RSA: Bera Rsa Interim Report

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THE ROLE OF RESEARCHIN TEACHER EDUCATION:

REVIEWING THE EVIDENCE

INTERIM REPORT OF THEBERA-RSA INQUIRY

BRITISH EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ASSOCIATION (BERA)

JANUARY 2014


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ABOUT BERA

The British Educational Research Association (BERA) is a member-led charity whichexists to enhance the field of study, the growth of public knowledge and criticalunderstanding, and the application of findings for the improvement of educational policyand practice. We strive to ensure the best quality evidence from educational researchinforms policy makers, practitioners and the general public and contributes to economicprosperity, cultural understanding, social cohesion and personal flourishing.

ABOUT THE RSA

The Royal Society for the Encouragement of the Arts, Manufacturing and Commerce(RSA) is an enlightenment organisation, committed to finding innovative practical solutionsto todays social challenges. Through its ideas, research and 27,000-strong Fellowship,it seeks to understand and enhance human capability so that we can close the gapbetween todays reality and peoples hopes for a better world.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The steering group would like to thank each of the authors for their excellent work onproducing the academic papers commissioned for this Inquiry: Gary Beauchamp, LindaClarke, Moira Hulme and Jean Murray; Maria Teresa Tatto; Chris Winch, Janet Orchardand Alis Oancea; Katherine Burn and Trevor Mutton; and Monica Mincu. Special thanksgo to the Inquirys special advisors, Graham Donaldson, Carmel Gallagher, Sir AlasdairMacdonald, Lord David Puttnam and Sir Alan Steer and to the members of the referencegroup, who have contributed actively to reviewing our emerging findings. We wouldalso like to thank the BERA office for their administrative support and Sarah Newman forediting this report as well as the individual papers. At the RSA, we would like to thankthe secretariat, Louise Bamfield and Selina Nwulu, and Matthew Taylor for his support indisseminating the findings of the Inquiry. Thanks in particular are due to Louise Bamfieldfor compiling this Interim Report on behalf of the Inquiry Steering Group. Finally, we arevery grateful to all those who responded to the Inquirys Call for Submission on behalf ofthemselves and/or their institutions and organisations.

This project was initiated and is funded by BERA Council and we thank them for theircontinued support.


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Contents

Foreword

Executive Summary

Introduction

Chapter 1: UK Policy and Practice: the Role ofResearch in Teacher Education

Chapter 2: International Overview: the Contributionof Research to High-Performing Systems

Chapter 3: Philosophical Reflections on theContribution of Research to Teacher Education

Chapter 4: Integrated ITE Programmes Based onResearch-Informed Clinical Practice

Chapter 5: The Contribution of Research to

Teachers Continuing Professional Development

Chapter 6: Building Collective Capacity forImprovement at a School and System Level

Conclusions

References

Notes

Appendix: Further Information about the Inquiry

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THE ROLE OF RESEARCH IN TEACHER EDUCATION: REVIEWING THE EVIDENCE

INTERIM REPORT OF THE BERA-RSA INQUIRY4

Foreword

This Interim Report marks a very important step in the future development of the teachingprofession in the United Kingdom. At a time when virtually every government around theworld is asking how it can improve the quality of its teaching force, the British EducationalResearch Association (BERA) and the Royal Society for the Encouragement of the Arts,Manufacturing and Commerce (RSA) have come together to consider what contributionresearch can make to that improvement. While many in society might simply assume thatresearch should make some contribution to high quality teacher education, BERA andRSA set themselves the task of asking precisely what that contribution should be toinitial teacher education, to teachers continuing professional development and to schoolimprovement. They also wanted to know how different teacher education systems acrossthe UK and internationally currently engage with research and, most important of all, whatinternational evidence there is that linking research and teacher education is effective.Does it really improve the quality of the teaching profession and beyond that the quality of

students learning experience? It was with these questions in mind that BERA and RSAjointly launched an Inquiry into Research and Teacher Education in Spring 2013.

In this Interim Report we bring together the evidence that we have gathered so far,evidence that addresses each of those important questions. And what the Interim Reportmakes clear is that that evidence does have a vitally important and consistent story totell. There is substantial evidence (both empirical and philosophical) that research has amajor contribution to make to effective teacher education in a whole variety of differentways. There is also some robust evidence that doing so improves the quality of studentslearning in schools.

The publication of this Interim Report marks the completion of the first part of the Inquiry.

What we hope now is that a wide range of different stakeholders teachers, parents,policy makers, university leaders, researchers, teacher educators will, over the comingmonths, engage with it and with us, the Inquiry Steering Group. Following that discussion,stage two of the Inquiry will result in the publication of the Final Report in Spring 2014in which we intend to set out some of the implications of the evidence here for thefurther development of high quality teacher education in the UK. These will includeimplications for Schools, for Universities, for Government and above all for the teachingprofession itself.

John Furlong, Chair of the Steering GroupBERA-RSA Inquiry into Research and Teacher Education


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in teacher education across the UK is similarlyvariable. In Northern Ireland, as in Scotland, there isclear recognition of teaching as a complex profession,

together with a strong emphasis on critical reflectionand active engagement in research for teachers acrosseach phase of professional development. The situationin Wales is more ambiguous: research featuresprominently in non-statutory guidance for teachersand inspection guidance for ITE providers, thoughthere is no explicit reference to the use of research inthe revised teacher standards. In England, the natureof teaching is contested, while the value of researchin teacher education has arguably diminished overtime. In addition, critics of the recent reforms to initialteacher education have expressed serious concernsthat the shift away from university-led programmes will

diminish research capacity, by destabilising staffingand eroding funding for applied research. As yet, thefull implications of the changes in provision for ITE arenot clear; highlighting the need for further monitoringof developments to ensure high quality provision isachieved through all training routes.

2. INTERNATIONAL OVERVIEW: THE CONTRIBUTION

OF RESEARCH TO HIGH-PERFORMING SYSTEMS

From an international perspective, Dr Maria TeresaTatto of the University of Michigan considers the role

of research in four contrasting examples of educationsystems: Chile, the USA, Singapore and Finland,representing fair, good, great and excellent schoolperformance as classified by McKinsey (2010).For each country, Tatto examines the nature andorganisation of teacher education and provides anoverview of entry and qualifying requirements andquality assurance, before drawing out the contributionof research to each system. As comparative analysisshows, education systems such as Singapore andFinland that consistently come out on top developcapacity from the bottom up, and rely heavily onmethodologically rigorous research-based knowledgeto inform their practice. What is striking about provisionin both Finland and Singapore, as compared to themore diverse, fragmented and market-oriented provisionin the USA and Chile, is the extent to which teachersengagement with research and enquiry-orientedpractice is embedded throughout the education system.Nevertheless, it is important to stress that a causalconnection between specific features of the trainingprogramme (including the research components)and the success of the education system can only beinferred rather than directly proven. Indeed the FinnishMinistry for Education (2007) has called for research

knowledge on teacher education to be strengthenedthrough a better, more highly co-ordinated nationalresearch programme.

3. PHILOSOPHICAL REFLECTIONS ON

THE CONTRIBUTION OF RESEARCH TO

TEACHER EDUCATION

Some of the key philosophical issues arising in therole of research in teachers professional learning anddevelopment are examined by Professor ChristopherWinch (Kings College, London), Dr Janet Orchard(University of Bristol) and Dr Alis Oancea (Universityof Oxford). The authors highlight three interconnectedand complementary aspects of teachers professionalknowledge: practical wisdom, technical knowledgeand critical reflection. Arguing against simply relyingon common sense or what works protocols, theyshow how research can make a positive contribution toeach aspect of teachers professional knowledge. The

authors further distinguish between a simplified craftview of teaching and a narrow technical view, elementsof which are discernible in current policy debates in theUK context.

What is missing from these conceptions, they argue, isthe capacity for critical reflection, i.e. the type of deeperinsight and understanding that comes from interrogatingones practice based on the wider research evidenceand making explicit the assumptions and values thatunderpin it. In contrast to any narrow or simplified view,the idea of the teacher as professional combines all

three aspects of knowledge practical, technical andtheoretical including knowledge derived throughpersonal experience as well as research, analysis andcritical reflection. Importantly, they suggest that researchcan play a complementary role in relation to each ofthese dimensions: for example, engaging in or withresearch can inform and enhance teachers technicalknowledge about particular instructional techniques, aswell as equipping them for the rich reflection requiredin practical deliberation and professional judgement. Atthe same time, research itself can be enriched, throughgreater insight into the challenges and complexities ofeducational practice.

