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Undercurrents. Issue One
Citation preview
WeltschmerztoUtopia
or:
AStudyofCommunalismasanAlternativetoExtinction
RobinEverett
FineArtPainting&Printmaking
TheGlasgowSchoolofArt
ContactTutor:Dr.RossBirrell
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Synopsis
Thisdissertationexamineshumankind’sturbulentrelationshipwiththenaturalworld,questioningthe
originsoftheseparationbetweenthehumanandnon‐humanworlds.Istudytheconceptoftheeco‐
commune as a potential avenue to salvation from a self‐engineered apocalypse, querying the
practical effectiveness of this nation‐wide; using information garnered from visits to Findhorn,
communication with members, as well as literature on this situation. Chapter 1 examines case
studies demonstrating the destructive capabilities of early humanity. From this I investigate the
myriadofpossibilitiesforthe causeofthisbifurcation.Chapter2 isconcernedwiththeexploration
intotheeffectsofuse‐valueandexchange‐valuethatisplaceduponthenon‐humanworld,examining
capitalismand itsby‐productsandtheeffectthishasupon interactionandconsumption.Chapter3
contains the presentation of self‐reliant sustainable communities, examining in particular the
FindhornEcovillage. Finally,Chapter4questions thehuman reaction to suchproposalsand studies
the theoriesbehind the formationof societies. Lookingat thewritingsof key figures in these fields
spanning several centuries such as E. F. Schumacher, Thomas Hobbes, and Joel Kovel, this essay
examinesinitiativesandproposalsforaself‐reliantsustainablefutureandquestionsthepossibilityof
apotentialauto‐extinction.
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Contents
ImageList 4
Introduction 5
Chapter1
1.1AHistoryofViolence:FromHunter‐GatherertoUrbanCultivator 8
1.2TheConsequencesofOpportunisticAffluence 9
1.3TheElevationofHumansbytheCreationoftheDivine 13
1.4ReintegrationThroughEcocentrism 14
Chapter2
2.1CapitalismisCannibalism:TheValueintheUseofUseValue 18
2.2SubversionintheShiftandAggressioninResponse 19
2.3ZenAffluence:UnparalleledMaterialPlenty 20
2.4Steady‐StateSociety 22
Chapter3
3.1MakingSalvationOvert:Eco‐CommunalisminPractice 25
3.2TheConstantIdealofCommunalismThroughTime 26
3.3TheBruderhofCommunity:ChristianAnti‐Capitalism 27
3.4TheFindhornFoundation 29
3.5Findhorn’sRelianceontheCapitalistExistence 32
Chapter4
4.1AGrandScaleSurvival:TheCommune’sNotionoftheCommonsNation‐Wide 35
4.2Locke’sThirdPartyFallsVictimtotheHobbesianLeviathan 36
4.3RousseauandtheRecalcitrantMasses
37
Conclusion 40
Glossary 43
Appendix 44
Bibliography 45
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ImageList
Image Page
Figure1:Photographfromthemid‐1870sofapileofbuffaloskulls.
http://papershake.blogspot.com/2011/10/tragedy‐of‐american‐bison.html (accessed
10//02/2012)
10
Figure 2: Map demonstrating the area covered by the ‘Fertile Crescent’ of ancient
Mesopotamia, http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/HarranPlains/ (accessed
10/02/2012)
11
Figure3:Satellitephotographstaken9yearsapart,demonstratingtheintensive irrigation
of the desert landscape to cultivate cotton crops in the Harran Plains of south‐eastern
Turkey,http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/HarranPlains/(accessed10/02/2012)
12
Figure4:Satellitephotographstaken135daysapartdisplayingtheextenttowhichthe
irrigationoftheHarranPlainshasdecimatedthesurroundingvegetation.
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/HarranPlains/(accessed10/02/2012)
12
Figure4:AphotographshowingtheEarthshipstructureinKinghorn,Fife.
http://www.sead.org.uk/wp‐content/uploads/home_earthship.jpg(accessed10/02/2012)
31
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Introduction
When a species, owing to highly favourable circumstances, increases inordinately innumbers ina small tract,epidemics–at least, this seems generally tooccurwithourgame animals – often ensue; and here we have a limiting check independent of thestruggleforlife.–CharlesDarwin,OntheOriginofSpecies1
This dissertation is being written in the wake of one of the most exhaustive financial crises
experienced by contemporary humanity, rivalling that of the Great Depression. The world stood
witnessastheentireglobaleconomycontractedonascalenotseensinceWorldWarII.Themajority
of modern society under capitalist rule is choked with debt, battling ever‐increasing prices for
commoditieswhilstsufferingdevastatingnumbersofunemployment2.Withtheimminentcollapseof
the Greek economic infrastructure, bankruptcy hanging heavy around the nation’s neck, there are
veins of dissent emerging, hinting towards the fall of the Western world. However, despite such
inauspicious conditions, the planet’s population also bore witness to the birth of the 7 billionth
memberofourever‐expansivenumber.In1960theWorldBankcollectionofdevelopmentindicators
showedtheworldpopulationtobemarginallyover3billion3and,byjustunderhalfacenturylater,in
2009thatnumberhadmorethandoubledtoapproximately6.7billion,showinga123.33%increase.
Theexponentialgrowthdisplayedbythesefigures,whencoupledwithstatisticspresented innoted
eco‐socialistandpolitician4JoelKovel’s2007polemicagainstCapitalistsocietyTheEnemyofNature:
TheEndofCapitalismorTheEndoftheWorld,shedslightonatroublingstateofaffairs:
• Oilconsumptionrisingfrom46millionbarrelsadayto73million• Human carbon emissions increasing from 3.9 million metric tons annually to an
estimated6.4million–thisdespitetheadditional impetustocutbackcausedbyanawarenessofglobalwarming,whichwasnotperceivedtobeafactorin1970
• Naturalgasextractionincreasingfrom34trillioncubicfeetperyearto95trillion• Coalextractionrisingfrom2.2billionmetrictonnesto3.8billion• Thedegradationof40%ofagriculturalsoils• Speciesvanishingataratethathasnotoccurredin65millionyears.5
These figures were gathered between 1970 and 2000 in the genesis of what could be titled the
‘environmentallysensitive’age.Sincethen,thecrackshavedeepenedinthefacadeofcontemporary
society,proliferatingfromaconscientiousfewtoanoutragedmajority,adoptingtherecentmoniker
of the ‘99%’. With the advent of this data, the front of capitalist affluence reigning eternal
1CharlesDarwin,OntheOriginofSpecies,inDerekWall,GreenHistory,p.110 2IntheUnitedKingdombyDecember2011unemploymenthadrisento2.67million,thehighestsincein1994.–‘UKUnemploymentContinuestoEdgeUp’,BBCBusinessNews,15/02/2012,http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business‐17039513(accessed15/02/2012) 3PierCarloSantini,ModernLandscapePainting,p.1 4KovelisamemberoftheGreenPartyoftheUnitedStates,runningfortheparty’spresidentialnominationin2000wherehefinishedfourthoverall.‐http://www.joelkovel.com(accessed09/11/2011) 5JoelKovel,TheEnemyofNature:TheEndofCapitalismorTheEndoftheWorld,pp.1‐3
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disintegrates under the profusion of faults and the reality is laid bare: this is also one of themost
environmentally degrading eras of the planet. Now, with the population blasting through the ‘7
billion’markandshowingnosignsofslowing,totakeintoconsiderationthefactofaplanetoffinite
resources,makestheideaofatrulysustainablefutureaquestionablepipe‐dream.
This dissertation will question the existing initiatives and designs; re‐examine the social structures
thatareaimedtowardscreatingasustainablefutureforhumanity,bothofwhichaimtoprolongour
roleintheevolutionoftheplanet.Byexploringtheever‐changingworldofpoliticaltheoryandaction,
aswellasdelvingintothephilosophicalidealsofecocentrismpittedagainstanthropocentrism,Ihope
tobeabletoevaluatethepositionofhumankindand itsprojected stancewithinthenaturalworld.
The first chapter will examine the extent of the domination of nature by man through the ages,
attempting to discover the origins of this great divide and the impact that the rejection of a
pantheisticapproachtowardsthenaturalworldhad,spawninganever‐destructiveobjectificationof
systemsas resources, shifting thevalues.This leads into the secondchapterwhichwill identify the
separation between the ideas of use‐value and exchange‐value, exploring the intrinsic value in the
non‐human world and the rapid eradication of this in capitalist society. Having ascertained these
impressionsIwillthenbegintostudytheminpractice.Thisgivesthemainbodytothethirdchapter;
acasestudyofanactiveeco‐communeintheUnitedKingdom.Iwillexplorethevariousinitiativesin
practice,theecologicalfootprintprojectedbysuchasite,andtheeconomiccostofsuchasite.This
leads to the fourth chapter; aquestioningof inherenthumanbehaviourand thewillingnessof the
majority toaccept, embrace,andpracticea radicalnew lifestyle. Inan effort toproducea full and
objectively conscientious study I will be engaging with a number of sources ranging from texts by
eminentfiguressuchasJohnLocke,E.F. Schumacher,andAldoLeopold,toexperiencingfirst‐hand
the organisation of an eco‐commune, and interaction with members currently residing in the
FindhornFoundationEcovillage.
Thisdissertationtakesintoaccountthefullscopeofhumankind’soccupationoftheplanetandasks
not;howcanwebestmanagenaturetoensureoursurvivalasaspecies;butwhyshould‘manvalue
himself as more than an infinitely small composing unit of one great unit of creation’67. Will the
beckoninglightinthedarknessthatmankindseesatthe inevitableendofitshabitationoftheEarth
infactbetheharshneonglareofitsself‐inflictedapocalypse?
6JohnMuirinWilliamDevall&GeorgeSessions,DeepEcology:LivingasifNatureMattered,p.104 7Thisposesthequestion:Willtherestofthebiosphere,frommacrocosmtocontinentalecosystem,benefitfromoursustainedexistence,andisitpossibleforustocreateasustainableecocentricpositionforourselves?
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‘TalkofHeaven!YedisgraceEarth.’
