INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY OF CARDINAL STEFAN WYSZYNSKI UNIVERSITY IN WARSAW

INSTITUTE OF MEDITERRANEAN AND ORIENTAL CULTURES, POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

CZECH INSTITUTE OF EGYPTOLOGY, CHARLES UNIVERSITY IN PRAGUE

FACULTY OF GEOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF WARSAW

Fabian Welc, conference editor

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Second Geoarchaeological Conference in Warsaw

Memphite necropolis (Egypt) in the light of

geoarchaeological and environmental research

Institute of Archaeology Cardinal Stefan Wyszynski University in Warsaw

7-8 December 2012, Warsaw, Poland

ABSTARCTS

Fabian Welc

Editor of the conference

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CONTENT

Karol Myśliwiec, introduction speech

Nicole Alexanian, Wiebke Bebermeier, Dirk Blaschta, Arne Ramisch, Geoarchaeological

Research at the Necropolis of Dahshur

Miroslaw Bárta

Long-term or short-term? The nature of the climate depredation towards the end of

the Old Kingdom (4,2 ky BCE)

Judith Bunbury

Geomorphological development of the Memphite floodplain over the past 6,000 years

Pedro Manuel Lourenço Gonçalves

From the Old Kingdom to the Middle Kingdom – Understanding Memphis landscapes

using borehole sampling data

Tomasz Herbich

From Alexandria to Bernike: some aspects of geophysical surveying in Egypt

Dietrich Klemm, Rosemarie Klemm

Dependency of the OK pyramid’s building stones on the regional geology

Dietrich Klemm, Rosemarie Klemm

Geomorphological dependency of the Old Kingdom’s artificial pyramid harbours

Michał Kobusiewicz, Przemysław Bobrowski, Maciej Jórdeczka, Marek Chłodnicki

What forced the prehistoric cattle-keepers to emigrate from the Red Sea Mountains

Sebastian Kowalczyk, Fabian Welc, Jerzy Trzciński, Radosław Mieszkowski

Geophysical researches (Ground Penetrating Radar) on the Polish archeological

concession in West Saqqara

4

Agnese Kukela, Valdis Seglins

Non-destructive methods for evaluation of the state of preservation in historical

stone monuments: the case study of the Step Pyramid

Paul T. Nicholson

The Catacombs of Anubis, Saqqara

Campbell Price

Recent Results of the Saqqara Geophysical Survey Project

Małgorzata Radomska

Saqqara: Some Remarks on Flora from Funerary Contexts

Romuald Schild

Early and Middle Holocene Paleoclimates in the South Western Desert of Egypt. The

World Before Unification

Karin Sowada

Evidence for late third millennium weather events from an Old Kingdom tomb in the

Teti Cemetery at Saqqara

Fabian Welc

Anatomy of the Third Dynasty quarry in West Saqqara

Fabian Welc, Jerzy Trzcinski

Geoarcheological studies of the Polish – Egyptian mission in West Saqqara

Fabian Welc, Leszek Marks

4,2 ky BP global abrupt climatic change (Bond 3. climatic event) – new evidence from

Saqqara

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Karol Myśliwiec

introduction speech

Institute of Mediterranean and Oriental Cultures, Polish Academy of Sciences, e –mail: zaspan@zaspan.waw.pl

Nicole Alexanian, Wiebke Bebermeier, Dirk Blaschta, Arne Ramisch

Geoarchaeological Research at the Necropolis of Dahshur

Alexanian, Nicole, German Archaeological Institute, e-mail: alexania@zedat.fu-berlin.de

Bebermeier, Wiebke, Institute of Geographical Sciences, Free University Berlin, e-mail: wiebke.bebermeier@fu-

berlin.de

Blaschta, Dirk, Egyptological Institute, University of Leipzig, e-mail: d.blaschta@fu-berlin.de

Ramisch, Arne, Institute of Geographical Sciences, Free University Berlin, e-mail: arne.ramisch@awi.de

Since 2000, the German Archaeological Institute, in cooperation with Freie

Universität Berlin, has carried out archaeological and geomorphological

investigations within the necropolis of Dahshur and its surroundings. Since 2008,

geoarchaeological research has been systematically undertaken in a joint project

with the Physical Geography section of the Institute of Geographical Sciences of

Freie Universität Berlin. Dahshur belongs to a vast cemetery and settlement system

in the so-called Memphite region and is located approximately 30 km south of

Cairo.

The aim of our investigations is to understand the Memphite region as a

system of cemeteries, settlements, temples, working areas, fields, routes and

water resources. Dahshur provides us with an opportunity to work in a relatively

untouched landscape. It includes two very well preserved pyramid complexes built

by King Sneferu (about 2600 BCE) and seven slightly damaged pyramid complexes

constructed during the Middle Kingdom and the Second Intermediate Period (about

1900-1700 BCE).

