NTI
AL
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
The p-n junction is asymmetric with respect to current flow (diode).
a) forward bias
positive supply connection → p contactnegative supply connection → n contact
⇒ large current flow
Diode current vs. voltage = −/0( 1)eq V kTI I e
(Shockley equation)
b) reverse bias
positive supply connection → n contactnegative supply connection → p contact
⇒ small current flow
-5 5
VOLTAGE (eV /kT)
CU
RR
EN
T (I
R/I
0)
0 1 2 3 4 5VOLTAGE (e|V|/kT)
0.1
1
10
100
CU
RR
EN
T (|
I R|/I
0)
10
5
-1
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
Since the depletion region is a volume with an electric field, it by itself could be used as a radiationdetector.
• The width of the depletion region is increased by reverse bias.
Depletion width and electric field in p-n junction
Assume a reverse bias voltage Vb and that the potential changes only in the direction perpendicular tothe n-p interface. Poisson's equation is then
d Vdx
Nqe2
2 0+ =ε
(1)
where N is the dopant concentration and qe the electron charge.
Consider an abrupt junction where charge densities on the n and p sides are Nd qe and Na qe,respectively.
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
If the limits of the depletion region are xn on the n-side and xp on the p-side, after two successiveintegrations one obtains on the n-side
dVdx
q Nx xe d
n= − −ε
( ) (2)
and
Vq N x q N xx
Ve d e d nj= − + +
ε ε
2
2(3)
where Vj is the potential at the metallurgical junction. For x = xn
V x Vq N x
Vn be d n
j( ) = = +2
2ε(4)
and the contribution of the n-region to the total reverse bias potential becomes
V Vq N x
b je d n− =
2
2ε. (5a)
Correspondingly, in the p-region
Vq N x
je a p=
2
2ε(5b)
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
and the total potential becomes
Vq
N x N xbe
d n a p= +2
2 2
ε( ) . (6)
Due to overall charge neutralityN x N xd n a p= (7)
and
Vq N
NN x
q NN
N xbe a
da p
e d
ad n= +
= +
21
212 2
ε ε. (8)
The depletion widths on the n- and p-side of the junction are
x Vq N N N
x Vq N N Nn
b
e d d ap
b
e a a d=
+=
+2
12
1ε ε
( / );
( / )(9)
and the total depletion width becomes
W x xV
qN N
N Nn pb
e
a d
a d= + =
+2ε. (10)
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
Detector diodes are usuallyasymmetrically doped. The startingmaterial (bulk) is lightly doped andthe junction is formed by diffusing orion-implanting a highly doped layer.
The external connection to the lightly doped bulk is made by an additional highly doped layer of thesame type (non-rectifying, “ohmic” contact).
• The depletion region then extends predominantly into the lightly doped bulk.
Other details:
The guard ring isolates the wafer edge (saw cut) from the active region.
In the gap between the detector electrode and the guard ring it is critical to provide a neutral interface atthe silicon surface to prevent formation of a conductive path.
This is best accomplished by oxide passivation (SiO2).
300 mµ~ 1 mµ
~ 1 mµ
GUARD RING
OHMIC CONTACT
JUNCTION CONTACTOXIDE
Si BULK
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
Strip and pixel detectors utilize a similar structure, except that the pn-junction issegmented:
p n-on- STRIPS n n-on- STRIPS
p-STRIP n-STRIP
n-SILICON n-SILICON
Al CONTACT STRIP INTERMEDIATE STRIPp-PSG
SiO SURFACEPASSIVATION
OHMIC CONTACT
2
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
When, for example, a dN N , the depletion region extends predominantly into the n-side and the totaldepletion width is
W xV
q Nnb
e d≈ =
2ε. (11)
The doping concentration is commonly expressed in terms of resistivity
ρ µ= −( )q Ne1,
because this is a readily measurable quantity. The parameter µ describes the relationship between theapplied field and carrier velocity (to be discussed later).
Using resistivity the depletion width becomes
W Vn n b= 2εµ ρ . (12)
Note that this introduces an artificial distinction between the n- and p-regions, because the mobilities µfor electrons and holes are different.
Since the mobility of holes is approximately 1/3 that of electrons, p-type material of a given dopingconcentration will have 3 times the resistivity of n-type material of the same concentration.
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
As discussed earlier, even in the absence of an external voltage electrons and holes to diffuse acrossthe junction, establishing a "built-in" reverse bias voltage Vbi. If we take this inherent bias voltage intoaccount and set for the bias voltage b b biV V V→ + , one obtains for the one-sided junction
.)(2)(21 bibnn
de
bib VVNq
VVxW +=+
=≈ ρεµε
For example, in n-type silicon (Vb in volts and ρ in Ω.cm): 0.5 x ( + )b biW m V Vµ ρ=
and in p-type material: 0.3 x ( + )b biW m V Vµ ρ=
The depleted junction volume is free of mobile charge and thus forms a capacitor, bounded by theconducting p- and n-type semiconductor on each side.
The capacitance is2( )
e
b bi
q NAC A
W V Vε
ε= =+
For bias voltages b biV V 1
b
CV
∝
In technical units1
1 [pF/cm]CA W W
ε= ≈
A diode with 100 µm thickness has about 1 pF/mm2.
Solid State Detectors and Electronics – Sensor Physics I Helmuth SpielerTRIUMF Summer Institute 2007 LBNL
The capacitance vs. voltage characteristic of a diode can be used to determine the doping concentrationof the detector material.
2( )e
b bi
q NCA V V
ε=
+
In a plot of (A/C)2 vs. the detector bias voltage Vb the slope of the voltage dependent portion yields thedoping concentration N.
Example: Si pad detector, A= 1 cm2, 100 µm thick2
12
1 (1/ ) 12 5 10
eqd CN dV
ε = = ⋅
0 10 20 30 40 50REVERSE BIAS VOLTAGE (V)
0
200
400
600
800
1000
CA
PAC
ITA
NC
E(p
F)
0 10 20 30 40 50REVERSE BIAS VOLTAGE (V)
0x100
2x1019
4x1019
6x1019
8x1019
1/C
2(F
-2)