HenryDavidThoreau,Walden8
8HenryDavidThoreau,Walden,p.188
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Chapter1
1.1AHistoryofViolence:FromHunterGatherertoUrbanCultivator
Evennowindeedthepoweroflifeisbroken,andtheearthexhaustedscarceproducestinycreatures,shewhoonceproducedallkindsandgavebirthtohugebodiesofwildbeasts.–Lucretius,DeRerumNatura,ca.99BCE–ca.55BCE9
Theconcernwithandquestioningofmankind’srelationshipwithnatureandthedetrimentaleffecthe
hashadupontheworld isbynomeansanewrevelation.WritersasfarbackasPlatoandLucretius
have condemned their contemporary agricultural methods and attitudes towards the non‐human
world, lamentingthe lossofspeciesandthe ravagingof fertile land.Whilst it isbecomingeasierto
obtainandaccess statisticson these issues thisdoesnot byany stretchmean that it is a relatively
new dilemma. Plato, writing between 423 BCE and 347 BCE, hints at an early form of
environmentalism,oratleastthepresenceofanenvironmentalawareness.Bythisearlyageofman,
anthropocentric arrogance seemed to have projected itself in the complete domination and
subjugationofthenaturalworldandwouldappeartohavebeenpresentforlongenoughforthisself‐
interesttohavemanifesteditselfinsevereecologicalrepercussions:
...foralthoughsomeofthemountainsnowonlyaffordsustenancetobees,notsoverylongagotherewerestilltobeseenroofsoftimbercutfromtreesgrowingthere,whichwereofasizesufficienttocoverthe largesthouses;andthereweremanyotherhightrees,cultivatedbymanandbearingabundanceoffoodforcattle.Moreover,thelandreapedthebenefitoftheannualrainfall,notasnow losingthewaterwhichflowsoffthebareearthintothesea,but,havinganabundantsupplyinallplaces.10
This ishowever,not theearliestevidenceofadamaging splitbetween thehumanandnon‐human
worlds. In1969,ecologistWinifredPenningtonpublishedTheHistoryofBritishVegetation inwhich
she references a 1953 case study undertaken by Danish botanists. This study demonstrated the
destructivepower inherent inmanregardlessofevolutionarydevelopmentorhispointinTime.The
Danish study examined the fluctuations in levels of pollen over time; using this to determine the
period in which the decline of the elm tree in the British Isles took place11. When this was first
undertaken in1941 thedeclinewas stillmainlyattributed to climatic changenotofhumandesign.
When examining the fluctuations, the Danish botanists, however, discovered a downward pollen
curve just before the elm decline which suggested deliberate forest clearance by Neolithic
agriculturalists.Thepresenceofacharcoallayerinthesoilsampleswasevidenceofforestclearance
9Lucretius,TheExhaustedEarthinDerekWall,GreenHistory,p.37 10Plato,ErodedAtticainTheDialoguesofPlato,inDerekWall,GreenHistory,p.36 11The‘ElmDecline’isgenerallyconsideredtosignaltheendoftheAtlanticera,leadingintotheSub‐Borealaroundthe4thmillenniumBCEinthegeologicalepochoftheHolocene–GeorgeFrederickPeterken,WoodlandConservationandManagement,pp.8–9
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bythefellingandburningoftreesandvegetationtoallowforaprimitiveformofcultivation12.Fora
smallgroupofprimitivenomadicagriculturaliststohaveclearedsuchareasandtohavehadsucha
profound impacton theSub‐boreal vegetation isbynomeansany small feat.However, itwasnot
beyond their capabilities as the pollen analysts demonstrated in 1953, carrying out a brief field
experiment.13 The experiment clearly demonstrated that the Neolithic agriculturalists were able to
destroyconsiderableareasof forest, thusalteringthecompositionoftheprimaryvegetationovera
largeareaoftheBritishIsles.Whilstthecultivationofcerealsshowedanextensiveknowledgeoflocal
ecosystemswhichallowedprehistoricmantoliveinprosperity,thisknowledgewasnotconduciveof
sustainable affluence and showed a disregard for the balances inherent in the ecosystems. The
consequences of this were catastrophic on this small scale.Over time, this has beenmagnified to
transnationalproportions,leadingtothecurrentsituation.Incomparingthegrowthofthepopulation
since, to speculate on the consequences of our endeavours would be to flirt with a fatalistic
morbidity.Yetthisisnottheearliestexampleofthemastersofprofligateruininaction.
1.2TheConsequencesofOpportunisticAffluence
Reachingfurtherintotheannalsofthehumanhistorybringsupevidenceofthemostprolifichunter
imaginedwhoseindifferenceforthebalanceoutstripsthatofhisfutureNeolithiccounterpart.Atthe
endofthelastIceAgeontheAmericancontinenttherearebelievedtohavebeenaround31genera
ofmegafauna that disappeared from the North American landmass14. In his text The Discovery of
America, geoscientist Paul S.Martin postulated that a ‘blitzkriegmodel’ of overkill hunting was in
action. Hunter‐gatherer societies had migrated South from the Arctic circle and, after travelling
through vast areas of sparse vegetation and little animal prey, reached an area of affluence and
proceededtohunttheprofusionoflargemammalsmercilessly,enjoyingtherelativenaivetyoftheir
prey.ThehumanpopulationexplodedwiththisabundancebutinclassicMalthusianfashioninwhich
‘the power of the population is indefinitely greater than the power of the earth to produce
subsistence for man’15 they outgrew their food source and rapidly dwindled in numbers. Martin
summarisesthegeometricrelationshipbetweenpredatorandpreyinstatingthat:
12WinifredPennington,TheHistoryofBritishVegetation,pp.60‐73 13AsmallteamofthreemenarmedonlywithreplicationsofNeolithicaxesclearedroughly600squareyardsofforestinfourhoursbywayofaslash‐and‐burnmethodasmentionedabove. 14‘Nothrotherium,Megalonyx,Eremotherium,andParamylodon(groundsloths);BrachyostraconandBoreostracon(glyptodonts);Castorides(giantbeaver);HydrochoerusandNeochoerus(extinctcapybaras);ArctodusandTremarctos(bears);SmilodonandDinobastis(saber‐toothcats);Mammut(mastodon);Mammuthus(mammoth);Equus(horse);Tapirus(tapir);PlatygonusandMylohyus(peccaries);CamelopsandTanupolama(camelids);CervalcesandSangamona(cervids);CapromeryxandTetrameryx(extinctpronghorns);BosandSaiga(Asianantelope);andBootherlum,Symbos,EuceratheriumandPreptoceras(bovids).’–P.S.Martin,TheDiscoveryofAmericainSciencevol.179,issue4077,09/03/1973,pp.969–974 15‘Population,whenunchecked,increasesinageometricalratio.Subsistenceincreasesonlyinanarithmeticalratio.Aslightacquaintancewithnumberswillshewtheimmensityofthefirstpowerincomparisonofthesecond.Bythatlawofournaturewhichmakesfoodnecessarytothelifeofman,theeffectsofthesetwounequalpowersmustbekeptequal.’–ThomasRobertMalthus,OnthePrincipleofPopulation,p.70
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...a very large biomass, even the 2.3 x 108 metric tonnes of domestic animals nowranging the continent, could be overkilled within 1000 years by a human populationneverexceeding106.Weneedonlyassumethatarelativelyinnocentpreywassuddenlyexposedtoanewandthoroughlysuperiorpredator,ahunterwhopreferredkillingandpersistedinkillinganimalsaslongastheywereavailable.16
Martin’s theory demonstrates the unbridled destructive influence that early man had over his
surroundingsintimesofsuchprosperity.Thisisnotthelastexampletofthe‘blitzkriegoverkill’.The
hunter‐gatherer described here also has a relatively modern counterpart in the early American
pioneertotheWest.Itwasestimatedthataround7.5millionbuffalowereslaughteredbetween1872
and187417by themarchof settlers steadily colonisingwestward.Thebuffalo fell victim to itsown
naivety with regards to the firepower of the settlers’ rifle, having previously been hunted only for
subsistencebythePlainsIndians.Withitsnumbersreachingsomewherebetweenanestimated50–
60millionpriortothearrivalofWesternsettlers18, theanimalwasthemostabundantfoodsource
conceivable on the plains of theMid‐Western States. It was consequently hunted with an attitude
similartotheseeminglyendlesssupply(Figure1).Thisresultedinthenear‐extinctionoftheAmerican
buffalo,theirnumbersdroppingtobelowanalarming1,000bytheendofthe19thCentury.
Theaffluenceexperiencedbythepioneerswouldeventuallybecomeamechanizedindustry,assuring
thatsuch lossesneednotbeexperienced.This industrywouldresult inman losinghis immersion in
the natural systems and becoming an outsider to the biosphere, effectively rebranding the natural
16P.S.Martin,TheDiscoveryofAmerica,pp.969–974 17‘TheBuffaloHarvest’,ICECaseStudies,18/12/1997,http://www1.american.edu/ted/ice/buffalo.htm(accessed10/02/2012) 18DonaldFixico,‘Interview:NativeAmericans’,AmericanExperience,http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/interview/tcrr‐interview/(accessed10/02/2012)
Figure1:Photograph from themid‐1870s of a pile ofbuffaloskulls.
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worldassimplyabankofinstrumentalresources.ProfessorJ.DonaldHughes19,recognisedauthority
onglobalenvironmentalhistory,examinesthemovementofmanfromnomadichunter‐gathererto
urban agriculturalist in his work Ecology in Ancient Civilisations. A part of this text examines the
environmental ill‐effectsofurban life inancientMesopotamia, focusingon the salinization through
intensiveirrigationandconsequentdesolationofthecultivated‘FertileCrescent’(Figure2)thatarced
acrosstheMiddleEastfromSumeria–moderndayIraq–toPalestine.
Asimilarprocessstilloccurstoday inmanyplaces including,despitetheevidenceofthecalamitous
results of the ancient Mesopotamian irrigation, the Harran Plains (Figure 3) in the very area that
suffered so heavily in Turkey. Here, the desert landscape has been similarly irrigated and the
surrounding area decimated as a result (Figure 4), technology barely combating the devastating
results. This reiterates the disregard for the future and ignorance towards cause and effect which
perhapsspawnedfromtherejectionoftheintrinsicvalueinthenaturalworld.Hughesstatesthatthe
‘Mesopotamianshadawelldevelopedsenseofdistinctionbetweenthetameandthewild,between
civilisation and wilderness. The proper effort of mankind toward wild things, they believed, is to
domesticatethem.’20ThisechoestheassertionofearlyChristianity’sclaimthatthenaturalworldwas
createdsolelyfortheuseandenjoymentofmankind,findingsimilaritiesagaininthespeculationsof
AristotleandtheearlyStoicsaswellasthereflectionsofCicero21.
19J.DonaldHughesisJohnEvansDistinguishedProfessor,andProfessorEmeritusofHistory,attheUniversityofDenver,havingpublishedseveralnotablebooksontheenvironmentalhistoryoftheplanetaswellastheecologicalhistoryofancientcivilisations.‐https://portfolio.du.edu/pc/port?portfolio=dhughes(accessed12/02/2012) 20J.DonaldHughes,EcologyinAncientCivilisations,p.31 21‘Wearetheabsolutemastersofwhattheearthproduces.Weenjoythemountainsandtheplains.Theriversareours;wesowtheseedandplantthetrees.Wefertilizetheearth...Westop,direct,andturntherivers.Inshort,byourhandsweendeavour,byourvariousoperationsonthisworld,tomake,asitwere,anothernature.’–Cicero[106–43BCE)in,J.DonaldHughes,EcologyinAncientCivilisations,p.30
Figure2:Map demonstrating the areacovered by the ‘FertileCrescent’ of ancientMesopotamia.
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Figure4:Satellite photographstaken 135 days apartdisplaying the extent towhich the irrigation ofthe Harran Plains hasdecimated thesurrounding vegetation.One must not fail takeintoaccountthedatesofthe images; the firstbeing taken after thewinter precipitation, thesecondinthepeakofthedry summer. Despitethis, the contrast isshocking.