At the beginning of the last decade we successfully located the pyramid

town of the Red Pyramid by prospecting the area at the escarpment east of the

Pyramid. We found the Old Kingdom settlement layers covered by 5-6 m of alluvial

and aeolian deposits which indicated fundamental changes of the ancient

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landscape over the past 4600 years. Since 2008 we have investigated the area east

of the Bent Pyramid and tried to locate the southern pyramid of Sneferu by

sondages with a hand auger. Although we could not prove the position of the

pyramid town, we traced some remains of rural habitation situated on a wadi fan.

In the further course of our work, we carried out a geophysical survey, drill

sondages and an excavation in the wadi to the east of the temple of the Bent

Pyramid. It became clear that the so far unexcavated lower causeway of the Bent

Pyramid continues up to a length of 148 m and ends in an U-shaped structure of 90

x 145 m which we interpret as harbor basin. To our surprise we found that the

mud-brick walls of the lower causeway and the harbor basin are preserved to a

height of up to 3 m; the walls are covered by 3 m thick sand deposits.

Consequently the level of the ancient surface compared to the recent surface level

differs 6-7 m at the eastern entrance of the lower causeway. Aeolian and fluvial

processes leveled the landscape mainly in the channel beds. However, the

landscape of Dahshur was not only modified by natural processes but also in large

parts by human impact. Extensive areas around the pyramids were modified by

mining. The wadi in front of the Bent Pyramid has been straightened by its use as

transportation road for building material or by direct anthropogenic shaping.

Miroslaw Bárta

Long-term or short-term? The nature of the climate depredation

towards the end of the Old Kingdom (4,2 ky BCE)

Czech Institute of Egyptology, Charles University in Prague, e- mail: miroslav.barta@gmail.com

There was a considerable climate change during the third millennium B.C.

Egypt. The steadily deteriorating climate reached an apogee around 2200 B.C. and

it led to a demise of the Old Kingdom empire. During the same period we can

observe major changes in tomb decoration which reflected different priorities of

the day. Among the most important scenes categories belonged the desert scenes.

These scenes occur sporadically from the Fourth Dynasty onwards and appear most

frequently after the king Nyuserra in the second part of the Fifth Dynasty. Their

importance will be assessed in this contribution.

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Judith Bunbury

Geomorphological development of the Memphite floodplain over

the past 6,000 years

Department of Earth Sciences, Cambridge, e- mail: jmb21@cam.ac.uk

Around 4000 BCE the Memphis area started to become important in Egypt.

The Nile valley at this time was marshy as a result of sea-level rising after the end

of the last ice-age. Correspondingly the evidence for habitation in this area, which

is at the neck where the cliffs of the Nile valley edge fan out into the area of the

delta, is confined mainly to cemeteries at the edge of the valley. Early dynastic

cemeteries flank the site that later became Memphis on the wadi fans that empty

into the Nile Valley. The wadis, remnants of an earlier tributary system to the Nile,

were, by the Early Dynastic period filled with sand and gravels that flowed down

into the Nile during periods of rainfall. The predominance of wood in the tomb

architecture of the time suggests that the wadis may have also been partially

vegetated and the toes of these sediment fans reached out into the Nile valley,

inter-fingering with the dark river sediments of the Nile. As climate changed and

the summer monsoon failed, the wadis became unstable and the Nile valley,

responding to stable sea-level began to infill the marshes. With increasing

stabilization of the delta, the distributary network changed so that river traffic

from the delta was funneled through Memphis making the city of greater strategic

importance. During this period the channels of the Nile also stabilised and formed

two distinct limbs with long low swelling levees that meant that settlement could

move into the Valley by the Old Kingdom and yet avoid flooding during the

summer. At this time proto-Memphis was already established (see the work of

Pedro Gonçalves).

The subsequent development of Memphis was dominated by the migration

of the two channels around the city. Initially flanked by one channel on each side,

by the Middle Kingdom the western channel was minimized, perhaps due to human

activity further south, and the eastern channel became the main river that we see

today. During Roman times, the remaining channel flanked Memphis to the East

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and, since that time, has migrated further eastwards. Eventually, the city,

abandoned by the river, shifted its focus north to the site of Cairo.

Pedro Manuel Lourenço Gonçalves

From the Old Kingdom to the Middle Kingdom –

Understanding Memphis landscapes using borehole sampling data

E-mail: pmlg2@cam.ac.uk

The Mît Rahîna Field School 2011 (organized by the AERA for inspectors of

the Egyptian Ministry of State for Antiquities) provided the opportunity to dig six

boreholes at the Survey of Memphis’ sites FAC and FAD at Kôm al-Fakhry (south-

western part of the Memphis Ruin Field). FAC and FAD sites are still the oldest in

situ remains found at Memphis and reveal an undisturbed cemetery of the First

Intermediate Period or early Middle Kingdom together with two phases of a Middle

Kingdom settlement. The obtained data complemented the information provided

by almost 200 cores that have been drilled in the area of Memphis by the Survey of

Memphis over the last 30 years under the direction of Dr. David Jeffreys for The

Egyptian Exploration Society in order to understand the location, development, and

history of the old capital of Egypt.