4. INTEGRATED ITE PROGRAMMES BASED ON

RESEARCH-INFORMED CLINICAL PRACTICE

Dr Katherine Burn and Trevor Mutton from the Universityof Oxford examine a small number of highly innovativeand influential programmes, based in part on a medicalmodel of clinical practice, which seek to integratepractical engagement in schools with research-based knowledge in carefully planned and sequencedways. As Burn and Mutton articulate it, for beginningteachers working within an established community of

practice, with access to the practical wisdom of experts,clinical practice allows them to engage in a processof enquiry: seeking to interpret and make sense of the


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INTERIM REPORT OF THE BERA-RSA INQUIRY 7

specific needs of particular students, to formulate andimplement particular pedagogical actions and to evaluatethe outcomes. Importantly, by making explicit the

reasoning and underlying assumptions of experiencedteachers, student teachers are encouraged to developand extend their own decision-making capacities orprofessional judgement.

The evidence review focuses on establishedprogrammes in the UK and the USA, notably the OxfordInternship scheme in England and the US ProfessionalDevelopment Schools and Teachers for a New Era(TNE), as well as more recent developments led bythe Universities of Glasgow and Aberdeen in Scotlandand in Melbourne, Australia. Furthermore, the authorsreview the evidence on system-wide approaches in the

Netherlands and Finland which are also informed by theprinciples of clinical practice. In terms of the impactof such programmes, there is evidence to suggestthat clinical preparation helps to determine teachereffectiveness and clinical experience has a positiveeffect on beginning teachers learning and confidence,while graduates of such programmes appear to bebetter prepared for their first teaching post. Crucially,however, it is the quality of the clinical experience thatmatters. Simply extending the amount of time spent bytrainee teachers in the classroom is not associated withimproved outcomes.

5. THE CONTRIBUTION OF RESEARCH TO TEACHERS

CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Moving from initial teacher education to continuingprofessional development (CPD), Philippa Cordingleyfrom the Centre for the Use of Research and Evidencein Education (CUREE) examines the key ways inwhich teachers engage in and with research as partof effective provision for CPD. Drawing together thefindings from multiple systematic reviews, her analysishighlights a clear and consistent set of findings aboutthe characteristic of effective professional learningactivities, including the use of specialist advisors andexternal experts to help identify effective strategiesand techniques. Also important is engagement incollaborative enquiry, structured observations and peersupport, enhanced by the use of professional dialogueand reciprocal risk taking, which gives teachers thechance to learn to learn from looking and to explorewhy things do and dont work in different contexts. Thecontribution of research to CPD is potentially highlysignificant: the use of research-based knowledge,theoretical insights and involvement in researchprocesses all feature strongly in the evidence about

professional development and in the selection and useof tools to aid teachers learning. As emphasised byCordingley, enquiry-oriented leadership is crucial to

create the conditions for enquiry-oriented teaching,which is associated with the greatest gains for pupilslearning and educational outcomes.

6. BUILDING COLLECTIVE CAPACITY FOR

IMPROVEMENT AT A SCHOOL AND SYSTEM LEVEL

Finally, Dr Monica Mincu from the University of Turininvestigates the contribution of research to improvingteaching quality and hence enhancing learningoutcomes for students. Drawing on the internationalresearch literature on teacher effectiveness and schoolimprovement, Mincu makes three key arguments aboutthe contribution of research: first, teachers matter andschools make the most difference for lower-achievingstudents, who disproportionately come from deprived

backgrounds; second, teachers and school leadersare at the heart of school and system improvement,particularly when supported by specialist support fromboth inside and outside the school; and third, researchhas come centre stage as a pillar of school improvement.Practitioner engagement in and with research has beenshown to contribute to successful school improvementin a variety of ways: through the sharing of informationabout effective practice; by involving practitioners inthe testing of new ideas and in the design, delivery andmonitoring of interventions.

In Scotland, following the Donaldson review of teachereducation, it is now Government policy to developa systematic and coherent approach to career longprofessional learning in which universities have aprominent role. However, across the rest of the UKthere appears to be a rather more fragmented andpiecemeal approach to the use of research thandisplayed by high-performing systems such as Finlandand Canada. Although there have been examplesof promising large-scale interventions in parts ofEngland, notably the London Challenge, replicatingthis success in all parts of the country will be highlyproblematic in the absence of a co-ordinated strategy,particularly when faced with more constrainedresources in the current climate. Furthermore, asemphasised by respondents to the Inquirys Call forSubmissions, there are still barriers to overcomein each part of the UK when it comes to promotingpractitioner engagement in research, particularlyaround lack of time, capacity and commitment due toheavy workloads and pressure to meet the demandsof accountability. As Mincus analysis highlights,one of the key tasks for policy-makers in the UK istherefore to reappraise the balance between capacitybuilding activity, on the one hand, and accountability

mechanisms, on the other, to ensure that thefoundations are in place for a research-rich systemat all levels.


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CONCLUSIONS

Thus, there is strong evidence that teachers andteacher educators need to engage with research,in the sense of keeping up to date with the latestdevelopments in their academic subject and on effectiveinstructional techniques to inform their pedagogicalcontent knowledge. There is also strong evidence thatteachers and teacher educators need to be equippedto engage in enquiry-oriented practice, which meanshaving the capacity, motivation and opportunity to useresearch-related skills to investigate what is workingwell and what isnt fully effective in their own practice.High-performing education systems demonstrate thatthis type of enquiry-oriented practice requires clinical

preparation, through carefully designed programmes ofinitial teacher education, which allow trainee teachersto integrate knowledge from academic study andresearch with practical experience in the school andclassroom. The focus on clinical practice then needs tobe sustained throughout teachers professional careers,so that disciplined innovation and collaborative enquiryare embedded within the professional culture andbecome the established way of teaching and learning inevery school.

Looking across the UK, it is evident that although there

are pockets of excellent practice in teacher education,there is not yet a coherent and systematic approachfrom the beginning of teacher training that is sustainedthroughout teachers working lives. While the use ofdata has increased over the past 20 years, there nowneeds to be a greater emphasis on creating research-rich and evidence-rich (rather than simply data-rich) schools and classrooms. It follows that thereis an urgent need for all stakeholders (Government,national agencies, schools, universities and teachersorganisations) to work together to create a nationalstrategy for teacher education and professional learning,based on the principles of research-informed clinicalpractice, which should be applied to all institutionalsettings where teacher education and professionallearning takes place.

NEXT STEPS FOR THE INQUIRY

Following publication of the commissioned papers andInterim Report, the next phase of the Inquiry will focuson testing the implications of the interim findings withappropriate stakeholders, including teachers, teachereducators and policy-makers, to inform the formulationof recommendations for policy and practice, to be

published in a Final Report in Spring 2014.


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Introduction

THE IMPORTANCE OF TEACHING ANDTEACHER EDUCATION

In recent years, politicians and educational leadersaround the world have been energised by the resultsof international assessments of pupil achievement suchas PISA, PIRLS and TIMMS.1Faced with challengesof demographic and technological change and globaleconomic competition, exacerbated at the present timeby low economic growth and high financial uncertainty,policy-makers are under greater pressure than ever toinvest in the skills and capacity of the future labour forceas a principal strategy for securing economic growth and

prosperity (Schleicher, 2012). In line with broader EUand OECD ambitions, successive UK Governments haveinvested considerable effort and resources in the goal ofimproving educational outcomes for all students, at thesame time as endeavouring to break cycles of povertyand intergenerational disadvantage.

The advent of international league tables has spawneda new wave of comparative studies seeking to discoverthe secret of other systems success and to identifythe distinctive features of those countries whichconsistently come out on top.2Internal and external

evaluations have reaffirmed the importance of effectiveteachers and high quality teaching, which is now widelyacknowledged to be the most important school-levelfactor influencing student achievement (OECD, 2004,2005; McKinsey, 2007, 2010).3This in turn has focusedattention on the importance of teacher education, frominitial training, preparation and induction for beginningteachers, to on-going professional development to helpupdate their knowledge, deepen their understandingand advance their skills as expert practitioners.4Teachereducation, along with strategies for recruitment andretention (with which it is intimately connected), isseen as the most direct and effective way of raisingeducational quality (Darling-Hammond, 2005, cited inOECD, 2010, p. 12). Indeed, some have predicted thateducation reforms that fail to take teacher education intoaccount are condemned to inefficiency (OECD, 1998,cited in OECD, 2010, p. 12).