Figure3:Satellite photographstaken 9 years apart,demonstrating theintensive irrigation ofthedesert landscapetocultivate cotton cropsin the Harran Plains ofsoutheasternTurkey.
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1.3TheElevationofHumansbytheCreationoftheDivine
Theseearlyurbansocietieswereamongthefirsttoabandonapantheisticattitudeof‘oneness’with
natureandadoptoneofseparation.ThedominantmythandconsequentrealityinMesopotamiawas
the conquest of chaotic nature by divine‐human order. Such societies it should be noted were
ultimatelyunsuccessfulinmaintainingthebalancewiththeirnaturalenvironment.TheJudaicBibleis
aprimeexampleofthisrejectionofsymbioticrelationshipsandthecreationofahierarchyatthetop
ofwhich is adivine entity responsible forall creation; condemningor condoningactsof the lower
levels.Bythecreationofadeity,theultimateresponsibilityforlong‐termenvironmentaldamagewas
outsideofhumancontrol, as PercyByssheShelleyobserves; ‘Everyman forms,as itwere,hisGod
from his own character’22. This is a point of contention that has been dealt with by a number of
figures to great extent23. To many theorists, God is the manifestation of the polar opposite to
humankind,embodyingtheuniversalwishesthattranscendtheeveryday24.Thisisevidentinpassages
oftheGenesischapteroftheJudaicBible(Genesis,1:26–30)25.Judeo‐Christianityeffectivelydenies
non‐humanentitiesa ‘soul’or ‘indwellingspirit’ essentiallystrippingthenaturalworldofanyworth
other than that which leads exclusively to the satisfaction of humans. This consequently reduces
nature to the ‘status of mechanical contrivance’26. To this ‘mechanical contrivance’ is added the
domesticationoflivestockwhichcreatesanartificialaffluence,andinconjunctionwiththeeconomic
rationality of the maximisation of individual gain over the short‐term, is a manifestation of the
hunter‐gatherersubsistencemodel.Asthis isonavastmechanical scale, itallowsthemanufacture
and stockpiling of abundance and, by the late 1970s, the goods grown under the guaranteed
increasedproductivitysubsidiesoftheCommonAgriculturalPolicyhadbecomesooverproducedthat
they simply could not be sold, resulting in the storage of food ‘mountains’ and ‘lakes’27. Herein,
perhaps,laysthegenesisofthe‘valuationofland’whichpotentiallyaidedinexacerbatingthechasm
between the natural world and the humanworld, expanding to such great widths that, as notable
authorandenvironmentalistAldoLeopoldmused, ‘Yourtruemodern isseparatedfromthe landby
22PercyByssheShelley,AVindicationofNaturalDietinDerekWall,GreenHistorybyp.72 23ChristopherHitchenswroteonthecausalitydilemmaof‘Godvs.Man’that:‘IfweareindeedcreatedinGod’simage,thenthatimagemusthaveroom...forvilethoughtsanddubiousmotives.Muchmoreprobable,really,isthecountertheorythatmancreatedGodinhisimage.’HitchensproposesherethatGodisamanmadeideacreatedtogiveallowancesforquestionableethicalmotives.–ChristopherHitchens,‘Mr.Universe’,VanityFair,12/1992,http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/features/1992/12/mr‐universe‐199212,(accessed09/12/2011) 24[whatwewishformostis]‘...first,nottodie,notcompletely,notirreversibly;second,tobeunitedwiththelovedoneswehavelost;third,forjusticeandpeacetotriumph;finally,andmostimportant,tobeloved.Now,whatdoesreligiontellus...?Thatweshallnotdie;thatweshallrisefromthedeadandthusbereunitedwiththelovedoneswehavelost;thatjusticeandpeacewillprevailintheend;and,finally,thatwearealreadytheobjectofinfinitelove...Thisiswhatmakesreligionsoverysuspicious,itistoogoodtobetrue!’–AndreComte‐SponvillequotedbyRobertBanks,‘AndGodCreatedManinHisImage’,11/2011,http://www.ea.org.au/Ethos/Engage‐Mail/And‐Man‐Created‐God‐in‐His‐Image.aspx(accessed09/12/2011) 25SeeAppendix1. 26DonaldWorster,Nature’sEconomy,p.29 27MilesCollins,‘FoodMountainsintheEuropeanUnion’,25/08/2008,http://www.milescollins.com/wordpress/food‐mountains‐in‐the‐european‐union(accessed15/02/2012)
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manymiddlemen,andbyinnumerablephysicalgadgets.Hehasnovitalrelationtoit;tohimitisthe
spacebetweencitiesonwhichcropsgrow.’28
1.4ReintegrationThroughEcocentrism
The progression of such technology has aided in the brutal emancipation of humanity from the
naturalorder.Itisafirmconvictioninmuchmodernthoughtthatthecurrentstateofthehumanrace
is an improvement onwhat was before – that all change is progress. The Collins Dictionary of the
English Languagedefines ‘evolution’ as ‘a gradual development, esp. to amore complex form’”29
Development however, can be seen as a particularly egocentric word and what may compound
‘progress’foronebodywillnotalwaysbeinthebestinterestoftherest30.Theecologicallyinformed
approachaimstoenabletherecognitionoftheintrinsicvalue31notonlyofindividualorganismsbut
also of ecological entities in varying levels of aggregation, from hive populations to continent‐
spanningecosystemsand to theentirebiosphere.Thiswould take intoaccount the impacton,and
well‐beingof,otherbodies inamoreecologically respectiveview.Kovel illustrates this inhis2007
critical rhetoric on capitalism and its by‐products,The Enemy ofNature, with a parable on organic
agriculture:
Anorganicfarmisnotsimplyacollectionoforganisms;itistheorganismsinterrelatedin a universe ofmeaningful recognition through the farmer. This does notmake thefarmer lord over the farm. Itmeans that the farm is integral to the human self whoproducesthroughthem.32
Thisexampleservesasananalogytotheworkingsofthevastlylargerecosphere,statingthatnature
hasmorethanmereinstrumentalvalueasastockpileofresourcesexistingtoservethewell‐beingof
aneliteofsentientbeings.Truetotheanthropocentricarroganceinourinterpretationoftheworld,
these ‘sentient beings’ take on the formof humankind. Kovel’s paradigmproposes that the world
existsinasymbioticstate,embodyingtheecocentricargumentofJ.StanRowethat:
...comparedtotheundoubted importanceofthehumanpart, thewholeEcosphere iseven more significant and consequential: more inclusive, more complex, moreintegrated,morecreative,morebeautiful,moremysterious,andolderthantime.33
Rowecontinuestoassert:[intheecocentricview]‘peopleareinseparablefromtheinorganic/organic
naturethatencapsulatesthem.’34Thismaintainsthat,paramounttothere‐integrationofhumankind
28AldoLeopold,ASandCountyAlmanac,p.224 29CollinsDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage,p.529 30‘Butwhatconstitutesdevelopment,orprogress,foronepersonmaynotbedevelopmentorprogressforanother.‘Development’isa‘valueword’:itembodiespersonalidealsandaspirationsandconceptsofwhatconstitutesthe‘goodsociety’.’–DavidPearce,AnilMarkandya&EdwardBarbier,BlueprintforaGreenEconomy,p.1 31Here‘value’isnotusedasindicationofexchangevalueormonetaryworth,butasapropertyofimportanceandworthtothewell‐beingofthenaturalworld. 32Kovel,TheEnemyofNature,p.238 33J.StanRowe,Ecocentrism:TheChordthatHarmonizesHumansandEarth,pp.106‐7
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intothenaturalworld isthe ideaofanexistentialattitudeofmutuality; inthatone’sownpersonal
fulfilmentisinextricablytiedupwiththatofentitiesbesidesitself.
Theecocentricapproachtothisseparatedstateofcontemporarysocietyfromthenaturalworld isa
re‐integrationofhumanitywiththenon‐humanworld.Ecocentrisminfersthat,asegocentrismhasas
its focal point the self, the ecosystem is the entity aroundwhich ecocentrism revolves. This would
increasethereceptivecapabilityofsocietytowardsthelargerbiosphericalsystemicmodel;thisdoes
not place humankind as themonarch of species, rejecting the assumption thatwe are the current
pinnacleofevolution.Inregainingsuchanunderstandingoftheinterconnectedness,theequilibrium
is effectively returned to stability, humanity ideally settling into a reciprocal role as opposed to a
egomaniacally domineering one. Mary Somerville35 addresses this in her work Physical Geography
(1848) with another agricultural parable in which man has supplanted himself outside of this
symbioticbalanceinanattempttocontrolit:
A farmer sees the rooks pecking a little of his grain, or digging at the roots of thespringingcorns,andpoisonsallinhisneighbourhood.Afewyearsafterhe issurprisedtofindhiscropdestroyedbygrubs.TheworksoftheCreationarenicelybalanced,andman cannot infringe the laws of equilibrium with impunity. Insects would becometormentsweretheynotkeptincheckbybirds.36
Inelevatinghimself toapositionoutside theworkingsof this systemmankindhasemphasized the
fatally short‐termallopoieticaspectofhisprogression; insofaras theautopoietic is concernedwith
the process of production continually regenerating within, by, and for the system, the allopoietic
reveals humankind as the master of profligate waste.37 This allocation of poiesis is mirrored in
perhaps a slightly simpler form in physicist and eco‐socialist Barry Commoner’s The Closing Circle:
Nature,ManandTechnology,containinghislegacyofthe‘fourlawsofecology’.Thesebeing:
1. Everythingisconnectedtoeverythingelse2. Everythingmustgosomewhere3. Natureknowsbest(i.e.anymajorhumaninterventioninanaturalsystemislikelytobe
detrimentaltothesystem)4. Thereisnosuchthingasafreelunch38
34J.StanRowe,Ecocentrism,Pp.106‐7 35SomervillewasaScottishpolymath,livingbetween1780and1872,whowroteextensivelyonthephysicalsciencesandgeography–M.T.Bruck,MarySomerville:MathematicianandAstronomerofUnderusedTalents,pp.201‐206 36MarySomerville,PhysicalGeography,p.504 37‘Anautopoieticmachineisamachineorganized(definedasaunity)asanetworkofprocessesofproduction(transformationanddestruction)ofcomponentswhich:(i)throughtheirinteractionsandtransformationscontinuouslyregenerateandrealizethenetworkofprocesses(relations)thatproducedthem;and(ii)constituteit(themachine)asaconcreteunityinspaceinwhichthey(thecomponents)existbyspecifyingthetopologicaldomainofitsrealizationassuchanetwork’.Anallopoieticmachineisoneinwhichtherawcomponentsproducesomethingotherthanitself.–HumbertoMaturana,andFranciscoVarela,AutopoiesisandCognition:TheRealizationofLiving,p.78 38BarryCommoner,TheClosingCircle:Nature,ManandTechnology,pp.29‐44
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Thesefourlawshaveslippedtoguidelineswhichhavethencontinuallybeensweptfurtherunderthe
smothering carpet of increasing productivity and maximising economic gain. The third law,
disparaging human intervention in natural systems, appears to be upheld in the conservation
movements of ‘preserved wildernesses’. However, this is a point of dissidence; in that through
‘preservingthewild’ insuchplacesastheNationalParksoftheUSA,humanityremovesthenatural
ecologicalprogressionofsuchareasandplacesthelandinastateofstasis,preservedasasnapshotof
an idyllic situationofnature.Onecouldfurtherarguethattheseareasareonly ‘conserved’asthey
servetoincreaseeconomicgainthroughtourismandthesaleof‘anexperience’39.Thefewareasof
land thus far free from intrusion by humankind which still maintain an unhindered autopoietic
relationship we designate as these ‘wildernesses.’ The concept of a ‘wilderness’ itself enshrines a
bifurcationbetweenhumanityand thenaturalworld. It createsand emphasisesa titleddistinction
betweenthetwoandwhenthemodernmanattemptstoengagewiththis‘wild’landitisapproached
asaseparateentity,ratherthansimplyasatransitionfromonespacetothenext.Thisdemonstrates
theImperialistattitudeofhumankindtowards itssurroundingsandotherspeciesthusfardiscussed.