Five major units were recognized in the sedimentary matrix. They support

the idea of a Proto-Memphis founded on an island or on a natural levee during or

even before the Early Dynastic Period located ca. Kôm Fakhry, Kôm Rabi’ and Kôm

Mît Rahîna, an area of probable higher ground on these local palaeo islands. This

settlement was easterly bordered by a river channel before or during the Old

Kingdom. Since then, this channel had moved eastward, with a slow infilling of its

eastern margin at this area that lasted until the Middle Kingdom, at least. The

cores reveal a progressive lost of fluvial influences and this eastward movement of

the channel may have been partially a consequence of human activities – a result

of infilling of the margin by loose detritus.

Nevertheless the overall progressive lost of fluvial conditions, this area

seems to have been more prone to inundation not early than the beginning of the

Middle Kingdom, probably a consequence of higher floods and of Memphis’s

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decadence (and its protections against floods) during the First Intermediate Period

and the early Middle Kingdom. Another explanation can also be the transformation

of the valley’s environment: the apex of the delta may have moved southward

during these historical periods, transforming the previous alluvial valley into a

more deltaic marshy environment. Later, after those wetter conditions, this

specific area seems to have been recovered for settlement and construction during

the Middle Kingdom.

Tomasz Herbich

From Alexandria to Bernike: some aspects of geophysical surveying

in Egypt

Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology, Polish Academy of Sciences, e-mail: tomasz.herbich@gmail.com;

herbich@iaepan.edu.pl

Already lasting longer than one and a half decades, the geophysical "boom"

in Egyptian archeology allows us to make some general observations on the

usefulness of geophysical methods and the relationship between the method, the

measurement methodology and the type of site, its geology and conservation

status. These observations are based on the author’s experience gained while

conducting research at more than 60 sites in Egypt. These observations include the

following:

1. Test survey as an essential element in the evaluation of the usability of the

method chosen for the research;

2. Improving the quality of the survey result through the development of

measurement methodology and the use of various instruments;

3. The use of different geophysical methods at the research of one site;

4. Identification of the material used for the construction;

5. On the superiority of geophysical survey over excavation (!).

The observations are illustrated with examples of research of sites from different

Egyptian historical periods and located in various geographical zones in Egypt.

ad. 1. A theoretical analysis of the method’s usefulness, without carrying out

field tests, can give completely wrong conclusions. The magnetic survey in Buto

and Berenike is an example of that, where the theoretical assumptions pointed to

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the uselessness of the method but the survey yielded valuable results. Magnetic

susceptibility measurements can be extremely useful in the initial assessment of

the magnetic method's suitability (as in the case of Marea).

ad. 2. Depending on the type of instrument and the methodology of

measuring, one can get better information on the settlement’s layout and

individual buildings or on the shallow geology. The measurement methodology

using different types of magnetometers (caesium and fluxgates) was developed

during the research at Tell el- Dabca.

ad. 3. The joint use of the electrical resitivity method (vertical sounding

version) and the magnetic method can give good results in studies on the

reconstruction of paleolandscapes. In the first phase of this kind of research, a

quick identification of structures takes place (using the magnetic method) and in

the second phase, the nature of these structures can also be identified. The

identification of the structures’ characteristics gives a much better basis for their

correct interpretation (e.g., research of small harbors at Tell el-Dabca)

ad. 4. Identification of the construction material may be obtained by the

joint analysis of the results given by both the resistivity and magnetic methods (as

in the case of Ayn Birbiyeh in Dakhleh oasis).

ad. 5. The magnetic method allows to register structures, which due to a

very poor state of preservation, cannot be observed when using conventional

methods of excavation. This observation has been made while researching the Deir

al-Barsha necropolis.

Dietrich Klemm, Rosemarie Klemm

Dependency of the OK pyramid’s building stones on the regional

geology

Dietrich Klemm, Dept. of Environmental Geosciences, University of Munich, e-mail: dietrichklemm@t-online.de

Rosemarie Klemm, e-mail: rklemm@t-online.de

The aim of this investigation is focused on the provenance determination of

both core and casing material of the Old Kingdom stone pyramids and their temple

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complexes by means of petrographical and geochemical analyses. Special emphasis

is placed on the pyramids of the Memphitic district.