As a prime strategy to increase the quality of teachingand improve student outcomes, the challenge for policy-makers is to decide how best to organise provision forteacher education: that is, how much time to allocateto training at different life phases of the professionalcareer and how to structure programmes to make most

effective use of that time; what are the requisite skillsand knowledge for current and future teachers and whatkinds of experiences are needed to develop them; and

importantly, how far all such decisions are based upongood knowledge of research on effective teaching andeffective teacher education.

Comparative analysis reveals that educational decision-makers in different parts of the world have respondedvariously to the issues of teacher recruitment, retentionand development, reflecting both the specific nature ofthe challenges faced in particular contexts (for example,teacher shortages or oversupply), as well as diversebeliefs and assumptions about the nature of professionalknowledge and how such learning takes place. Whilstthere has been a general shift internationally over thepast three decades towards greater professionalismin teacher education, with higher entrance standardsand higher qualifying requirements, there has also been

an important counter trend, away from conventionalprogrammes led and administered by universitydepartments of education, towards more flexible, school-based routes, including in some cases deregulated andmore accelerated, fast-track options (Musset, 2010).

THE ROLE OF RESEARCH

As part of the political drive to improve the quality ofteaching and learning, education policy-makers acrossthe UK have sought to stimulate more evidence-informedapproaches to educational policy and professional

practice. Since the late 1990s, Government departmentsand national agencies have sponsored and supporteda range of initiatives designed to stimulate the useof robust research to inform educational policy andencourage more systematic practitioner engagementwith research.5

In the case of teacher education, although theconnection between educational research and teachersprofessional learning and development is widelyrecognised, the precise nature of the relationship is notyet fully understood (Whitty et al, 2012). At a time whenteacher education is under active development acrossthe four nations of the United Kingdom, an importantquestion for all those seeking to improve the qualityof teaching and learning is how to boost the use ofresearch to inform the design, character and content ofteacher education programmes.

Furthermore, while it is generally agreed that noeducation system can afford not to be informed bydata and evidence from robust research (recognisingthat there are lively debates about what is meant byevidence and what constitutes reliable and relevantresearch), it is less clear how far practitioners

themselves need to be actively engaged in the researchprocess whether as discerning consumers or activeproducers of research-based knowledge. Hence, it is


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important to investigate how far the process of engagingin and with research is associated with significantimprovements in the quality of teaching and learning

outcomes for students, and to consider the policyand practical implications for teacher education andcontinuing professional development.

ABOUT THE INQUIRY

Against this background of diverging policy andprovision for teacher education and heated discussionabout the use of research evidence to inform policy andpractice, the British Educational Research Association(BERA) and the Royal Society for the Encouragementof the Arts, Manufacturing and Commerce (RSA) havecome together to conduct a joint inquiry into research

and teacher education (Further details about the Inquirysteering group and reference group membership can befound in the Appendix).

Aim, background and objectives

Building on the findings of the BERA-UCET joint reviewof prospects for education research in UK HEIs (Whittyet al, 2012),6the overall objective of this Inquiry is tounderstand the contribution that research can maketo teachers professional learning over the course oftheir career, from initial teacher education to continuing

professional development, and to explore the potentialbenefits for students learning processes and outcomes.

The three key aims of the Inquiry are to:

1 Shape debate by collecting and reviewingevidence about the role which research-informed teacher education plays in promotingschool improvement;

2 Inform policy within Government and theeducation sector by making recommendations todevelop the relationship between research andteacher education;

3 Influence practice developing practicalapproaches to connect researchers, teachereducators, teachers and others.

The Inquiry therefore sets out to define and investigatethe different ways that the use of research can informand improve the design and content of teachereducation, as well as exploring the extent to which directpractitioner engagement in and with research offersbenefits for teaching and learning.

Scope of the Inquiry

The principal questions of the Inquiry, under four mainareas of interest, are defined as follows:

1 Mapping provision:How does policy and provisionfor teacher education vary across the UK andinternationally, and what is the role of research in

different entry routes and CPD programmes?

2 Philosophical reflections:What a prioriargumentscan be made about the contribution of research-based knowledge in the development of teachersprofessional expertise?

3 Review of the evidence:What contribution doesresearch make to teachers professional learning atthe beginning and over the course of their teachingcareers; what is the impact of research-basedand research-engaged teaching on the quality ofteaching and learning, school improvement and

student outcomes?

4 What are the implications for policyand practice?

The scope of the Inquiry includes policy and provisionfor teacher education across the four nations of theUnited Kingdom, whilst drawing on lessons and findingsfrom the wider international research literature andcomparative analysis of trends and characteristics toexamine the relationship between research and teachereducation in the UK context.

Inquiry methods

Given the broad scope of the Inquiry and the constraintsof capturing all the relevant literature in a single review,the steering group opted to commission academicpapers from experts in particular fields relevant to theInquiry: international and cross-national (UK) policy andprovision for teacher education; philosophical reflectionson the contribution of research to teacher education;innovative ITE programmes based on the model ofresearch-informed clinical practice; establishedfeatures of continuing professional development (CPD);and the impact of research-based teaching on schoolimprovement and student outcomes, with a seventhpaper to follow on teacher engagement with and inresearch. A complete list of the commissioned papersand review teams is available in the Appendix.

To supplement the information and evidence gainedthrough the commissioned papers, the Inquiry issueda Call for Submissions in July 2013, which ran for sixweeks until August 2013. 32 responses were receivedin total, capturing a wide array of opinions from keyaudiences: higher education institutions, professional

associations, training providers, policy analysts andteachers. A full report of the responses is available onthe BERA website. Throughout this report, selected


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quotes from the submitted responses are used toillustrate key points from the analysis.

The Inquiry process has been designed to allow forextended critical review of the emerging findings,through internal discussion of the draft papers bycommissioned authors at an Inquiry seminar in July2013, a joint presentation of the emerging findings ata spotlight session at the British Educational ResearchAssociation Annual Conference at the Universityof Sussex in September 2013; and through furtherpresentations to the Universities Council for theEducation of Teachers (UCET) Research Committee inOctober 2013 and at the UCET Annual Conference inNovember 2013.

The Steering Group has also benefited from expertadvice and critical feedback from its special advisors,and from the Inquirys Reference Group, comprised ofrepresentatives from 19 leading organisations involved ineducation, including experts in teacher education policyand practice from each of the four nations.

Following publication of the commissioned papers andInterim Report, the next phase of the Inquiry will focuson testing the implications of the interim findings withappropriate stakeholders, including teachers, teachereducators and policy-makers, to inform the formulation

of recommendations for policy and practice, to bepublished in a Final Report in Spring 2014.

Defining key terms

When it comes to the role of research in teachereducation, we suggest that there are four main waysthat research can contribute to programmes ofteacher education:

First, the content of such programmes may beinformed by research-based knowledge andscholarship, emanating from a wide range ofacademic disciplines and epistemological traditions(including, for example, educational psychologicalstudies of teaching-studying-learning processes,child development, inter-disciplinary research andacademic study of subject matter and pedagogicalcontent knowledge, assessment practices and so on);

Second, research studies into different modelsand approaches towards teacher education andprofessional learning can be used to inform the designand structure of teacher education programmes;

Third, teachers and teacher educators can beequipped to engage with and be discerningconsumers of research that is, developing the

research-related skills and knowledge to be ableto access and interpret different kinds of evidenceand adapt it (with appropriate support) to their own

settings and contexts (Bell et al, 2010);

Fourth, teachers and teacher educators may beequipped to conduct their own research, individuallyand collectively, to investigate the impact of particularinterventions or to explore the positive and negativeeffects of their own practice. As Bell et al (2010)define it, as well as engaging with research, educationpractitioners may also be involved in research,whether as active participants and co-designers, or asmore passive subjects of larger-scale studies led byprofessional research teams.