From this perspective the ‘non‐human world is reduced to a storehouse of resources and is
considered tohave instrumental valueonly, that is, it is valuableonly insofaras it can serveasan
instrument,orasameans,tohumanends.’40The‘wilderness’hasbecomearespective‘tonic’forthe
jadedconsumersoulinwhichit isconsideredliberatingandrevitalisingtospendtimeamongst,and
therein lies theapparent instrumental valueofwilderness, servingasa resource for thebenefitof
humankind. If this attitude is themeans bywhich all land is approached then, despite an attempt
against the hyperbolic sensationalising of the current issue, there can be nothing short of a
cataclysmicend result foralloftheparties involved. If the land istreatedasonlyservingeconomic
gain it is given an exchange value.Objects with such a value are exchanged for equal values. The
commodityof landwillbe expended through suchexchanges, as thepopularmaxim instructs; ‘buy
land,Iheartheyaren’tmakingitanymore’41.Consequently,withnomeanstowardsthereproduction
ofthisnecessity,extinctionwilltapominouslyontheshoulderofhumanity.
39‘Oneiscontributingtolosingtheecologicalwarbyreinforcingtheculturalperceptionthatwhatisvaluableinthenon‐humanworldiswhatisusefultohumans’–WarwickFox,TowardsaTranspersonalEcology:DevelopingNewFoundationsforEvironmentalism,p.186 40RobynEckersley,EnvironmentalismandPoliticalTheory:TowardsanEcocentricApproach,p.26 41MichaelGouglis,‘Bike‐FriendlyBusinessDistricts’,LongBeachBusinessJournal,31/01/2012.http://lbbusinessjournal.com/long‐beach‐business‐journal‐newswatch/85‐lof‐scroller‐articles/330‐bike‐friendly‐business‐districts‐where‐going‐green‐and‐making‐green‐meet.html(accessed07/02/2012)
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Wemayhope,moreoverthat,withtheincreaseofwealth,knowledge,andrefinementwhich happily seems a secure prospect for the long vistas of the future, man willendeavour to preserve the equilibriumwhich exists in themeteorological forces andvitalconditionsofcountries,when intheirnaturalstate,byfosteringadueproportionofwoodland,andthussavefromextinctionthemyriadofbeauteousformsoflifewhichhavesharedwithhimtheinhabitanceofthiswonderfulearth.
‐ MarySomerville,PhysicalGeography42
42Somerville,PhysicalGeography,p.505
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Chapter2
2.1CapitalismisCannibalism:TheValueintheUseofUsevalue
From the standpoint of a higher economic form of society, private ownership of theglobebysingleindividualswillappearquiteasabsurdasprivateownershipofonemanbyanother.Evenawholesociety,anation,orevenallsimultaneouslyexistingsocietiestakentogether,arenottheownersoftheglobe.–KarlMarx,Capital43
How then to go about the reintegration of mankind into the natural world when humanity has
createdsuchanintricate,complex,andpurposelydistancingsystemofsocialandeconomicvalues?In
today’s capitalist society, emphasis is placed on themass production and acquiring of goods. The
productionof commodities expandshumancapabilitiesandcommodityproductiononan industrial
scaleexponentiallyexpandsthesecapabilities.However,thishasreachedsuchastagethatgoodsare
nolongerproducedsimplytofulfilneedsbutare insteadproducedtobeexchangedfortheprimary
commoditybywhichallothergoodsaremeasured. Inmostsocietiesthistakestheformofmoney,
whichisthenusedtoobtainothergoods.Inthiswaytheexchangeofgoodshasbecomeparamount
tosurvivalaswemustpersuadeotherstobuythegoodsweproduceinordertobeabletobuythe
goods we ourselves want. This has reached such a destructive extent, fuelling consumerism and
consequently resource depletion by placing the natural world within the framework of a market
economy.Evenmoney itself isexchangedforprofit, treatedasacommodity,whichhas leadtothe
financialcrisisthat iscurrentlychokingmanynations.There issuchagreatemphasisplacedonthe
earningofcapitalthrough labourthatthere isnowagreatdividebetweenwork–themeans–and
leisure–theresult. Inmostcommunitiesthedivisionof labour issuchthattheviewofwork isasa
taskthatmustbecompleted inordertobenefitfromleisure.However,theanti‐capitalistecocentric
approachtoproduction:
...isalignedwiththeproduct;thus,themakingofathingbecomesapartofthethingmade. Sincetheendofproduction is satisfactionandpleasure,pleasurewouldobtainfor the cooking of a meal or making of a garment. The processual pleasures aregenerally reserved for hobbies under capitalism; in a society organised aroundecocentricproduction,theywouldcomprisethefabricofeverydaylife.44
This removes the division between work and leisure and introduces a self‐directed labourmodel,
beginning to eradicate themonetary exchange value placed onmarket goods and the removal of
extraneousitemsproducedsolelyforexchange.Capitalismreactsviolentlytoanyattempttohaltthis
continuousexpansion itrelieson.Thereareamyriadofprimeexamplesofthis,notalwaysovert in
theirexecution,butdefinitelyperceivableasbeingaggressiveretortstowardsagentsofanti‐capitalist
resistance.AnearlyillustrationofthisliesagainwiththeAmericanpioneers.Whentheearlysettlers,
43KarlMarx,Capital,p.776 44JoelKovel,TheEnemyofNature,p.235
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intent on expanding to create a safe network of controllable sources of profit, came across the
alreadysettledPlainsIndians,therelayintheirwayananomalousobstaclethatcouldnotconceivably
generatecapital.ThePlainsIndianspractisedaharmoniouslifestyleofsubsistenceandrespectforthe
regenerativequalitiesoftheirland,meaningthat,astheylayinautopoiesis,theywereofnovalueto
theWesternsettlers,perceivedashavingnogenerative input.Consequentlytherewasanappalling
genocidalattitudeformedtowardstheindigenouspopulation;toremovetheanomalystandinginthe
wayof expansion.Contemporary society,bound ina capitalistmodel,bearsno less ill‐will towards
those unwilling to participate in expansionary economic rationalities. This is clearly evident on a
globalscaleinthecaseoftheFoodNotBombsorganisationthataroseintheUnitedStatesin1980.
2.2SubversionintheShiftandAggressioninResponse
Thereareamyriadofanti‐corporationgroups that span theearth, all embodying thesamevalues,
fallingunderthecollectivebannerofFoodNotBombs.Overthepast30yearsthemovementbrought
severerepressiononitselffromvariousgoverningfactionsintheformsofmultiplearrestsandcease‐
and‐desist orders. The organisation believes ‘that society and government should value human life
overmaterialwealth,humanneednotcorporategreed,andthatmostofitsproblemsstemfromthis
simple crisis in values.’45 Chapters of the organisation source food fromwhat would otherwise be
deemed waste from markets and stores as well as from local farm donations, using this food to
providefreemealsforhomelessandhungrypeople,aimingtoraisetheawarenessofthebeliefsof
the groups. This, however, has brought about powerful repercussions with many members being
arrested46 and, prior to the raised awareness and sensitivity to police brutality cases, saw many
controversial one‐sided clashes with the authorities, despite the groups’ dedication to ‘non‐violent
protest’.47 The treatment of these activists has gone as far as to draw the attention of Amnesty
Internationalandcreatedmuchciviloutcry.48Whyistheresuchabacklashfromtheveryinstitutions
thatgavetherightstothisnon‐violentprotest,freedomofspeechanddisseminationofinformation
to the public, especially in regards to a group that exemplifies the supposed ‘charitable spirit of
freedom’oftheWesternnations?
Theorganisationembodies theveryantithesisof capitalism. Itdestroys themargins set inplaceby
competition, wealth and class. Food Not Bombs effectively levels the proverbial playing field by
servingfreemealswhichhavebeensourcedforfreeaswell,givingsomethingfornothing,aswellas
‘de‐criminalising’ poverty and vagrancy and equalising the perceived ‘social class structure’. This
45‘History’,SanFranciscoFoodNotBombs,http://sffnb.org/history/(accessed17/01/2011) 46BrianClarkeHoward,‘PleaseDon’tFeedtheHomeless’,DailyMailOnline,06/06/2011.http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article‐1394924/Orlando‐Food‐Not‐Bombs‐activists‐ARRESTED‐feeding‐homeless‐city‐parks.html(accessed17/01/2011) 47‘TheThreePrinciplesofFoodNotBombs’,FoodNotBombs,http://www.foodnotbombs.net/principles.html(accessed17/01/2011) 48StephenLendman,‘America’sWaronFoodNotBombs’,OpEdNews,09/10/2010.http://www.opednews.com/articles/2/America‐s‐War‐on‐Food‐Not‐by‐Stephen‐Lendman‐101009‐275.html(accessed17/01/2011)
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approachdoesnotsitwellwithacapitalisteconomyascapitalismisavalue‐drivensystemforwhich
themantraof‘howmuchcanIgetforhowlittleIgive’49isreflectiveoftheegocentricnatureinherent
inconsumerism.Capitalistsocietyhasformedtoproduce,secure,andexpandcapital;itsself‐reliant
infrastructureexiststogrowordieandthus it reactstoanycontractionasathreatto itseconomic
stability which is based on increasing exchange. Under a more ecocentric labour model; one that
focusesnotonconstantprogression,growthandquantityexchange,theconsumptionofgoodswould
drop rapidly as the longevity of the commodities increases. The emphasis on quantity over quality
severely increases obsolescence and advocates the distribution of less durable products through
cheaperproductionvalues.Asaresult fewergoodsare soldandcapitalismflounders inthisdeficit.