Rock samples in statistical sufficient number from the pyramids’

construction blocks were systematically taken. These pyramid specimens were

compared with rock samples from known or assumed quarry sites in the surrounding

area of the pyramids. In addition, especially for the casing and backing stones,

comparing samples were taken from the extended quarry sites at the eastern

escarpment of the Nile valley.

Dietrich Klemm, Rosemarie Klemm

Geomorphological dependency of the Old Kingdom’s artificial

pyramid harbours

Dietrich Klemm, Dept. of Environmental Geosciences, University of Munich, e-mail: dietrichklemm@t-online.de

Rosemarie Klemm, e-mail: rklemm@t-online.de

Recent excavations in the forefront of the Giza pyramids lead to discovery

of a quay-side belonging to the entire complexes of Khufu and Khafre (Hawass,

1997). Thus, the question rises whether comparable harbour constructions

existed individually for each pyramid.

An attempt to localize such artificial harbours by means of studying the

geomorphology of the various sites along the Memphite escarpment with the aid

of high resolution topographic maps, aerial and satellite imagery, and field

observations resulted in appropriate positions for candidates of such harbour

constructions.

Such reconstruction efforts may make sense under the condition of a Nile

course closer to the western escarpment (Jeffreys, 1994) and a morphological

feature of the landscape to ease the excavation work of harbour construction

including the causeway towards the particular pyramid.

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Michał Kobusiewicz, Przemysław Bobrowski, Maciej Jórdeczka, Marek

Chłodnicki

What forced the prehistoric cattle-keepers to emigrate from the

Red Sea Mountains

Michał Kobusiewicz, Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology, Polish Academy of Sciences (Poznań Branch),

Poland, e-mail: kobusiewicz@iaepan.poznan.pl

The aim of this paper is to show how the geoarchaeology can help to resolve

the problems concerning the chronology of the prehistoric rock art concentration

lately found in Sudan. The Polish team of archaeologist investigate the very rich

concentration of prehistoric petroglyphs discovered in Bir Nurayet in the Red Sea

Mountains in northeastern Sudan. The by far the most numerous representation of

engravings is cattle present on hundreds images on the slopes of sand stone rocks.

The images are situated in the close vicinity of the steep, conical, lonely mountain

of phallic shape called Gebel Magardi protruding out in the middle of the sandy

bottom of the large Wadi Diib. With high probability we can state that the art

resulted from the fertility cult practiced by the prehistoric population, maybe the

ancestors of the now day Bedja, with regard to the cattle as well as to humans.

Although we possess some premises for dating the rock art based on the

thermoluminescence dates obtained from silts covering some engravings, their

chronology is still vague. Today the nearest cattle can be seen seven hundred

kilometers south of Bir Nurayet. The local inhabitants of the area, the Bedja, keep

the camels only. The climatological changes, probably the drought, must have

forced the cattle to move to the south. The moment of the disappearance of cows

from Bir Nurayet would be the terminus post quem for the rock art representing

cattle. But the environmental changes in the Red Sea Mountains are not well

recognized. The climatological circumstances here are, most probably, different

than these known from Egyptian deserts or from the Nile Valley where these events

are relatively well studied and known. The intensive, multidisciplinary

geoarchaeological research is necessary to shed light on this problems. Its result

will permit us to appoint the date of the end of the cattle-keeper period of the

rock art in Bir Nurayet.

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Sebastian Kowalczyk, Fabian Welc, Jerzy Trzciński, Radosław

Mieszkowski

Geophysical researches (Ground Penetrating Radar) on the Polish

archeological concession in West Saqqara

Fabian Welc, Institute of Archeology, Cardinal Wyszyński University in Warsaw, e-mail: f.welc@uksw.edu.pl

Sebastian Kowalczyk, Faculty of Geology Warsaw University, e-mail: s.kowalczyk@uw.edu.pl

Jerzy Trzciński, Faculty of Geology Warsaw University, e – mail: jerzy.trzcinski@uw.edu.pl

Radosław Mieszkowski, Faculty of Geology Warsaw University, e – mail: r.mieszkowski@uw.edu.pl

Geophysical survey was one of the important objectives during the last

archeological campaign of the Polish – Egyptian mission in West Saqqara directed by

K. Myśliwiec. The main aim of this research was to determine the relationship

between the geology of the West Saqqara limestone plateau and archeological

structures located there, especially that which remain buried under sand.

During the course of the geophysical work GPR (Ground Penetrating Radar)

was used. GPR is a modern geophysical method that uses radar pulses to create

images of the subsurface structures, especially on archeological sites. This

nondestructive method uses electromagnetic radiation in the microwave band

(UHF/VHF frequencies) of the radio spectrum to detect the reflected signals from

subsurface structures. In archaeology this technology is very useful to locate

underground structures, such as shafts and burial chambers.