The nature and quality of data sources

Until relatively recently, research in the field of teachereducation and professional learning consisted mainlyof smaller-scale studies, typically carried out byteacher educators individually and collectively, or incollaboration with schools or student teachers. Forexample, a review conducted in 2000 by the US NationalAcademy of Science (Tatto et al, 2000, cited in Tatto2013) revealed that at the time of the study, there werevery few larger-scale studies providing system-wideand policy-oriented research evidence, with a notable

lack of studies designed to provide a full (rather thanpartial) examination of the different dimensions ofteacher education.

Over the past decade, investment in large-scalecomparative studies and evaluations of teachereducation by national and supra-national agencies(such as the UKs Economics and Social ResearchCouncil, the European Commission and the OECD)has contributed new insights and understandingabout the characteristics of successful systems andeffective provision. While comprehensive data aboutthe nature of provision in different countries is nowavailable from databases such as Eurydice, keepingsuch information up to date in this area is difficult inthe face of widespread and rapid reform. Furthermore,there is still a dearth of large-scale longitudinal studiesexamining the trajectory of teacher education fromentry to induction, through to assessing the impacton teaching quality in the classroom and measuringoutcomes for students. As Menter et al observe,lack of attention to contextual factors (for examplepupil socio-economic status/ gender/support needs;level of teachers education/subject degree; schooltype) and the scant funding available for longitudinal

studies, large-scale efficacy studies or repeatedmeasures helps to explain why the evidence baseon teacher education is somewhat inconclusive as a


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guide for policy (Menter et al. 2010, 7). Nevertheless,there is much that can be learned from internationalcomparative analysis of policy and provision for

teacher education and the attempts that have beenmade to identify distinctive features of successfulsystems and programmes.

Over the same period, there has also been a growingnumber of systematic reviews carried out in the UKand elsewhere, which have brought together theexisting evidence on many aspects of professionallearning, which have produced clear and consistentfindings, for example on the characteristics ofsuccessful induction and mentoring, early professionaldevelopment, continuing professional developmentand the role of specialists in facilitating such learning

(see Cordingley 2013 for an overview of the mainsystematic reviews of evidence on continuingprofessional development).

As a result of these meta-analyses and systematicreviews, there is now substantial evidence about the keyfeatures of effective teaching education and professionallearning. As charted below, this body of researchindicates that research has a major contribution tomake to effective teacher education in a whole varietyof different ways, whilst there is also some robustevidence that doing so improves the quality of students

learning in schools.

STRUCTURE OF THE REPORT

In what follows, we provide a summary of the first sixpapers to be commissioned by the Inquiry.

First, Professor Gary Beauchamp (Cardiff MetropolitanUniversity), Professor Linda Clarke (University of Ulster),Dr Moira Hulme (University of Glasgow) and ProfessorJean Murray (University of East London) review currentpolicy and provision for teacher education across thefour home nations of the United Kingdom. Their analysishighlights the increasing divergence in entry routesand policy discourse across the UK, as well as in theframework of standards and competences which haverecently been revised in each nation.

Second, Dr Maria Teresa Tatto from the Universityof Michigan considers the role of research in fourcontrasting examples of education systems: Chile,the USA, Singapore and Finland, representing fair,good, great and excellent performance as classifiedby McKinsey (2010). For each country, Tatto examinesthe nature and organisation of teacher education, an

overview of entry and qualifying requirements andquality assurance, before drawing out the contribution ofresearch to each system.

Third, Professor Christopher Winch (Kings College,London), Dr Janet Orchard (University of Bristol) and DrAlis Oancea (University of Oxford) examine some of the

key philosophical issues arising in the role of researchin teachers professional learning and development.They highlight three interconnected and complementaryaspects of teachers professional knowledge: practicalwisdom, technical knowledge and critical reflection.Arguing against simply relying on common sense orwhat works protocols, they show how research canmake a positive contribution to each aspect of teachersprofessional knowledge.

Fourth, Dr Katherine Burn and Trevor Mutton from theUniversity of Oxford examine a small number of highlyinnovative and highly regarded schemes, based on the

medical model of clinical practice, which have sought tointegrate practical engagement in schools with research-based knowledge in carefully planned and sequencedways. Their analysis explores the underpinning rationaleand distinctive features of selected systems andprogrammes, as well as reviewing the evidence of theimpact of such programmes on teachers professionallearning and pupil outcomes.

Fifth, Philippa Cordingley from the Centre for the Useof Research and Evidence in Education (CUREE)examines the key ways in which teachers engage

in and with research as part of teachers continuingprofessional development (CPD), drawing togetherthe findings from a series of systematic reviewswhich have synthesised evidence from hundreds ofresearch studies, which reveal a clear and consistentset of findings about the characteristics of effectiveCPD activities.

Sixth, Dr Monica Mincu from the University of Turininvestigates the contribution of research to improvingteaching quality and hence enhancing learningoutcomes for students. Drawing on the internationalresearch literature on teacher effectiveness and schoolimprovement, Mincu makes three key arguments aboutthe contribution of research: first, teachers matter andschools make the most difference for lower-achievingstudents, who are disproportionately from deprivedbackgrounds; second, teachers and school leaders areat the heart of school improvement and that buildingthe capacity of teachers and leaders is vital; and third,research has come centre stage as a pillar of the schoolimprovement.

The final section brings together our reflections andconclusions on the interim findings, highlighting some

of the implications for policy and practice that warrantfurther exploration, as well as outlining the next steps forthe BERA-RSA Inquiry.


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1. UK Policy and Practice:the Role of Research in

Teacher Education

INQUIRY PAPER 1: POLICY AND PRACTICE WITHINTHE UNITED KINGDOMGary Beauchamp, Linda Clarke, MoiraHulme, Jean Murray

For this Inquiry, Beauchamp and colleagues reviewcurrent policy and provision for teacher education acrossthe four home nations of the United Kingdom. Their

analysis highlights the increasing divergence in entryroutes and policy discourse across the UK, as well as inthe framework of standards and competences whichhave recently been revised in each nation. Thesechanges have been facilitated by political devolution,which has allowed for greater cross-national variance ineducation policy, reflecting distinctive political values,conceptions of teaching and national identities indifferent parts of the UK.7Further reform has beenunderway since the general election in 2010, with officialreviews of teacher education commissioned in NorthernIreland (DENI, 2010a; DEL, 2013), Wales (Tabberer,

2013) and Scotland (Donaldson, 2011), as well asfar-reaching reforms of initial teachereducation in England.

As a result of on-going reforms, the already variedpattern of provision across the UK is set to becomeeven more diverse. At present, ITE in Northern Irelandis provided through five higher education institutions(HEIs), two local universities, two university collegesand the Open University (OU),8whereas in Scotland,ITE is provided through nine universities including theOpen University in partnership with schools and localauthorities. There are currently no school-centred(SCITT) or employment-based routes (EBITT) intoteacher education in either country. In Wales, ITEis provided by three regional centres, comprisedof collaborating HEIs, each of which provides anaccredited teacher education course, as well asdelivering employment-based training routes under theGraduate Teacher Programme (GTP) on behalf of theWelsh Government. In England, the range of optionsfor prospective teachers is considerable, with multipleproviders and entry routes into teaching encompassinguniversity-led, school-centred and employed-basedprogrammes.9The introduction of the School Direct

programme has extended the range of options stillfurther and is set to increase the proportion of trainees innon-university-led courses significantly.10

The role of research in teacher education Scotland

In Scotland, Teaching Scotlands Future, the official

review of teacher education led by Graham Donaldson,has emphasised the need for teacher education tobe viewed as a continuum of professional learningacross teachers careers, as well as requiring muchbetter alignment across and much closer workingamongst schools, authorities, universities and nationalorganisations (Donaldson, 2011).

Responding to the Donaldson report, the ScottishGovernment accepted all 50 recommendations in full orin part. In November 2012, a National ImplementationBoard was established, comprised of representativesof all constituent groups, to implement key proposals

including new undergraduate degrees in all universities;an approach to practicum which is based on clinicalmodel principles; a coherent early phase of a teacherscareer spanning ITE, induction and early years in post;new standards for registration, career-long learningand leadership; new approaches to professionalreview including a five-year update to remain on theregister; direct support for practice-focused Masterswith financial incentives; and the establishment of aScottish College of Educational Leadership chargedwith promoting a distributive/hybrid leadership culture.Central to the reforms is the model of collaborative

partnership working amongst universities, localauthorities and schools and the goal of developinga research-aware and researching profession. Asdescribed by the OECD in its 2013 report for theTeachers Summit, Scotland has embarked on asystemic reform of the teaching profession. Partnershipmechanisms involving national and local government andall stakeholder agencies were established to promotecareer-long growth of educators... (OECD 2013).