Thus there is an aggressive response and a reduction of nature from organism to object is
implemented. The acts of the Food Not Bombs groups undermine this exploitative ‘supply‐and‐
demand’system; inwhichthe restrictionofaccessto commodities leadstothedemandbeingkept
high and hence the exchange value also. The repercussions of this diminish the feasibility of an
ecocentricapproachtothedivisionof labouraswellastheemphasisonusevalueandqualityover
exchange value and quantity. Consequently this eradicates the opportunity for the economy to be
embeddedwithinthesocietyasopposedtorulingover it. Inordertoachievethis realisationofuse
valueandintrinsicvaluethereisacallforthereorientationofperceivedhumanneed.
2.3ZenAffluence:UnparalleledMaterialPlenty
Theenvironmental crisis,which is thequintessential crisis of capitalism, is forcingus to re‐examine
thecompetitiveandexpansionaryethosofourmaterialist culture. If theearthwas infiniteand the
issuesofenergy shortageand resourcedepletionwere thereforenon‐existent, theanthropocentric
wouldcontinuetomanifestthequestforaUtopia inmaterialexpansion.The infinite resourcebase
woulddestroytheeconomicallyperceiveddangersofscarcityandthe‘supplyanddemand’symbiosis
ofmarketswouldberenderedobsolete,consequentlyriddingtheeconomicworldoftheconceptof
exchange value. This however, is not the case, as was ascertained in the introduction through the
statisticsprovided.However,the issue liesnotwiththestateoftheplanetbeingcomposedoffinite
matter,butwithhumankind’sperceived ‘needs’ vastlyexceeding thatwhich theearth canprovide.
This issue is the basis on which E. F. Schumacher’s book Small is Beautiful (1993) is founded.
Ecocentrism’sadvocatedusurpationofhumanityfromourdespoticthrone isechoed inthesubtitle,
reading;Astudyofeconomicsasifpeoplemattered,givingthereaderaclearindicationwithouteven
opening the book that Schumacher approaches the contorted concept of economics from a non‐
anthropocentric standpoint. To support his declaration that humankind’s wants are not within the
49WilliamMcDonoughandMichaelBraungart,‘HowMuchCanWeGiveForAllWeGet?:RegenerativeCommerceandtheNewEntrepreneurialSpirit’,2003.www.mcdonough.com/writings/how_much_can.htm(accessed19/10/2011)
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capabilitiesoftheplanettoproduce inthe longterm50SchumacherquotesGandhi; ‘Earthprovides
enoughtosatisfyeveryman’sneed,butnotforeveryman’sgreed.’51Regardlessofhowclichédithas
become to quote popular figures such as Gandhi, the statement very neatly sums up the ill‐fated
mismatchingofafiniteworldwithamaterialisticsocietyapparentlyreliantonendlessexpansion.
ForapossibleanswertothisquandarywecanlooktoMarshallSahlins’theoryofthe‘originalaffluent
society’.Sahlins’suggeststhat,contrarytoeconomistJohnGalbraith’sassertionthateraspreceding
the present were times of poverty, hunter‐gatherers were actually the original affluent societies.
Commonthoughtisthatthehunter,focusingallhistimeandenergysolelyonsurviving,ekedoutonly
ameagreexistence ina so‐called ‘subsistence economy’despiteall theexertion.However, Sahlins’
claims otherwise in his essay The Original Affluent Society by presenting us with two contrasting
approachestoachievingthismuchsought‐aftersituationofplenty.Essentially,anaffluentsociety is
oneinwhichpeoplesmaterialwantsareeasilysatisfiedandSahlinsgivesustwopossibilities:‘Wants
maybe‘easilysatisfied’eitherbyproducingmuchordesiringlittle.’52Thefirstofthesetwosolutions
fitsthemodelthatcapitalismpresents:
The familiar conception, the Galbraithean way, makes assumptions peculiarlyappropriate to market economies: that man’s wants are great, not to say infinite,whereashismeansarelimited,althoughimprovable:thusthegapbetweenmeansandends can be narrowed by industrial productivity, at least to the point that ‘urgentgoods’becomeplentiful.53
Here, Sahlins queries the origins and authenticity ofman’s ‘wants’, which he claims are ‘peculiarly
appropriate tomarket economies’54. In building a network of indefinitely increasing exchanges the
markethaspossiblyexpandedhumankind’swants to those thatare extraneous toactualneeds55–
needsbeingthosethatareessentialtosurvival.ThisGalbraitheanmodelofachievingaffluencedoes
not however address the paramount issue of the limits to realistic expansion. The methods of
realising plenty will no doubt become more efficient in a hypothetically indefinite manner and
consequently, there would of course be affluence. But, akin to the Malthusian situation of
geometrically disproportionate exponential increase, humans’ perceived needs would continue to
exceedthecapabilitiesoftheplanettoprovide.Acapitalistmarketwillconstantlyexpandthe‘needs’
of the society over which it rules, continuously diminishing the perception of affluence and thus
feeding theneed for increasedproductivityas itbecomesabasichuman ‘right’ tohaveownership
overmorethings.Sahlinsnowbringsustohisoverridingsolutiontothissituation:
50‘Anattitudetolifewhichseeksfulfilmentinthesingle‐mindedpursuitofwealth–inshort,materialism–doesnotfitintothisworld,becauseitcontainswithinitselfnolimitingprinciple,whiletheenvironmentinwhichitisplacedisstrictlylimited.’–Schumacher,SmallisBeautiful,p.17 51MahatmaGandhi,inSchumacher,SmallisBeautiful,p.20 52MarshallSahlins,TheOriginalAffluentSociety,inDerekWall,GreenHistory,pp.24 53Sahlins,TheOriginalAffluentSociety,pp.24–25 54Sahlins,TheOriginalAffluentSociety,p.24 55Thisthenraisesthequestion:‘didman’sneedscreatethemarket,orhasthemarketmanufacturedneedstobefilled?’
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ButthereisalsoaZenroadtoaffluence,departingfrompremisessomewhatdifferentfrom our own: that human material wants are finite and few, and technical meansunchangingbutonthewholeadequate.AdoptingZenstrategy,apeople canenjoyanunparalleledmaterialplenty.56
Understeadyproductivity,seekingnottoexpand,but insteaddirectlyaddressingonlytheessential
and ecologically appropriate needs of humankind, there is affluence; in that allmaterial wants are
satisfied, thembeing finiteand few.Thiswillonlybeapplicable if theneedsofhumankindare re‐
addressed. Ifhunterswereaffluent itwas inaZenwayas theywouldhavebeen free frommarket
obsessionsofscarcityandtheireconomicpropensitymayhavebeenmoreconsistentlypredicatedon
abundance than our own inclination, which is to consume all stocks on hand.Many anthropologic
theoristspositthatearlysocietieswerebasedonsharingasopposedtocompetitiveexchange,which
allowedthemtoprosperwithouttheneedforconstantexpansion. Itisthisreorientationofhuman
needsthatisanessentialpartofthenextstageofdevelopmentinsociety.Itwouldmoveusfromthe
unsustainable ‘pioneer’ state of existence which we are currently in; in which rapid growth and
aggressiveexpansiontakeplace,toamoremature,steady‐state‘climax’community.Thesteady‐state
society canbedefined, ina somewhatgrandiosemanner, akin to the cosmologicalprincipleof the
universe:matteriscreatedequallyasmatterisdestroyedthroughdyingstarsandtheentropyofsuch
events, thus the features of the universe change across time, but not through space, maintaining
equilibrium.Totranslatethistoasocietalformatonecanobservethatacommunitywouldessentially
becomeanautopoieticsociety,regenerating itssustenanceas it isconsumed,withoutthenecessity
placedonincrease.
2.4SteadyStateSociety
Tomovetoasteady‐statesocietywouldmeanareductioninthesizeofcommunities,eachbeingable
tosupportitspopulation,utilisingresourcesinasustainablemannerwithouttheneedforaggressive
expansion. A move towards a bioregional structure in which each region can effectively sustain a
population,theoreticallyavoidingapotentialMalthusianbacklash, isanapproachwhich iscurrently
gaining support amongst many political parties. It can be seen pitched in Robert Heilbroner’sAn
Inquiry intotheHumanProspectwherehecalls for ‘adiminution inscale,a reduction insizeofthe
humancommunityfromthedangerouslevelofimmensenationstatestowardthe‘polis’thatdefined
theappropriatereachofpoliticalpowerfortheancientGreeks.’57Thiscompletelyrejectstheidolatry
ofsize–thelargeranentity,themorepowerfulandprosperous–thatstillrunsthroughthemajority
of modern thought. For every activity and endeavour there is an appropriate scale, a scale which
caters to theneedsof thematterandno further, returninghere to theattempted reorientationof
56Sahlins,TheOriginalAffluentSociety,p.25 57RobertHeilbroner,AnInquiryintotheHumanProspect,p.135
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human‘needs’.Heilbronerbelievesthatwehavegrosslyexceededthisscaleandaresufferingforit58.
Father of ‘deep ecology’ Arne Naess stresses the importance in the reversal of this condition with
specificemphasisonthecontinuationofthenon‐humanworld,relegatingthe‘comfort’ofthehuman
race as of secondary importance: ‘The flourishing of human life and cultures is compatible with a
substantial decrease of the human population. The flourishing of non‐human life requires such a
decrease’.59WhilstNaess’statementfocusesonadecreaseinoverallpopulation,thegeneralgistof
this thought canalsobeapplied to thedispersionof intenselypopulatedurban environments. The
purposeofthisbeingthere‐integrationofmankindintothenaturalworld,are‐associationwiththe
meansofproductiongearedtowardsthecontinuedsurvivaloftheentirebiosphere.
58Oneneedonlystudytheprogressionofterminologyovertimewithregardstosettlementstoseethisinaction:fromtheruraldenominationsofvillageandtown,tothecreationofthenew‘megalopolis’afterthegiant‘metropolis’wasinconceivablysurpassed. 59ArneNaess,SustainableDevelopment,p.140
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An attitude to life which seeks fulfilment in the single‐minded pursuit of wealth – inshort, materialism – does not fit into this world, because it contains within itself nolimitingprinciple,whiletheenvironmentinwhichitisplacedisstrictlylimited.