As it was mentioned, GPR uses high-frequency radio waves transmittable

directly into the ground. When the wave hits a buried object with different

dielectric constants, the receiving antenna records variations in the reflected

return signal. Due to special software the GPR operator can see on the monitor all

underground structures with exact depth given. The depth - range penetration of

GPR is limited by the electrical conductivity of the searched ground, transmitted

frequency center and radiated power. As conductivity increases, the penetration

depth decreases. This is because the electromagnetic energy is more quickly

decapitated into heat, causing a loss in signal strength at depth. Higher frequencies

do not penetrate as far as lower frequencies, but give better resolution.

In Saqqara, optimal depth penetration was achieved due to the dry sandy

layers and monolithic structure of the limestone outcrop on which ancient

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cemetery was located. Using antenna of 100 MHz the depth of penetration was up

to 45 m, with antenna 250 MHz up to 15 meters (it means that Saqqara limestone

plateau is almost an ideal site for using GPR surveying technology).

During the geophysical survey in Saqqara the Swedish MALÅ GPR X3M system

was used, that is based on the MALÅ GPR X3M Control Unit and MALÅ GPR and

Shielded Antennas 100 - 250 MHz. The MALÅ GPR X3M control unit is an integrated

ground penetrating remote, fitted directly onto a shielded antenna and powered

externally. The built-in electronic design results in a complete ground penetrating

system that is light and very compact and easy to transport, assemble and operate.

The convenience of this flexible and modular design means that the MALÅ GPR X3M

system can be quickly and easily configured for use across a wide range of mid-

range applications. Depending on the application, the MALÅ GPR X3M System is

typically configured as either a push- or a pull-system.

GPR Ramac X3M system used in Saqqara included: 1 x Control unit Ramac

X3M, 1 x 250 and 1 x 100 MHz shielded antennas, computer Panasonic CF-29,

distance measuring wheel 250-800 MHz (encoder wheel).

In methodological term, more than 30 areas were selected for geophysical

survey in Saqqara, all of them in the boundary of the Polish archeological

concession. A total of 25 areas were located in the southern part of the concession

and the remainder in northern one. Most of the areas were straight strips of

approximately 75 meters in length and 7 meters in width, orientated in accordance

to the cardinal directions.

During the survey the Ground Penetrating Remote antennas were generally

in contact with the ground for the strongest signal strength. Obtained

electromagnetic profiles were initially archived by using special software - Ground

Vision programme. In the next stage, all profiles will be transformed into

professional GPR software – Reflex View.

The GPR profiles collected over the surveyed area in Saqqara will be used to

construct three-dimensional or tomographic images. The data may be presented as

three-dimensional blocks, or as horizontal or vertical slices. Horizontal slices

(known as "depth slices" or "time slices") are essentially plain view maps isolating

specific depths. Time-slicing has become standard practice in archaeological

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applications, as horizontal patterning is often the most important indicator of

archaeological activities.

Agnese Kukela, Valdis Seglins

Non-destructive methods for evaluation of the state of

preservation in historical stone monuments: the case study of the

Step Pyramid

University of Latvia, Faculty of Geography and Earth Sciences, e-mail: agnese.kukela@lu.lv

All stone monuments, irrespective of the building material and its initial

quality, are exposed to the environmental impact affecting their state of

preservation. Generally, stone monument studies are aiming to determine

potential threats and facilitate the elaboration of appropriate monument

conservation strategy. Most of the existing weathering assessment methods and

classifications are time consuming, expensive and require direct contact with the

surface for application of instrumental investigations or to take samples for

analysis. However, these methods can be adjusted and developed as non-

destructive by creating custom classification of weathering forms and their

intensities using detailed monument photo documentation data.

Such study was carried out in Saqqara, appraising stone material weathering

on the facades of the Step Pyramid of king Djoser. By analyzing photographic data

obtained starting from the year 2006, three main stone material weathering forms

and five weathering intensities were identified. The investigation was performed

analyzing the surface of each construction block allowing, if necessary, to increase

the number of diagnostic features in the future.

In order to facilitate visual interpretation of the data, the 3D model of the

Step Pyramid using Micro Station V8i software was created. The integration of the

data into the 3D model allowed us to make number of conclusions regarding the

structure of the Djoser’s pyramid, potential threats to its stability, stone material

used for the construction of the pyramid and differences in quality of the mortar

applied. The results of this study denote high potential of this methodology for its

application in preliminary studies of the stone monuments on Memphite necropolis

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area to contribute the elaboration of future preservation and conservation

strategy.

Paul T. Nicholson

The Catacombs of Anubis, Saqqara

Cardiff University, e-mail: NicholsonPT@cardiff.ac.uk

This paper examines the Catacombs of Anubis at Saqqara. The site has been

known since the late 19th Century and since sometime in the early 20th Century has

been used by the S.C.A. for the storage of antiquities. However, the site has never

been properly investigated by archaeologists.