Reform of teacher education in Scotland is part ofwider changes that include a new school curriculum(the Curriculum for Excellence), a new qualificationsframework and deliberation on teachers payand conditions.

In line with these broader developments, the role ofresearch in teachers professional learning throughouttheir career has recently been strengthened, througha revised suite of Professional Standards, overseen bythe General Teaching Council for Scotland, which cameinto effect in August 2013.11Under the new framework,beginning teachers are required to systematicallyengage with research and literature to challenge andinform professional practice, practising teachers

are called upon to engage in practitioner enquiry toinform pedagogy, learning and subject knowledge,while leaders must demonstrate that they can apply


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their enhanced knowledge and critical understandingof research and developments in education policy tosupport school development (GTC, 2012, pp. 8-18) .

Overall, the Standards signal a movement away frominvolvement in small-scale research towards a more fullydeveloped culture of professional enquiry, linked toProfessional Update for all registered teachers.

The prominence of research in the revised ScottishStandards has been welcomed by stakeholders,although as submissions to the Inquiry reveal (see Box1), there is still more to do to promote teaching as aresearch profession and to ensure that the emphasison research engagement in the revised standardsframework filters through into practice. As the GeneralTeaching Council Scotland observes, there is a mixed

picture in terms of research engagement across thesystem of initial teacher education (ITE) and continuingprofessional development, with some forms of provision(for example, four-year ITE programmes as compared toone-year post-graduate courses) addressing researchmuch more fully than others.

Northern Ireland

In Northern Ireland, as in Scotland, strong emphasis oncritical reflection and active engagement in research forteachers across each phase of professional development

is evident in the Code of Values and ProfessionalPractice, which give special prominence to role ofteacher as researcher:

The notion of the teacher as a researcher iscomplementary to the Councils concept ofreflective practice. Teachers should engage in

action research within their own classroom,school or institution and, in addition, they shouldtake cognisance of research within the teachereducation community (GTCNI 2007: 12).

Although the review of Teacher Education in a Climateof Change, initiated in 2003, has yet to be completed,the policy framework document, TECC: Way Forward(TECC, DE 2010) calls for teachers to engage moreactively with new knowledge and approaches andfor the findings of research on effective teachingmethodologies to be reflected in all stages of teachereducation. There is also recognition of the need to

do more to develop research priorities and ensurethat these are taken forward in a comprehensive andcoherent manner, with the Department of Educationforming a closer relationship with the producers ofresearch (DE, 2010, p. 17) . Despite this emphasis andencouragement, there may be difficulties in sustainingeducational research capacity in the face of thewithdrawal of two major US philanthropic institutes, andthere is a need to ensure that practitioner research isbetter utilised in terms of knowledge production, teacherdevelopment and school improvement (Leitch, 2008,cited in Beauchamp et al, 2013).12

Wales

As part of the Schools Implementation Plan publishedin October 2012, the Welsh Government announced areview of the quality and consistency of Initial TeacherTraining (ITT) in Wales. The review, led by Professor RalphTabberer, followed reorganisation that was undertakenas a result of the Furlong review in 2006, which led tothe establishment of three ITT Centres for the differentregions in Wales. The final report of the Tabberer Review,published in July 2013, paints a mixed picture of provisionin Wales: whilst it finds some evidence of good practice, itis also clear that there is significant room for improvement,particularly at a strategic leadership level across the ITTsector. The report therefore calls for better managementand more effective collaboration as the foundations forimproving ITT in Wales, with a warning to providers thatif the current weaknesses persist, the Department forEducation and skills and the Higher Education FundingCouncil for Wales (HEFCW) have the powers to reallocatetraining places to other providers (WG, 2013, p. 2).

The position of research in teacher education in Walesis more ambiguous than in Scotland and Northern

Ireland. The revised Qualified Teacher Status Standards(WAG 2009a) themselves contain no explicit referenceto academic (or indeed any) research, though there is

BOX 1: SELECTED RESPONSES FROM SCOTTISH

SUBMISSIONS TO THE INQUIRY

What do you see as the main strengths of teacher

educationin your part of the UK today, and why?

A real strength of teacher education in Scotland is thecoherent approach provided by having such a suite ofStandards. The Standards provide a reconceptualisedvision of what it means to be a teacher in Scotland andhave within them a set of values based on the democraticvalues which are at the heart of Scottish society.Professional Values and Personal Commitment are at thecore of this suite of Standards. They are integral to, anddemonstrated through, all professional relationships and

practices. General Teaching Council, Scotland

What do you think are the main barriers faced by teachers

when it comes to engaging with research evidence?

A key barrier to teachers engaging with research evidence

is the lack of an appropriate professional ethos. Teachingtends not to be viewed as a research profession, whichresults in weak professional motivation to engage withresearch and research evidence. In part, this may be due toa lack of grounding in doing and reading research, which isnot developed during ITE. Lecturer, Scotland


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an expectation that teachers should be confident andauthoritative in the subjects they teach, which perhapsimplies a high degree of research-based knowledge of

subject matter. Clearer reference to research is madein the non-statutory guidance document, Becominga Qualified Teacher (WAG, 2009b), which advisesteachers that they should show an awareness of whereto find, and how to critically engage with, evidencefrom sources such as research and inspection reports(p.23), as well as suggesting that Trainees couldalso demonstrate their knowledge through writtenassignments, small-scale research activities and school-based tasks (p.46). Moreover, research features muchmore prominently in the inspection guidance for initialteacher training given to providers by Estyn (2012),which asserts that Good teaching/training should be

well informed by research (p.25), that the inspectionteam will consider the ITT providers ability to be atthe cutting edge of ITT through horizon scanning,collaborative ventures and educational research (p.32).

England

The position and value of research in initial teachereducation in England is contested and has arguablydiminished over time (Beauchamp et al, 2013). Underthe English 2007 Standards, beginning teachers wererequired to adopt a constructively critical approachtowards innovation (TDA, 2007a:8), while moreexplicit research endorsement was given to Excellentand Advanced Skills Teachers, who were required toresearch and evaluate innovative curricular practicesand draw on research outcomes to inform their ownpractice and that of colleagues (TDA, 2007a, p. 27).

Since 2012, the Teachers Standards in England13havebeen reconfigured, supporting moves towards a school-based and school-led system of teacher education,

although losing the idea of teaching as an explicitlyresearch-based profession and downplaying the ethicaldimensions involved in learning to teach (Beauchamp et

al, 2013). The revised and slimmed down list of TeachersStandards (reduced from 33 different standards to eight(albeit each with a number of bullet points) do not contain

any explicit mention of the need for teachers to engage inor with research (DfE, 2013). However, as in Wales, thedocument does contain some implicit references to theuse of research-based knowledge and research-relatedactivities, such as critical reflection and collaborativeinquiry (for example, teachers must reflect systematicallyon the effectiveness of lessons and approaches toteaching and develop effective professional relationshipswith colleagues, knowing how and when to draw onadvice and specialist support).

Nevertheless, it is important to recognise that the positionof research in still precarious. Critics of the reforms have

expressed serious concerns that the shift away fromuniversity-led programmes will have negative effects onresearch capacity, by destabilising staff and diminishingfunding streams for applied research (Whitty et al, 2012).As yet, the full implications of the changes in provisionfor ITE are not yet clear, indicating the need for furthermonitoring of developments to ensure high qualityprovision is achieved through all routes.

Despite the mixed messages from Government aboutthe role of research, submissions to the Inquiry showthat many providers of ITE in England are committed

to maintaining a strong commitment to the use ofresearch-based knowledge and promoting research-related skills in teacher education, although respondents

BOX 2: SELECTED RESPONSES FROM WELSH


What do you see as the main areas for improvementwithin teacher education as a whole in your part of the UK

today, and why?