‐ E.F.Schumacher,SmallisBeautiful60
60Schumacher,SmallisBeautiful,p.17
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Chapter3
3.1MakingSalvationOvert:EcoCommunalisminPractice
[Theaimis]tocreateaself‐reliantcommunitybasedwayoflifewithintheframeworkofastableeconomyandajust,democraticsociety,sothatpeoplemayliveinharmonywith each other and the rest of the natural environment by acknowledging andadapting to the limitations of the earth’s finite resources. – British Green Party, ThePoliticsofEcology61
Toimplementthisthoughisbynomeansasmallundertaking.Themodernsocietycanbesaidtobe
builtonpillarsofsandand it,playingthepartoftheocean inthisanalogyaswell,destroys itsown
foundations.Schumacheracknowledgesthisandsaysthatit,‘...withallitsintellectualsophistication,
consumes the very basis on which it has been erected...It lives on irreplaceable capital which it
cheerfullytreatsasincome.’62Withthisinmindtherecanbenoquestionastotheneedforashiftin
priorities.But,asWilliamLeiss,authorofTheLimitstoSatisfaction,posits:
...everythingdependsuponwhetherweregardsuchlimitsasbitterdisappointmentorawelcome opportunity to turn from quantitative to qualitative improvement in thecourseofcreatingaconserversociety.63
The creation of a conserver society out of one brought upwith, and reliant on, consumerism is a
daunting prospect. However, it is not a new one, or by anymeans an entirely original and novel
notion.Hereentersthe libertariansocialistphilosophyofEco‐Communalismwhich,borrowingfrom
communism, supports Marx’s popularised slogan of; ‘From each according to his ability, to each
according to his need.’64 This embodies the very ideals of the re‐orientation of needs and the
ecocentricproductionvaluesdiscussed inChapter2. Insuchastructurethedestructivelyexpansive
economics of modern capitalism would be near abolished, instead the syndicated becomes the
symbiotic, the land and the enterprises removed from the grasp of private ownership and placed
undertheusufructofthecommunity.Theresult isadirectcontactwiththemeansofproduction,a
re‐acquaintancewiththe resources,andthe re‐associationwiththeusevalueand intrinsicvalueof
commodities,essentiallyshiftingtheintrusivetotheintegrated.
The idea of creating stable integrated ecological communities has been a long‐standing theme in
Westernsocialphilosophy,albeitoneofthelesserpracticed,stretchingasfarbackasthecollapseof
the Roman Empire. After the fall of Rome, Saint Benedict ofNursia created a number ofmonastic
61BritishGreenParty,ThePoliticsofEcology,1979pamphlet 62E.F.Schumacher,SmallisBeautiful,p.8 63WilliamLeiss,TheLimitstoSatisfaction,p.112 64KarlMarx,CritiqueoftheGothaProgram,transcribedbyBrianBaggins,1999,http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/ch01.htm(accessed13/10/2011)
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orders65intheruinsoftheheartoftheEmpirewhichsubsequentlyspreadthroughoutEuropeandare
the foundation upon which many contemporarymonastic communities are built. Robyn Eckersley
suggests in her book Environmentalism and Political Theory that this conformed to the common
theme among eco‐communal theorists of ‘the idea of disengagement or withdrawal from corrupt
social and political institutions and the establishment of exemplary institutions and/or pursuit of
exemplary personal action.’66 There is no great stretch of imagination needed, or suspension of
disbelief necessary, to draw parallels between the ruin of the Roman Empire and themultifaceted
crises that threaten modern society. Thus this theme is as applicable today as it was to Saint
Benedict’smedieval communalism. The communities offered ‘liberation fromwaste and busywork,
fromexcessiveappetiteandanxiouscompetitionthatallowsonetogetonwiththeessentialbusiness
oflife,whichistoworkoutone’ssalvationwithdiligence’.67Thisisanexampleofthe‘ZenAffluence’
discussedbySahlinsearlierinpractice,inthatthewantshavebeenreducedtofewandallextraneous
complications are condensed to the necessary. In order for such communes to function however,
thereneedstobeabodyofcitizens committedtosucha cause. InSaintBenedict’s casethis cause
wasthesimplesurvivalandpromiseofabetterlifefollowingtheendingofanEmpire.Towaitforthe
ultimatecollapseofthepresent‐dayhuman‘empire’wouldbetrulyfatalistichowever,andthusthere
istheneedforgroupsofdenizenscommittedtoanexemplaryecocentricwayoflivingtospearhead
theshift.
3.2TheConstantIdealofCommunalismThroughTime
It appears that throughout history, whilst the majority of humankind has been wholeheartedly
engaginginthesystematicdestructionofresourcesandecosystemsasdiscussed inChapter1,there
havealsobeenfactionsofthesesocietiesthatstandseparate68.Thereisaconstantthatisapparentin
the values which these groups upheld. Plato writes of this inErodedAttica when describing social
stratification.Wearefirstintroducedtothesocietywithwhichweareallacquainted;variouscitizens
filling an assortment of roles. However, we are then presented with a group embodying values
entirelyseparatetothoseoftheaforementionedcommunity:
Nowthecountrywasinhabitedinthosedaysbyvariousclassesofcitizens;‐therewereartisans,andtherewerehusbandmen,andtherewasalsoawarriorclassoriginallysetapart by divinemen. The latter dwelt by themselves, and had all things suitable fornurture and education; neither had any of them anything of their own, but theyregarded all that they had as common property; nor did they claim to receive of theothercitizensanythingmorethanthenecessaryfood.69
65SaintBenedictcanbeseenasthe‘FatherofMonasticism’and,asmanyoftheideologiesofthisfeedintomoderndayCommunalism,canalsobeseenasamajorcontributortotheriseoftheeco‐commune. 66Eckersley,EnvironmentalismandPoliticalTheory,p.163 67TheodoreRoszak,Person/Planet:TheCreativeDisintegrationofIndustrialSocietyin,Eckersley,EnvironmentalismandPoliticalTheory,p.165 68Whetherthesegroupswereawareoftheultimatelydestructivenatureoftheircontemporaryculturesisunclear. 69Plato,ErodedAtticainTheDialoguesofPlato,inDerekWall,GreenHistory,p.36
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Whilst it is implied that this ‘warrior class’hadbeenappointedahigherplace in thecontemporary
socialorder,settingthemasidefromthe‘commonclass’ofcitizenry,thisinnowayreflectsthevalues
orstatusofthe ‘higherorder’thatcouldbegarneredmodernsociety’sselectelevatedfew. Imagine
thecurrentphenomenonof the ‘celebrity’ status, equating thiswith thewarrior classdescribedby
Plato; and similarly, liken the majority population to Plato’s ‘divine men’, our adulation having
elevatedthecelebritytoahigherclass.NowcomparethishigherorderwiththatofPlato’sand,inthis
instance,tosaythattheyarethepolaroppositeisinnowaysensationalisticorhyperbolic.Thevalues
thatthewarriorclassholdcanbelikenedtomanyMarxistsocialistphilosophies,theirattitudetoward
needsmirroringthatofaformofZenaffluence,whilstthehigherordersoftodayaretheepitomeof
the capitalist consumerist tenet. These ideals emerge again later in the New Testament of the
ChristianBible,oncemorepre‐emptingmanyofMarx’s communist ideals, themselvesappearing in
varyingformsintheeco‐socialistmanifestos:
Andallthatbelievedweretogether,andhadallthingscommon;And sold theirpossessionsandgoods,andparted them toallmen,aseverymanhadneed.(Acts,2:44–45)70
TheNewTestament,beingessentiallyaChristianguidetomoralsandethics,proclaimsallmenequal,
‘aseverymanhadneed’,andthustheownershipofallthingsshouldbeheldas‘common’;theneeds
ofnoonepersonshouldcomeabovethoseofanother.Thisisessentiallyananthropocentricdecree
asitdoesnottake intoaccountspeciesotherthanthatofhumankindand,takingintoconsideration
theearlierquotationfromtheOldTestamentontheGod‐givenrightofmantorule(Genesis1:26–
30), couldhardlyappear tobeanenvironmentally conscientiousdogma.However, thebasic values
describedherearealsothebasisoftheeco‐socialistmovement,andsotheNewTestament getsan
honorary mention as it levels the playing field between classes and pre‐emptively opposes the
privatisationofland.ItisbythiscreedthattheradicalChristiancommunityoftheBruderhofoperate.
3.3TheBruderhofCommunity:ChristianAntiCapitalism
TheBruderhofCommunityisaChristiancommunitylooselyassociatedwiththeHutteriteBrethrenof
theAnabaptistChristianfaith71.SimilartothemorerecognisedAmishfaith,theHutteritesgrewoutof
theRadicalReformationofthe16thCentury.TheHutterite’spremisewas,analogoustothethemeof
communalism presented by Eckersley, a separation in response to corruption and dissent in the
RomanCatholicChurch,thisbeinglikenedtothesocialandpoliticalinstitutionsRoszaksuggests.One
of the themes most central to the Community is that of all possessions being held common, the
equalising of everymember. This ideology is taken from theNew Testament and appears to be a
70http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%202:44%20‐%2045&version=ASV(accessed05/12/2011) 71FounderoftheBruderhof,EberhardArnold,developedagreatinterestintheHutteritefaithandbasedthereligiouscommunitythathefoundedinGermanyin1920onmanyoftheirvaluesandteachings.
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frequentpointofdiscourse inActs. Thisadds further confusionas to the stateof capitalist society
today;alargeportionofthepopulationadheringtoandpreachingthevaluespositedinthisbookand
yetactingouttheexactreversetooneofthemostcentralthemes:
Andthemultitudeofthemthatbelievedwereofoneheartandsoul:andnotoneofthemsaidthataughtofthethingswhichhepossessedwashisown;buttheyhadallthingscommon.(Acts,4:32)72
WiththisasoneofthekeythemesaroundwhichtheCommunityrevolvesitcanessentiallybeclassed
asacommunistsociety,upholdingmanyofthephilosophiesonthedivisionoflabourandtheholding
ofallgoodscommon.MembersoftheCommunitypossessnopersonalbelongingsandstandbythe
emphasisonusevalueoverexchangevalue,beingtitledasan‘intentional’communeratherthanan
‘instrumental’one;thingsbeingdonewiththeintentionforproductionandnotforaccumulationand
consumptionofcapital.TheworkoftheBruderhof73 isentirely self‐directed, impacting littleonthe
productivityandprofitabilityofthefactoriesas,withnonecessityplacedoncapital,themembersare
not driven to accumulate and increasemarket share. Instead the production is aimed towards the
incremental profit sufficient to meet the requirements of the Community and the continued
production under a steady‐state model. Thus, without the emphasis on accumulation and
consequently quantity production, there is an emphasis on the quality of items, ensuring the
longevity and well‐being of goods, as well as the larger ends to which the objects are put. This
socialist organisation of labour, echoing communistic conditions, causes the capitalist creed to
collapse. As a result of this structure the Bruderhof Community manage to operate outside the
capitalistmajority,maintainingathrivingsocietythatremainswithintherealmsofsustainability.74
Having successfully supplanted themselves outside the capitalist economy, the community must
retainasizethatequatestothesteady‐state‘climax’societymodelaroundwhichtheirprofitmargins
and resources are structured. If this is not controlled then the community will fall victim to the
indefinite expansionary models under which the majority of societies today function. This would
result inthemconsequentlyhavingto increaseoutputtomaximiseprofit,panderingtothegrowing
numberofmembers.Thesolutiontothis issimple;when theCommunity reachesa certainsize75 it
divides, creating a new settlement, essentially preserving the sustainable base of the parent
community. Whilst this is still technically an expansionary process it is a step towards a more
ecocentricapproachasthenecessityforastablepopulationsizeandcullingofaccumulationtoalevel
ofrequirementandnofurtherisrealisedandpractised.TheBruderhofCommunity,followingafaith
ofradicalChristiandenomination,operateunderastrictreligioushierarchicalmodel.Thisstructure,
72http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%204:32%20‐%2035&version=ASV‐forfullpassageseeAppendix2(accessed05/12/2011) 73Thisisprimarilythatof‘CommunityPlaythings’–aclassroomtoyandfurnitureline. 74Kovel,TheEnemyofNature,pp.207‐208 75Thissizeroughlyequatesto‘Dunbar’sNumber’–atheoreticalnumberofpeoplewithwhichapersoncanmaintainreciprocalsocialrelationshipsinastablemanner.