Since 2009 a Cardiff University expedition has been examining the Catacomb

with a view to making an accurate survey of the monument, examining its

deterioration and examining the remains of the animals interred within it. The

project has been able to examine the more recent history of the monument as well

as its ancient history; the latter suggests that the monument may have been

deliberately emptied, in parts, during the late 19th or early 20th Century.

Examination of the mummified animals in the catacomb shows that they are

not all dogs and jackals, as one might have expected, but include felines,

ichneumon and other creatures. It is estimated that as many as 8,000,000 animals

may be interred in the catacomb based on the volume of the galleries and the

minimum number of animals collected in a 15 litre sample.

Such great numbers of animals have implications for their procurement and

it is suggested that there may have been a dedicated breeding programme for

these animals.

Campbell Price

Recent Results of the Saqqara Geophysical Survey Project

The Manchester Museum, University of Manchester, e-mail: Campbell.price@manchester.ac.uk

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Since 1990 a Scottish mission, the Saqqara Geophysical Survey Project

(SGSP), has been engaged in producing a comprehensive and up-to-date subsurface

map of the Saqqara Necropolis. The Project was founded by Ian Mathieson, who

pioneered a range of geophysical techniques for use at Saqqara, and in the

Memphite area more broadly.

Most recently, the Project surveyed the zone south of the Unas causeway, in

the area of several well-known New Kingdom tombs. This paper presents several

previously unidentified structures, and evaluates them in relation to archaeological

work carried out by other missions. Following the sad death of Ian Mathieson in

June 2010, the SGSP hopes to continue his valuable work at the site. Future

directions for research will be suggested, focusing on completing gradiometery

survey around the area of the Serapeum Way and applying the selective use of

ground penetrating radar along its length.

Małgorzata Radomska

Saqqara: Some Remarks on Flora from Funerary Contexts

Institute of Mediterranean and Oriental Cultures, Polish Academy of Sciences, e –mail: malard@wp.pl

The impact of the natural environment on human thinking and action goes

without question and ancient Egypt was no exception. Geologists and geophysicists

studying morphological changes of the ground in Saqqara have contributed to a

reconstruction of processes taking place in the natural environment during the long

existence of the necropolis.

The aim of this paper is to reconstruct certain aspects of this environment in

the Memphite region, based on an identification of plant remains discovered by the

Polish-Egyptian mission excavating in Saqqara in 1996-2012. All of the finds have

come from funerary context.

The following issues will be addressed: What was the significance of plants

interred with the deceased? Was the choice of a specific plant of importance for

the afterlife? What species of flowers and vegetables grew in the environs of the

necropolis, making them easily accessible for burial purposes? What ancient

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Egyptians beliefs regarding plant symbolism are confirmed on the grounds of the

finds from Saqqara?

Numerous garden and field plants are represented as food offerings for the

deceased in the relief’s from the walls of individual cult chapels, but it is essential

also to study the actual finds of vegetables, fruit and other plants from funerary

contexts in order to understand and reconstruct contemporary flora of the period.

The burial contexts, which will be studied, were discovered for the most part in

the burial ground to the west of the Djoser pyramid enclosure in Saqqara. Two

distinct levels of this cemetery were identified: the so-called Upper Necropolis

from the Ptolemaic Period and the Lower Necropolis, which is directly below the

Upper one and which can be dated to the Old Kingdom. Substantially more plant

remains have been attested in layers belonging to the older cemetery.

Grave furnishings are mostly absent from the Upper Necropolis burials (and it

should be kept in mind that most of the interments were disturbed by ancient

robbers), but despite the limitations resulting from the nature of available data, it

is still possible to identify the species of plants placed in the grave together with

the body of the deceased. The present paper will concentrate on plant remains

found in the burials of the Upper Necropolis in Saqqara.

Romuald Schild

Early and Middle Holocene Paleoclimates in the South Western

Desert of Egypt. The World Before Unification

Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology, Polish Academy of Sciences romuald.schild@gmail.com

In the field seasons of 1990 to 2008 the Combined Prehistoric Expedition

conducted an extensive archaeological, archaeozoological, archaeobotanical and

geomorphological field work in the Nabta, Kassiba and Gebel El Sheb Areas, South

Western Desert of Egypt, which has helped to develop a long chronological

sequence of climatic changes in the area. The field and laboratory work has been

supported by over 300 14C and OSL assays that permitted place most of the

climatic events in a firm chronological frame.

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Chronology and the sequence of climate changes at the end of the

Pleistocene and the beginning of the Holocene in the South Western Desert of

Egypt. Ages in radiocarbon years BP:

Greenland

Interstadial I

Pre-El Adam

Humid Interphase

Humid phase.

Deposits of sandy playa in the area of Nabta (El Dip Basin) and El

Gebal El Beid basins located below the earliest known Neolithic

settlement.