As part of the outcomes of the Tabberer review it is to be

hoped that a new model of University/school partnershipscan emerge in Wales, fully aligned to the devolved policyagenda and reform programme. For this to happen, ViceChancellors and ITT Centres need to show far greatercommitment to this vision than appears to be currently thecase. Policy advisor and independent researcher, Wales BOX 3: SELECTED RESPONSES FROM ENGLISH


What contribution does research currently make to Initial

Teacher Education in your part of the UK today?

In our own institution, research does play a role balanced across several aspects which we considerresearch. Students are required to engage with researchliterature, and to conduct evaluative and investigative

projects. Some staff are actively engaged in research,and may have opportunities to share this with students.

Teacher Educator, England

Our PGCE course is underpinned by research andtaught by research-active professionals. Research is

therefore core. University Lecturer, England

Currently the role of research in ITE is limited andvariable. Whilst the range and flexible nature of the variousroutes to teaching is welcome, it does mean that thescope and capability of providers to support research-informed / evidence-based teacher education is limited.A trainee following a QTS-only route will not get the sameexperience or advantages as a trainee following a Masters

level PGCE at a research-intensive university.Teacher Educator, England


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also highlighted the perceived variability in the role ofresearch within different training routes (see Box 3).

Diverging policy discourse across the United Kingdom

As Beauchamp and colleagues observe, the differences inapproach to teacher education across the UK reflect thedistinctive values, beliefs and national identities in eachcountry, which find expression in distinctive conceptionsof the teacher and teaching. In England, the CoalitionGovernment has sought to bring a sharper focus onthe essentials of teaching, together with a shift in thebalance of training routes away from long universitycourses, which are deemed to be too theoretical, andtowards more flexible and fast-track employed-basedroutes which are capable of attracting into teaching

people who would not otherwise have applied (Ibid, pp.9-10). According to Beauchamp and colleagues, suchstatements are underpinned by an understanding ofteaching as essentially a craft rather than an intellectualactivity and an apprenticeship model of teacher trainingthat can be located entirely in the workplace. The authorsquestion the related assumption that more time spentin schools inevitably and unproblematically leadsto better and more relevant learning. The assumptionsbehind the craft and apprenticeship models of teachingare discussed further in section 3. These assumptionshave been challenged in other parts of the UK. Teaching

Scotlands Future (Donaldson, 2011) argues against theidea that the answer to creating better teachers is simplyto advocate more time in the classroom:

The craft components of teaching must be basedupon and informed by fresh insights into howbest to meet the increasingly fast pace of changein the world which our children inhabit. Thenature and quality of that practical experiencemust be carefully planned and evaluated andused to develop understanding of how learningcan best be promoted in sometimes very complexand challenging circumstances(Donaldson2011, pp. 4-5).

The view of teaching as a complex profession whichrequires high standards of competence, professionalskills and commitment has been explicitly endorsed bythe General Teaching Councils for Scotland, Wales,Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, in a jointstatement issued in April 2013.

Nevertheless, despite the diverging policy agendasin different parts of the UK, the nature and indeed thequality of the actual provision for teacher education in

the four jurisdictions may not differ as much as politicalrhetoric might suggest. Although inspection judgementsprovide some evidence of quality (highlighting the wide

variation between different institutions but also withindifferent types of programme), there is a need for moreresearch to understand how far the prevailing policy

discourses and formal instruction and guidance affectthe lived realities of the many and various research-informed teacher education programmes across the UK.

Possible future directions for research-informedteacher education

Finally, it is worth highlighting a number of changesthat are currently underway in England, which mayhelp to build research capacity and strengthen theinfrastructure for research and collaboration. Building ona model developed as part of the London and GreaterManchester City Challenges, the Coalition Government

is developing a national network of new TeachingSchools in England, with responsibility for leadingand developing sustainable approaches to teacherdevelopment across the country, as well as a widerremit including promoting research and professionaldevelopment (DfE, 2010a, p. 23). As promised inthe Schools White Paper (DfE, 2010a, p. 23), plansare also underway for the first university-led trainingschool, which is due to be opened by the Universityof Birmingham in 2015. The requirement for TeachingSchools to engage in research and development workis helping to raise the profile of teacher engagement in

research, though there is clearly much more to do toembed and integrate the use of research throughoutteaching and professional learning in both the leadTeaching Schools and across their alliances.

Furthermore, as Cordingley (2013) observes, there arealso attempts underway to promote a more evidence-based approach to teaching (DfE, 2013), with anincreasing emphasis on carrying out robust research togain evidence about effective teaching interventions. Forexample, the Education Endowment Fund (EEF) is fundinga large number of randomised control trials (RCTs),and the National College for Teaching and Leadership(NCTL) is attempting to build the evidence base oneffective interventions through funding RCT-style triallingof interventions to Close the Gap across 740 schools,involving schools in both qualitative local research andlarger scale meta-analyses of rigorous data. Althoughthe strong emphasis on the use of RCTs is controversial,there is nevertheless some potential for these policiesto build research literacy so that teachers are able toaccess, interpret and adapt research findings to theirown settings. But it is still the case that policy is pulling indifferent directions. For this potential to be realised, it willbe crucial to protect the research capacity that currently

exists, as well as looking to strengthening the school-university partnerships that can help build capacity acrossthe system for the future.


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2. International Overview:the Contribution of

Research to High-Performing Systems

INQUIRY PAPER 2: THE ROLE OF RESEARCHIN INTERNATIONAL POLICY AND PRACTICE INTEACHER EDUCATIONMaria Teresa Tatto

The past three decades have seen a general shiftinternationally away from traditional school-based

preparation for primary teachers and traditional academicinstruction for secondary teachers in low-status trainingcolleges, towards university-based teacher education ininstitutions with relatively high entrance standards andrelatively high status in wider society (Musset, 2010).More detailed, comparative analysis of policy and practicereinforces the importance of this shift, highlighting acommon set of practices and approaches among the top-performing and most improving school systems (OECD,2011; McKinsey, 2010). Key features include a strongfocus on subject content and pedagogical knowledge,with particular emphasis on the specific instructional

techniques that are appropriate for the subjects that theprospective teacher will teach; and greater emphasison developing the capacity of prospective teachers todiagnose student problems swiftly and accurately, and todraw from a wide repertoire of possible solutions thosethat are particularly appropriate to the diagnosis (OECD,2011, p. 237).

According to recent analysis by McKinsey (Mourshed,Chijioke & Barber, 2010), it is possible to locate differentcountries education systems along a trajectory of schooland system improvement, moving from centralised, rigidstandards, and even scripted instruction for schoolsand teachers at the lower end, to decentralised schoolresponsibility for higher-performing systems, in whichprofessional autonomy is accompanied by greaterinstructional flexibility and school-led collaboration. For thisInquiry, Tatto (2013) considers four contrasting examplesof country systems, representing each of the levels definedin the McKinsey report: at the lower end of the spectrum,Chile is classified as fair and as a promising starter interms of student assessment data (2001-2007); theUnited States is one of 22 countries classified as good;Singapore is one of five countries classified as great andFinland is the only country classified as excellent. For

each country, Tatto examines the nature and organisationof teacher education, an overview of entry and qualifyingrequirements and quality assurance (for example through

national or federal accreditation), before drawing out thecontribution of research to each system.

Key features of the education system at different levels ofperformance and development

For education systems which are still at an early stage ofdevelopment, such as Chile, the most important educationalpriorities are to secure basic levels of literacy and numeracyand to establish the systems foundations (such as buildingdata gathering systems, organizations, financial systemsand pedagogy). In Chiles case, the system has focusedon achieving functional skills for the vast majority of theirdisadvantaged population (and their teachers), and onredeveloping the foundations of a teacher education systemthat was destroyed under the Pinochet dictatorship. Under

the new regime, concerted efforts began to be made todevelop the curriculum, resources and infrastructure foreducation, with the incorporation of teacher education intohigher education institutions. However, the system is onceagain facing serious challenges as a result of policies thathave opened up the market to private providers, whichnow dominate close to 60% of all teacher preparationprogrammes. In response, the government has recentlymoved to regulate the sector, instituting accreditationmeasures as an attempt to assure the quality of provision,as well as legislating to ensure more specialised knowledgeof subject matter and pedagogy for future teachers within

university-based programmes.