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echoing Edward Goldsmith’s rejection of social security institutions in favour of family or religious
hierarchies,isalsoapointofcontentionamongsteco‐communaltheorists.Itallowsforthepossibility
ofautocraticruling,embodying–onasmallerscale–thebasisofthesurvivalistschoolofthought;
self‐sufficient communities engineered and executed by a nation state.76 This totalitarian rule risks
the manifestation of the many pitfalls shown by humanity thus far. The power behind the ideals
creatingthesestablecommunitiesiscorruptedanddestroyedinwakeofautocraticruling.Oneneed
only look to the many socialist nations of the Eastern Block enacting, however eventually
ineffectively, someof the idealsheldbyMarxandEngels. In thisportionofhistorywecan see just
how subversive the authoritarian rule can be; from the ‘the leading people’ of post‐World War II
Russiatotheeventual collapseoftheSovietUnion in1991andthedissolutionofCzechoslovakia in
199377. There are, however, communities existing today which fully embrace and embody the
ecocentric ideologywith regards todivisionof labouraswell as social structureandenvironmental
awareness,movingtowardssecuringasustainablefutureforhumankind.Thesecommunesspanthe
globe,givingweighttotheideathatthebasichumanidealsofequality,communityandanawareness
of the ecological systemic surroundings are universal. A forerunner in this ecocentric field of the
intentionalcommuneistheFindhornFoundation.
3.4TheFindhornFoundation
SituatedintheFindhornBayofMorayontheNorthEastcoastofScotland,theFindhornEcovillageis
a synthesis of ecologically applied technology, holistic educational, societal, and communal values.
ThisapproachgivestheEcovillageanecologicalfootprint78thatishalftheUnitedKingdom’snational
average79. Currently comprised of around 90 ecological buildings, all using environmentally sound,
energyefficientmaterials,thecommunity isuniqueinthefactthatitsitsonitsownelectricitygrid,
generating its own power through four privately owned wind turbines. The turbines providemore
than100%ofthecommunity’senergyneedsandthustheexcessesofproductionareexportedtothe
nationalgrid80.ThisgreenenergygenerationcreatesamajorsustainablebusinessfortheEcovillage.
The concentration on renewable resources is a focal point in the construction of the community
buildings,eachhousebeingmodelledona‘cradle‐to‐cradle’design.Theconceptof‘cradle‐to‐cradle’
was introduced by architectWilliamMcDonough and chemistMichael Braungart asan ecologically
intelligentapproachtodesignandarchitecture.Theconcepteffectivelygives: 76Eckersley,EnvironmentalismandPoliticalTheory,p.13 77Itcanbeproposedthatthesenationseventuallypractisedaformof‘statecapitalism’asopposedtosocialism. 78‘AnEcologicalFootprintisameasureoftheamountofbioproductivelandandsearequiredtosupportaperson’slifestyle.Itincludesthelandneededtogrowtheirfood,disposeoftheirwasteandabsorbtheircarbonemissions.Thefootprintcountsalltheimpactsofpersonalspendingaswellasthebusinessandgovernmentexpenditureontheirbehalf.’–AlanCalcottandJamieBull,EcologicalFootprintofBritishCityResident,p.5 79TheUKNationalAverageis5.4gha(globalhectares)whereastheFindhornFoundation’sEcologicalFootprintisamere2.56gha.–TakenrespectivelyfromCountingConsumption:ExecutiveSummary,pp.1,andEcologicalFootprintoftheFindhornFoundationandCommunity,p.4
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...an entirely new relationship tomaterials, energy, and themaking of things.Whereeco‐efficient designs aim to dematerialize – minimizing the negative effects of toxicmaterials and polluting fuels – cradle‐to‐cradle design seeks the rematerialization ofsafe,productivematerialsinsystemspoweredbythesun.81
Thedesignsystemadvocatedherehasgrownfromarealisationoftheenvironmentalsituationanda
rejection of the short‐sighted nature of many supposedly eco‐friendly industries whose aim is to
simply reduce the harmful effects of products. McDonough and Braungart see these industries’
effortsasbeingmisguided,as ‘theyaremerely reaching for sustainability,which is, afterall,onlya
minimum condition for survival.’82 The cradle‐to‐cradle principle is based on that of a system of
decompositionand recomposition,a closed loop cyclical systemmirroring thatofnature.This is in
placeofthe‘cradle‐to‐grave’focusofshort‐termwastemanagement.Theconceptoftheentireworld
existinginasymbioticrelationwitheveryorganismisakeythemeamongstecocentrictheoristsand
practitioners. In the non‐humanworld the environment is an objective fact, and its effects can be
ascertained and formulated in laws. Man, however, creates his own environment, circumventing
these lawsand thusattempting todominatenature,alteringanatural situation to thatwhichbest
suits him. Re‐addressing this system is integral to the ecocentric approach, effectively undoing the
supplantednatureofhumanity,andensuringthesurvivalofthebiosphere,asphilosopherJanSmuts
states:
Nothingexistsfor itselfalone;thereareno isolatedunits,butonlystructuredpatternsand inter‐relations, from the primordial electrons to the most developed physical ormoralorsocialcomplexesintheuniverse.83
The philosophy of interconnectedness is applied to the technology that the Ecovillage employs. In
1995,eminentenvironmentalistJonathonPorritopenedtheecologicallyengineeredLivingMachine®;
a unique sewage treatment plant based around living systems84. The design follows the cradle‐to‐
cradle model, shifting from chemically intensive, wasteful processes to one of zero‐impact. The
resultingwaterispureenoughtobedischargeddirectlyintothesea,freeofchemicals,orre‐used.
The importance of the revolutionary design and architecture of the Findhorn Foundation is that it
invertstheviewofthenon‐humanworldasastorehouseofresources.Underthedesignprinciples
and building methods it is instead the human world which is conceived as existing solely in the
previouslydiscussedstateof‘mechanicalcontrivance’.Thisapproachconvertsmaterialsonacradle‐
to‐gravepathtohavingarecycledandequallyvaluablefunction.Amongtheinnovativedesignsofthe
buildings is the ‘Earthship’ model. First introduced by the founder of Earthship Biotecture Mike
Reynoldsin1970sNewMexico,theEarthshipstructureisprimarilymanufacturedfromusedcartyres, 81WilliamMcDonoughandMichaelBraungart,TowardsaSustainingArchitectureforthe21stCentury:ThePromiseofCradle‐to‐CradleDesign 82McDonoughandBraungart,TowardsaSustainingArchitectureforthe21stCentury 83JanSmuts,TheHolisticDoctrineofEcology,inDerekWall,GreenHistory,p.98 84Theplantemploysasetofsequenced,completeecologiescontainingcommunitiesofbacteria,algae,plants,snailsandfish,allactingasbiofilters,mirroringthenaturallyoccurringprocessesonanintensivescale.
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reclaimedandgivenanewuse(Figure4).Packedwithdirt,thetyresformasolid,structurallysound
wall; waterproof, effectively heat‐retentive and less flammable than conventionalmaterials due to
thedenselypackedsoil.
Thedesignofsuchstructuresreleasestheresourcesembeddedinthealreadybuiltenvironment,thus
including the humanworld among the moniker of ‘the commons’85. Thesemodes of construction
havespread,withprojectsbeingundertakenglobally86.Theethosofthedesign ispivotaltothatof
the Findhorn Foundation and other eco‐communes: the return to the natural world and the
integration of sustainable means of production into naturally occurring systems. This involves
embracing a holistic approach to the world similar to that perceived by Transcendentalist author
RalphWaldoEmerson:
From thebeginning to the endof theUniverse, shehasbutone stuff–butone stuffwithitstwoends,toserveupallherdream‐likevariety.Compoundithowshewill,star,sand,fire,water,tree,man,itisstillonestuff,anditbetraysthesameproperties.87
Thisdeclarationof ‘oneness’ is,asstatedbefore,a centralthemetotheeco‐commune88.However,
the Foundation, unlike the Benedictine monastic communes and the Bruderhof Communities
86ThereareEarthshipprojectscurrentlyexistinginTexas,Montana,theNetherlands,France,Canada,andGeorgiawithmanymoreunderconstructionandatvariousstagesoftheplanningprocess.–‘RadicallySustainableBuildings’,EarthshipBiotecture,http://earthship.com/buildings(accessed20/10/2011) 87RalphWaldoEmerson,NatureinEssays:FirstandSecondSeries,Library,p.311 88‘Recognisingtheinterdependenceofalllifeisattheheartofalllearningandpracticehere.Thisbecomesincreasinglyimportantaspeoplecometotermswithglobalconflict,depletionoftheworld’sresources,changesinourclimateandaskquestionsaboutthepurposeofourlivesandthevaluesweliveby.’–‘LivingEducation’,FindhornFoundation,http://www.findhorn.org/aboutus/vision/living‐education/(accessed20/10/2011)
Figure4:TheEarthshipstructureinKinghorn,Fife.Anexampleofthetyremethodofconstructioncanbeseenintheforeground.
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discussed earlier, employs no formal creed or teaching, instead accepts, and borrows from, all the
world’smajor religionswith thekey ideologybeing the interdependenceandequalityofall life–a
principle found inalmost every faith. Asa resultof this, there isno sethierarchy–other than the
familial – by which the Foundation can be ordered by. This is the direction in which libertarian
founder of the social ecology movement Murray Bookchin urges humankind. Bookchin postulates
that: ‘Tocreateasociety inwhichevery individual is seenascapableofparticipatingdirectly inthe
formulation of social policy is to instantly invalidate social hierarchy and domination.’89 This is the
state towardswhichmoderndayCommunalismstrives,believing thatwithin the eradicationof the
power of oneman over another also lays the eradication of the subjugation of the natural world.
Bookchin goes on to describe what achieving a situation like this entails: ‘we are committed to
dissolving State power, authority, and sovereignty into an inviolate form of personal
empowerment’90. As the Findhorn Foundation employs no formal hierarchy they are free of
sovereigntyandStatepower,existing innearautonomy. In1997theFoundationwasrecognisedby
the Department of Public Information of the United Nations as an official Non‐Governmental
Organisationandparticipates inmanyUNevents91.UndertheNewFindhornAssociation,controlof
all aspects of the affairs of the Community remains under that of themembers, being carried out
throughvariousdemocraticprocesses.Althoughthereisanelectedvoluntarycouncil,itappearsonly
asanearfor,andconsequentvoiceof,themembers;organisingmeetingstodiscusscommunity‐wide
issuesandfacilitatingintra‐andextra‐communalcommunication.