Younger Dryas Pre-El Adam Arid

Phase

Hypothetical arid phase.

Ca, 9 800 –8 850

BP

El Adam Humid

Interphase

Humid phase.

The first manifestation is emergence of phitogenic dunes

followed by deposition of sandy playa sediments. The oldest

settlement belonging to the El Adam variant. Contracted desert

8 850 – 8 500 BP Post-El Adam Arid

Phase

Arid interval substantiated by eolian sand bed in the lacustrine

silt deposit.

8 500 – 8 200 BP El Ghorab Humid

Interphase

Playa deposits and sandy beaches interbeded with silty sand..

Settlement of the El Ghorab variant. Contracted Desert

8 200 – 8 100 BP Post-El Ghorab

Arid Phase

Substantial deflation observed in the area of El Adam Playa,

Eolian sand Between the layers of the El Ghorab and El Nabta

settlement in the El Ghorab basin. Contracted Desert.

8 050 – 7 300 BP El Nabta/ Al Jerar

Humid Interphase

Maximum of Holocene precipitation in the Egyptian Sahara,

reduced deposition of playa silt resulting from the development

of vegetation in the basin and surrounding desert inducing the

reduction of the amount of sediment carried by water. Extensive

settlement of the early Neolithic El Nabta and Al Jerar variants.

Dry savanna, with small permanent lakes in deep basins.

Holocene climatic optimum,

Ca. 7 300 – 7 200

BP

Post-Al Jerar Arid

Phase

Sharp reduction of vegetation and increased eolian activity,

violent seasonal rains again cause transportation of heavy

sediments.

Ca. 7 200-7 100

–

6 600 BP

Middle Neolithic

Humid Interphase

Ru’at El Ghanam

Development of phytogenic dunes, local rains resulting in surface

washes. Locally high water table.

Ca. 6 600-6500

BP

Post-Middle

Neolithic Arid

Phase

Massive eolian erosion

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Ca. 6500-5800

BP

Late Neolithic

Humid Interphase,

Ru’at El Baqar

Summer rains, sandy alluvial deposits in wadis and closed basins

Ca. 5800-5750

BP

Post Late

Neolithic Arid

Phase

Deflational basins

Ca. 5750-4800

BP

Final Neolithic

Humid Interphase

Bunat El Asnam

Summer rains and alluvial washes

Ca. 4500-4200 Early Post-

Neolithic

Settlements

Sparse human occupation

Ca. 4200-3900 Hyper Arid Desert No traces of Human occupation

Ca. 3900-3150 Weak Humid

Interphase

local rains

C-Group

Traces of occupation, houses and domestic animals

Karin Sowada

Evidence for late third millennium weather events from an Old

Kingdom tomb in the Teti Cemetery at Saqqara

Macquarie University, Sydney, e-mail: karin.sowada@mq.edu.au

During excavations in 1996 by the Australian Centre for Egyptology

(Macquarie University) on a tomb in the Teti Cemetery at Saqqara, evidence of a

major ancient weather event was revealed. The tomb belonged to a high official

called Inumin, who late in his career served as vizier of King Pepy I of the Sixth

Dynasty. Over a metre of laminated mud deposits in the subterranean burial

chamber were the result of sustained rainfall over a short period of time. This

event is dated on stratigraphic grounds to the Late Old Kingdom – early First

Intermediate Period, and is regarded as part of the same weather event recorded

during recent archaeological work near the enclosure of Netjerykhet Djoser.

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Fabian Welc

Anatomy of the Third Dynasty quarry in West Saqqara

Institute of Archeology, Cardinal Wyszyński University in Warsaw, e-mail: f.welc@uksw.edu.pl

One of the main objectives of geoarchaeological research of the Polish –

Egyptian mission in West Saqqara is a reconstruction of the original topography of

the area in question and tracing past transformations of a natural as well as

anthropogenic nature. Field observations a few years back had already suggested

that part of the necropolis searched by polish team did not slope gently to the

west, as it can be seen on the ground, instead, it descended in a series of rock

terraces which had become covered thickly with sand and rock debris. Already at

the time this ground structure was linked with the building activity of the pharaoh

Netjerykhet of the Third Dynasty.

In the 2009 field season the area of the necropolis uncovered down to the

rock was sufficiently big to enable us to verify our previous determinations. Field

observations coupled with topographical and geodetic measurements have

demonstrated that the area in question comprises at least four rock terraces

extending for about 30 m. The terraces differ in their width from step to step, the

latter being aligned usually north-south and measuring each approx. 2 m in height.

Examination of the geological evidence has left no doubt that the lower three of

these terraces were made by man quarrying beds of the local Eocene limestone.