The context in the USA is rather different, the countryhaving a long history of teacher education in collegesand institutions of higher education. However, substantialgrowth of alternative, flexible routes since the late 1990smeans that the overall picture is highly diverse anddecentralised, with more than 1,300 public and privatecolleges and universities, school districts, state agenciesand private organisations now catering for approximately150,000 future teachers (approximately a third of whomenter alternative routes). As Tatto (2013) describes,there is no guiding philosophy for teacher education tounify this highly variegated pattern of provision. Whilethe federal No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislationmandates that teachers be highly qualified, it does notimpose specific national curriculum requirements forteacher education, resulting in wide variation in entry andqualifying requirements in different states (as determinedby individual states legislature, education agencies,board of education and professional standards board).

In line with other high-performing education systems, thefocus of teacher education in Singapore is on shapingthe teaching profession, such that its requirements,

practices, and career paths are as clearly defined as thosein the established professions such as medicine and law(Mourshed, Chijioke & Barber, 2010). In Singapore, this


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is achieved through strict entry requirements, specifyinghigh levels of academic as well as pedagogical knowledge,a well-monitored school practicum, plus a high-stakes

induction period where prospective teachers are carefullyevaluated before they are declared ready to teach. Althoughthe state and national agencies (notably the NationalInstitute of Education) play a central role in determining thestructure and content of the teacher education curriculum,there is also a strong emphasis on collaborative learningfrom peers within the teaching assistantship and teachingpractice components, with supervision from speciallytrained mentors, as well as structured observation andfeedback from experienced teachers during induction.

Similarly, the Finnish approach to teacher education is builtupon high expectations for teachers, including a standard

requirement for qualification to Masters level, highlyselective entry to the profession and comparable salariesand status to other professions. Following 20 years ofcentral planning and control, the system has more recentlydecentralised responsibility and instructional autonomyto schools and teachers, although still within a carefullystructured system of teacher education. In Finland, teachingpractice occurs either in Teacher Training Schools, whichhave a designated role in research and development(supervised by the eight universities with teacher educationfunctions), or through the network of selected FieldSchools. This close partnership within and between

faculties and schools means that students are supportedto develop and bring together knowledge from differentsources in a coherent and integrated way.

The contribution of research to teacher education: fourcomponents of research-based teacher education

In the Finnish case, research is a constitutive partof teachers pre-service training and preparation. Ascharacterised by Toom et al, (2010), the research-basedapproach to teacher education in Finland has four maincomponents, which correspond to the four dimensionsof our definition of research-based teacher education:

First, the study programme is structured accordingto the systematic analysis of education. Secondly, allteaching is based on research. Third, activities areorganised in such a way that students can practiseargumentation, decision-making and justificationwhile investigating and solving pedagogical

problems. Fourth, students learn academic researchskills(Toom et al, 2010, p. 333, cited in Tatto 2013).

Teacher education is therefore based on the idea of theteacher-as-researcher: teachers are trained to reflect

and analyse their work, think scientifically, examinetheir own world of values and adjust their teachingcontinuously (Makinen, 2010, cited in Tatto, 2013).

Student teachers are expected not only to becomefamiliar with the knowledge base on student learning andchild development, but also to undertake research and

write a research-based thesis to complete their Mastersdegree. Both in the early stages and throughout theirprofessional career, teachers are encouraged to make anactive contribution to the knowledge base on effectiveteaching practices, as well as taking on significantresponsibility for curriculum and assessment (OECD,2011). As Tatto concludes, The Finnish approachto inquiry-based learning permeates all institutions ofeducation, including teacher education and teachers.

Turning to Singapore, although the character andorganisation of teacher education is quite different fromFinland in many ways (notably in its more highly centralisedmodel of governance and much greater use of summativeassessment) there are nevertheless some strikingsimilarities in the approach adopted in each country. First,as in Finland, Singapore draws upon research to informthe design, structure and content of its teacher educationprogramme.14Second, both systems are committed toensuring that all teaching is based on evidence of effectivepractice, and revised in light of new ideas, researchevidence and system data (for example, using the resultsof student assessment to fine-tune the system and thecurriculum). Third, preparatory activities are organised sothat student teachers can practice interrogation of theirown and others practice, based on the evidence fromself-evaluation, peer-review and external research (Tatto,2013). As a whole, the system of collaborative learning inSingapore represents a carefully planned and systematicattempt to create a culture of enquiry, critical reflectionand deliberation within schools and classrooms, in whichteachers engagement with research (rather than activeengagement inresearch) is deeply embedded.

The major difference is that student teachers inSingapore are not trained to be researchersin the formal

BOX 4: SELECTED VIEWS ON THE

CONTRIBUTION OF RESEARCH TO TEACHERS

CRITICAL ENGAGEMENT WITH TEACHING

With regard to the student [teachers], engagementwith research as part of ITE offers them a platform fordeveloping a range of deeper analytical and critical skillswhich are essential in making robust developments in yourown practice and contributing as a professional person.

Lecturer/Researcher/Teacher Educator, Scotland

We need teacher education research to both support andpromote a critical engagement with teaching. Teachersneed to be seen as practitioner researchers so thattheir teaching is enriched and schools and colleges areenhanced by research-informed classroom practice.Teacher Educator, England


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sense of being equipped with first-hand knowledge ofhow to design, conduct and present original researchon practical and theoretical aspects of education.

However, the combination of research onteachereducation and enquiry-based teaching and learninghas proved highly effective. According to the SingaporeMinistry of Education, the significant progress that hasbeen achieved in raising the academic performance oflower-attaining pupils, as well as improving studentsreasoning reflects, above all, the impact of the shift inour curriculum towards more enquiry-based teachingand learningin schools over the years (MOE, 2012b, p.1-2, emphasis added, cited in Tatto, 2013).

By contrast, the highly diverse and decentralised system inthe United States means that the contribution of research toteacher education varies by state, institution and programme.Thus, while there are some nationally and internationallyacclaimed programmes such as the development ofprofessional development schools (PDS), which have

been designed according to the medical model of clinicalpractice, based on close integration between practical andresearch-based knowledge, and the highly regarded teachereducation programme at Michigan State University (MSU),the picture as a whole is much more varied. According toGrossman et al (2008), there are no national requirementsconcerning the nature or quality of practicum and fieldexperiences (for example in terms of number of supervisoryobservations, explicit links between coursework and fieldexperience, of level of experience for cooperating teachers).

Finally, in Chile, the use of national and internationalresearch within the teacher education improvementproject (1997-2007) has helped to strengthen thecurriculum and broaden the scope of field experiencesfor beginning teachers. Nevertheless, research suggeststhat the curriculum is being implemented unevenlyin different institutions and that the practicum is stilllargely a separate requirement, which is seen as theresponsibility of schools rather than of the teachereducation programme. The focus on enquiry-orientedpractice or the use of research-related skills and thinkingis not yet an established part of such programmes.

Conclusions from international comparative analysis

As summarised here, the wider research literature andindividual country review shows that education systems

that consistently come out on top develop capacityfrom the bottom up, and rely heavily on methodologicallyrigorous research-based knowledge to inform their

practice. What is striking about provision in both Finlandand Singapore, as compared to the more diverse andfragmented provision in the USA and Chile, is the extentto which teachers engagement in and with research andenquiry-oriented practice is embedded throughout theeducation system.

Nevertheless, although the success of the Finnishor Singaporean model (as measured by comparativeperformance in international tests such as PISA)has focused attention on the characteristics of eachcountrys education system, including the research-based approach to teacher education, it is important

to stress that a causal connection between specificfeatures of the training programme (including theresearch components) and the success of the educationsystem can only be inferred rather than directly proven.Indeed the Finnish Ministry for Education (2007)has called for research on teacher education to bestrengthened through a better, more highly co-ordinatednational research programme.

Overall there is a lack of rigorous research on the relativeeffectiveness and outcomes of different models of initialteacher education. But there are some exceptions to this

general picture, including the large-scale internationalTEDS-M Study in which Singapore, the United Statesand Chile participated (see Tatto et al., 2012 for thecross-country report) and the Teacher Pathway Projectbased in New York City. As these studies highlight,top-performing schools and systems are characterisedby a common set of practices and approaches toteacher education and professional learning, such asstrong emphasis on subject content and pedagogicalcontent knowledge, carefully constructed links betweentheory and practice, and an enquiry orientation, inwhich beginning teachers develop the capacity both todiagnose problems quickly and accurately, and also todraw on a wide repertoire of instructional techniques toidentify the most appropriate solution.

Further evidence of the association between particularcharacteristics and successful outcomes are likelyto be forthcoming from the second OECD Teachingand Learning International Survey (TALIS) (OECD2013), the results of which are due for publication in2014. The updated survey promises to add to theexisting knowledge base on effective teacher educationacross the professional career, including the particularcontribution of research-related activities and processes

to improving initial teacher education and preparingprospective teachers to play an active and engaged partin enquiry-oriented activities throughout their career.

BOX 5: SELECTED VIEWS ON THE IMPORTANCE

OF ENQUIRY IN TEACHING AND LEARNINGResearch is essential in ITE and within CPD to ensurethat we have a population of teachers with enquiringminds who can support and challenge inquisitive learners.Lecturer/ Teacher Educator, England


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3. PhilosophicalReflections on the

Contribution of Research toTeacher Education

INQUIRY PAPER 3:THE CONTRIBUTION OFEDUCATIONAL RESEARCH TO TEACHERSPROFESSIONAL LEARNING PHILOSOPHICALUNDERSTANDINGSChristopher Winch, Janet Orchard and Alis Oancea

At the heart of understandings of research-informed

teacher education is a set of philosophical issues aboutthe nature of teachers professional knowledge, and inturn, the nature of research (Pring, 2004). For thisInquiry, Winch et al (2013) examine some of the keyissues arising from the literature on the role of researchin teachers professional learning and development.Arguing against simply relying on common sense orwhat works protocols, they show how research canmake a positive contribution to each aspect of teachersprofessional knowledge: practical wisdom, technicalknowledge and critical reflection.15At a time of livelydiscussion about the use of evidence and rapid reform to

teacher education across the UK, their paper makes avaluable contribution to the debate by making clear andexplicit the relationship between research and teachersprofessional knowledge and practice.

As Winch and colleagues acknowledge, not all wouldagree that research does have a positive role to playin teachers practice and development. While someargue that (good) research can make a significant andmuch-needed contribution to educational practice(Bridges et al, 2009), others are less convinced aboutthe practical usefulness or relevance of empirical inquiry(see for example, Hogan, 2012; Carr, W. (various);Carr, D., 2003).

Problems with relying on common sense

Such scepticism about the role of research often stemsfrom a conception of teaching which emphasises thepractical know-how or tacit knowledge that teachersneed and develop through their first-hand experiencesin the classroom. Some describe this as a form ofpractical wisdom, which denotes the capacity to graspthe salient features of a situation and make sound

judgements, without necessarily assuming that such

knowledge can always be made explicit. In political andpolicy debates, this type of thinking often appears as asimplified view of teaching as a craft, similar to other

craft occupations such as pottery or blacksmithing. Butby reducing practical wisdom to mere flair or commonsense, such a view arguably fails to do justice to the

complexities of teaching (or indeed to the complexitiesinvolved in mastering or becoming secure in a craft).As Winch et al (2013) express it, reliance on commonsense often involves little more than using research ofdoubtful quality, filtered through staff room conversationsand distilled into folk maxims. As such, it is an inherentlyconservative and unreliable basis for judgement, whichneeds to be scrutinised closely and tested againstestablished findings and new ideas from research.

Problems with relying on what works

Just as there are problems with assuming that teachers

can rely on purely tacit knowledge or intuitive reasoning,there are also problems with assuming that teachersmerely need to follow protocols derived from empiricalevidence about what works or established bestpractice elsewhere. Unlike the craft view of teaching,the conception of the teacher as executive technicianrecognises the value and utility of research, but assumesthat individual teachers do not generally need to beinvolved in interpreting those findings for themselves ordeciding how best to apply them to their own setting.However, although there may be situations which callfor a more prescribed approach (for example to address

serious shortcomings in a school or system), there areserious problems in assuming that teachers do not needto reflect on what makes for good practice or to try tounderstand the rationale behind a suggested approach.Thus, far from following simple protocols, teachersarguably need to be equipped to interrogate their ownpractice in light of evidence from wider research, as wellas drawing on new ideas for inspiration and looking toadapt them to their own settings and contexts.

Combined professional knowledge

As Winch et al (Ibid.) argue, what is missing fromboth the simplified craft view and the narrow technicalview is the capacity for critical reflection: that is, thetype of deeper insight that comes from interrogatingones practice and making explicit the assumptionsand values that underpin it. In contrast to either view,the idea of the teacher asprofessionalcombines allthree aspects of knowledge practical, technical andtheoretical including knowledge derived throughpersonal experience as well as research, analysis andcritical reflection.

The contribution of research

Importantly, research can play a complementary rolein relation to each of these dimensions and enhance


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their joint effectiveness. For example, by engagingwith research findings and processes, teachers willbe better equipped for the rich reflection required in

practical deliberation, strengthening their processes ofreasoning and the exercise of professional judgement. Atthe same time, research itself will be enriched, throughgreater insight into the challenges and complexities ofeducational practice.

Furthermore, engaging in or with research can informand enhance teachers technical knowledge aboutparticular instructional techniques: for example, itcan offer them potential reference points in decidingwhen and how to adopt and adapt new interventionsand practical toolkits for implementing them (thoughemphatically without assuming that effective practice

merely consists in following a set of instructions or inteacher proof maxims for action). Conversely, capturingteachers reflections as they draw on evidence to revisetheir practice can be helpful for the interpretation ofresearch, because it may validate or invalidate research-based readings of complex classroom situations andthe multiple factors that affect the choice of appropriateinstructional techniques for particular pupils.What is more, engaging with the latest research orscholarship from the relevant academic disciplineshelps teachers update their subject knowledge, whileengaging critically with false or discredited research

as part of their professional development wouldenable teachers to refresh their knowledge of specificinstructional techniques and revise their professionalpractice accordingly. These observations suggest thatgood teachers need to have an active relationship witheducational research; rather than replacing the practicalcraft-based or technical elements of their work, thisrelationship can support and expand them.

Teacher engagement with and in research

There are, then, a number of compelling reasons forteachers and teacher educators to draw on researchfindings to inform and update their professionalknowledge and also to engage in research-relatedactivities and processes as a way of deepening andexpanding their professional expertise. However, itdoes not necessarily follow that allteachers shouldbe expected or required to engage inresearch as amatter of course.

Within education, there is a strong tradition associatedwith Lawrence Stenhouse amongst others, whichupholds the idea of teacher as researcher: from thisperspective, teachers are encouraged to undertake

systematic enquiry in their own classrooms, developtheir practice on the basis of research and share insightswith other professionals, as a way of deepening and

embedding their own professional knowledge andunderstanding. And yet, on practical grounds, as Winchet al observe, it may be unrealistic to expect all teachers

to develop the capacity to be expert practitionersof educational research, as well as being expertpractitioners in the school and classroom.

Thus, as the authors conclude, there is scope forfurther, detailed research into how teachers exerciseprofessional judgement and the role that educationalresearch does or does not play in their decision-making. We will then gain a clearer idea of how and whyresearch engagement matters for teachers professionalpractice and the best ways of mobilising the knowledgegenerated by research so that it exercises a moreprofound impact on education policy and practice

(Phipps et al, 2012, cited in Winch et al, 2013) .

Implications for teacher education

According to Winch et al, (2013), the textured natureof teachers professional knowledge requires a texturedmodel of teacher education, using past experienceand empirical and philosophical understanding tofurther develop creative and educationally meaningfulpartnerships. As practical steps to ensure a mutuallyenriching relationship between educational research andeducational practice, the authors call for:

1 Models of initial teacher education that developprofessional teachers who have a good knowledgeand understanding of educational research;

2 Developing post-qualification Masters level programsthat endow teachers with the capacity to carry outpractically based research and inquiry, either inpartnership or through supervision with a highereducation mentor;

3 Creating a track to a higher-level qualification forthose teachers who wish to conduct, commissionand evaluate research in educational settingsindependently and to advise on its implicationsfor practice.


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4. Integrated ITEProgrammes Based on

Research-InformedClinical Practice

INQUIRY PAPER 4: REVIEW OF RESEARCH-INFORMED CLINICAL PRACTICE IN INITIALTEACHER EDUCATIONKatharine Burn and Trevor Mutton

The recent p

Documents

RSA: Bera Rsa Interim Report