This open quarry was exploited on a grand scale during the Third Dynasty. Its

operations should be linked with the development of the funerary complex of the

pharaoh Netjerykhet and it is likely that the quarry was abandoned when the work

on the complex was interrupted. There is no evidence for any form of human

activity in this area during the Fourth and Fifth Dynasties.

The terraced structure of the old quarry must have provided excellent

conditions for all kinds of building activities. This must have been a decisive factor

in choosing it for the location of a new necropolis at the end of the Old Kingdom

Period. The rock walls were perfectly suited for cutting the facades and interiors of

funerary chapels. The work consisted mainly of surface leveling of the rock to

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create appropriately smooth faces for the facades and a shallow depression in front

of the entrance for the cult courtyard.

Limestone started to be quarried again in the area in the late Old Kingdom,

but it seems that the purpose was no longer building material. The stonecutters

appear to have been producing elements necessary for the furnishing of the tombs,

such as appropriately big slabs for covering the burial pits.

Fabian Welc, Jerzy Trzcinski

Geoarcheological studies of the Polish – Egyptian mission in West

Saqqara

Institute of Archeology, Cardinal Wyszyński University in Warsaw, e-mail: f.welc@uksw.edu.pl

Jerzy Trzcinski, Faculty of Geology Warsaw University, e – mail: jerzy.trzcinski@uw.edu.pl

Geoarchaeological research has been part of the program of the Polish

archaeological and conservation mission at Saqqara from the very beginning, that

is, from 1998, when Elżbieta Mycielska-Dowgiałło and Barbara Woronko carried out

a series of sedimentological and petrographic analyses on the site. The main

objective is to study the interdependence between ancient structures and the

geomorphology of the land site. The results are used in reconstructing the

morphogenetic processes and climatic changes that shaped the development of the

Saqqara necropolis over the ages, but especially during the Old Kingdom. The most

important paleoclimatic data referring to the early Old Kingdom came from layers

deposited directly under the foundation of the Step Pyramid enclosure wall. The

undisturbed sequence of mainly natural layers proved to be of key importance. We

could distinguish two thick and heavily concreted layers of red color mixed with

pebbles, separated by a thin layer of melted marl limestone. Detailed examination

of these deposits demonstrated that the soc called red layers originated in effect

of intensive mud and rock flows caused by heavy raining. This episode should be

connected with the beginning of the first half of the Third Dynasty.

Examination of cross – sections and fill of the burial shafts from the terminal

Sixth Dynasty has provided proof of next episode of very intensive rainfall. The

area of the necropolis suffered from mud and rock flows that effectively destroyed

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many burial structures. Coincidentally, this was a period of massive plundering in

the necropolis. The shafts and chambers left practically empty by the thieves were

quickly filled with the mud and rock carried by flash floods. An extreme case in

point is shaft 57 explored in the 2009 season. It was completely filled with heavily

cemented rubble mixed with dried mud which had entered the shaft with flowing

water. Layers higher up in the profile, dated by the finds to the transition from the

Old Kingdom to the First Intermediate Period, have been found to contain seasonal

rainfall water reservoirs of varying size.

Closing the stratigraphical sequence of accumulations is a thick layer of

aeolian sand which started to form most probably in at the beginning of the second

First Intermediate Period. It proves that the gradual drying of the climate, which is

still ongoing, started at about this time.

Fabian Welc, Leszek Marks

4,2 ky BP global abrupt climatic change (Bond 3. climatic event) –

new evidence from Saqqara

Fabian Welc, Institute of Archeology, Cardinal Wyszyński University in Warsaw, e-mail: f.welc@uksw.edu.pl

Leszek Marks, University of Warsaw, Department of Climate Geology, Polish Geological Institute – National

Research Institute, e-mail: leszek.marks@uw.edu.pl

The paper present compiled geological and geoarcheological data, based on

results of the Polish – Egyptian excavations at the Saqqara necropolis (headed by

prof. K. Myśliwiec), to specify a climate variability in Egypt mostly at the end of

Old Kingdom period (ca. 4200 B.P).

A climate change in that time was seen expressed firstly by aridification and

low floods of the Nile but also by occasional heavy rainfalls in northern Egypt. Low

floods of the Nile were probably a consequence of decreased summer precipitation

in the Ethiopian Highlands that resulted in catastrophically low discharges in the

Blue Nile drainage basin. These weaker summer monsoons in Ethiopia and gradual

aridification in Egypt from about 5000 yrs BP were coincident with a southward

shift of the summer Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in Africa. Simultaneous

intensive rainfalls resulted in wide-spread sheet-flood accumulations in northern

Egypt. These rainfalls were presumably triggered by variation of the North Atlantic

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Oscillation (NAO), dependent in turn on the oceanic thermohaline circulation. All

these reasons caused a rapid collapse of the Old Kingdom at about 4200-4100 yrs

BP.

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