ThusfartheFindhornFoundationhaspresenteditselfasaprecisesynergisticcommunity,embracing
themanyfacetsofsocialistandecocentricthoughtandpracticefrompastandpresenttoconstructa
society in which the possibility for sustainable survival can be seen. The immersion back into the
naturalworldisfirstandforemostinthemajorityoftheliteratureoftheFoundation.Thisiscoupled
with the labourmodels proposed by Kovel and Heilbroner, and Naess’ call for a reduction in the
appropriate reach of communities following a bio‐regionalist format. In all essence, the Findhorn
Foundation appears to suggest the perfect model to achieving a Utopia void of subjection,
opportunisticdestructionandhierarchicaldominanceandcontrol;offeringunparalleledaffluenceand
sustainable means of accomplishing this. However, further examination of the Foundation and its
historybeliesthisnearself‐sufficiencyitsopromotes.
3.5Findhorn’sRelianceontheCapitalistExistence
The Findhorn Foundation presents itself as having near economic autonomy. In May 2002 the
Foundationlauncheditsowncommunity‐basedcurrencycalledthe‘Eko’.Thecurrencyisdesignedto
89MurrayBookchin,EcologyofFreedom,inEckersley,EnvironmentalismandPoliticalTheory,p.134 90Bookchin,EcologyofFreedom,inEckersley,EnvironmentalismandPoliticalTheory,p.134 91Thevariousorganisationsandassociationsofthecommunitywithina50squaremileareaallexistedindependentofeachotheruntil1999whentheNewFindhornAssociationwasformed.
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workasanalternativetoPoundsSterlingintransactionswithparticipatingbusinesses.Thisisbasically
a means of generating income in Sterling as visitors and residents purchase the Eko notes with
Poundsandareunabletoredeemanyexchangednotes92.OutsidetheFoundation’sowngeneration
of income theyhave received grants fromvariousorganisations, associations, and trusts thatequal
theapproximatesumof£11,00093.Thisstands independentofthevastsumsofcapitalrequiredfor
thewindfarmlocatedattheEcovillage.Thecostofpurchasingandinstallingthefirstturbinein1989
requiredaninitialinvestmentof£75,000.Whilstthisprimarypaymentwasregainedafterthefirst5
years,theexpansionofthewindfarmwiththreeadditionalturbinescostafurther£605,00094,relying
onexternal industriesandco‐operativestocomplete.Thepowergeneratedbytheturbines ismore
than enough to fulfil 100% of the Foundations energy requirements, excesses being sold to the
nationalgrid.Thiscreatesalargeportionofrelativelyecologicallybenignsustainable incomeforthe
Foundationwhich,despitemeetingtherequirementsofa ‘green’ initiative, isentirelyreliantonthe
existenceofanoutsidecapitaliststructure,panderingtotheformativeneedsofsucha community.
Theseextravagantcostsappearrightdowntoanindividuallevel.Tosimplyobtainthelandfora170
squaremetrehousecostoneresidentapproximately£178,50095.Hereonehastobegthequestion:
whathasbecomeofthestruggleagainsttheprivatisationandownershipof landandthecommons
andunderwhichcapitalistdoctrinedidthewordsofKovel96becomeobscured?
Withregardstoananticipatorystancetowardsenvironmentalpoliciessuchcostsaretobeexpected.
To incur a larger financial cost in anticipating damage far outweighs the environmental cost of a
reactivestance;thatbeingtodealwithsuch issuesonlyaftertheyhavearisen.However,onemust
questionthelongevityofthisparticularanticipatoryapproachwhilstitisstillsoreliantonthefatally
flawedcapitalistsystemdescribed inChapter2.Suchasystem issuggestedtobewhollyultimately
unsustainable.Therefore, if theapproachthattheeco‐communeadvocates is sodependentonthis
system, perhaps it is less of an anticipatory stance and more of a temporarily preventative one,
merely introducing a provisional stalemate between contemporary society and the multifaceted
ecologicalcrises.
92ThisincomeisthenputtowardsfinancingandloanswithintheCommunity,makingsuchgrowthanddevelopmentessentiallyreliantonthecurrencyitaimstoreplace. 93‘GrantAidedProjects’,EkopiaResourceExchange,http://www.ekopia‐findhorn.org/grantaided.shtml(accessed20/10/2011) 94‘FindhornWindPark’,FindhornEcovillage,http://www.ecovillagefindhorn.com/findhornecovillage/wind.php(accessed20/10/2011) 95R.Everett,EmailtoM.Startre.Housingcosts,02/02/2012 96‘...theremustbebasicchangesinownershipofproductiveresourcessothat,ultimatelytheearthisnolongerprivatelyowned;andourproductivepowers,thecoreofhumannature,havetobeliberated,sothatpeopleself‐determinetheirtransformingofnature.’–Kovel,TheEnemyofNature,p.160
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Societyisajoint‐stakecompany,inwhichthemembersagree,forthebettersecuringofhisbreadtoeachshareholdertosurrenderthelibertyandcultureoftheeater.
‐ RalphWaldoEmerson,Self‐Reliance97
97Emerson,Self‐RelianceinEssays:FirstandSecondSeries,p.31
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Chapter4
4.1AGrandScaleSurvival:TheCommune’sNotionoftheCommons,Nationwide
Ceding complete political autonomy to the existing local communities that inhabitbioregionswillprovidenoguaranteethatthedevelopmentwillbeecologicallybenignor cooperative. Norwill it provide any guarantee that theywill form a confederationwith neighbouring local communities in their bioregion so as to enable properbioregionalmanagement.–RobynEckersley,EnvironmentalismandPoliticalTheory98
Suppose,forallintentsandpurposes,thatthemodelofeco‐communethattheFindhornFoundation
exemplifiesisinfactasolutiontoalltheworld’swoes;environmental,social,andpolitical.Thelogical
nextstepwouldbetodispensethisformnation‐wide.Forthispurpose,imaginetheEcovillageasthe
zero‐impact,harmonious, fulfilling,andecologicallybenignwayofliving it ispromotedtobe.Surely
there is no reason as towhy this should not be everyone’s lifestyle? The only other visible option
beingthepathtocertainextinctionthathumankindiscurrentlyracingdown?Firstlythough,thereis
thetheoretic issueofhowexactlythisnew intranational structurewouldbeformed,assumingthat
the populous has agreed to this radical newway of life and has formed numerous eco‐communes
across the country. Exactly what defines the appropriate borders; political, judicial and resource‐
based,ofeachcommune?
Theformationofsocietiesandthebondsintowhichindividualsenterisamatterofmuchcontention
andhasbeentackledfromamyriadofanglesbyanumberofpoliticaltheorists,theirdiscoursefalling
under the title of Social Contract Theory. Key in this school of thought are John Hobbes, Thomas
Locke, and Jean‐Jacques Rousseau; each presenting perhaps the seminal arguments of their
respectiveeras,exploringthe‘agreement,enteredintobyindividuals,thatresultsintheformationof
the state or of organised society.’99 ThomasHobbes wrote of the situation in which individuals, in
grouping, cede some of their individual rights so that, mutually, other would cede theirs, thus
enteringintoaformofsocialagreementandcreatingthebasisofasociety.However,whenamplified
toa level atwhichmultiple statesarecreated thereunfolds the issueof individual statesacting in
self‐interest, with no leadership to regulate the social interaction. Hobbes believed this to be the
State of Nature; each individual acts in self‐interest to improve their own situation through the
pursuitofpleasureandavoidanceofpain.Inthiscasethefigureofthe individualbecomesthebody
ofpeopleinacommunity.Hobbessawthisanissuetowhichtherewasonlyonesolution:‘Duringthe
timemenlivewithoutacommonpowertokeepthemall inawe,theyare inthatconditionwhichis
98Eckersley,EnvironmentalismandPoliticalTheory,p.169 99CollinsDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage,p.1447
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calledwar.Andsuchawarasisofeverymanagainsteveryman.’100Hobbesadvocatednearabsolute
authoritariansovereigntyasa‘commonpower’,essentiallycreatingafederationofsemi‐autonomous
statesunderamonarchy.ThisiswhatHobbesnamedthe‘LeviathanState’.Foundingmemberofthe
GreenParty,EdwardGoldsmith,promotedthisideainanimmediatetransitiontowardsdecentralised
communities,visualisingthistobeengineeredandexecutedbytherulingnationstate.Thisideology
almostdirectlyopposestheeco‐socialistapproachwithitspaternalisticradicalconservatism.
4.2Locke’sThirdPartyFallsVictimtotheHobbesianLeviathan
ContrarytothistrainofthoughtisJohnLocke’sideaproposedinhisSecondTreatiseofGovernment.
Whilst keeping the basis of Hobbes’ philosophy; in that individuals naturally gravitate towards one
anothertoformasocialstate,thisisasfarasLockeagreeswiththeHobbesianpolitic.InsteadLocke
arguesthatindividualsjoiningtogetherwouldcreateaneutralthirdparty‘judge’whichwouldprotect
thelivesandthepropertyofthose individuals.Thisgovernmentwouldactasanimpartial,objective
agent of self‐defence, opposing the condition ofNatural Law inwhich each individual acts as their
own judge, jury, and executioner,promoting extremesof self‐interest. The contemporary state sits
slightly confused somewhere between these two theories.McDonough and Braungart address the
basicpremiseandidealofLocke’stheory,claimingthat:
Itisthegovernment'sjobtoprotectthesharedbenefitsofthebiologicalcommonsforall to enjoy. Ideally, regulations create a social framework in which commerce canoperateresponsiblyandfreely...Ifacompanyputsaburdenonthepublicsphere, if itdestroys the water, pollutes the air, or degrades the land, it is the government'sresponsibilitytostepinandregulateitsactivities.101
In this examination, the government does indeed act as a third party true to Locke’s suggestions,
protectingthe livesandpropertyoftheindividualsunder itssafeguard.The‘biologicalcommons’of
which they speak essentially ‘includes theairwebreathe, thewaterwedrink, the sunlightand soil
thatprovideournutrition.Theseareoursharedbirthright,ourinheritanceandourlegacy’102,anditis
these which the government should seek primarily to protect as they are the very core of our
existence.However,howisonetoensurethatthissupposed‘impartialthirdpartyagent’,defending
thelivesandpropertyofthesubjectsofthestate,doesnotactin itsownself‐interest?Humansare
passionatebynatureandself‐regulation isamajor issue inthissuggestedreform. If this isnotself‐
imposed there then becomes the need for an external sovereign power to impose checks on will,
consumption and appetite. This then takes on the form of the Hobbesian situation, creating a
federationoverwhichthereisasingleautonomousrule.Tosolvethelatentdilemmaapparentinthe
100ThomasHobbesquotedbyMelvynBragg,InOurTime:Hobbes,01/12/2005,BBCRadio4website.http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p003k9l1(accessed25/01/2012) 101WilliamMcdonoughandMichaelBraungart,RegulationandRedesign:TappingInnovationandCreativitytoPreservetheCommons 102McdonoughandBraungart,RegulationandRedesign
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social contract of Locke we find ourselves returning to Hobbes’ Leviathan state. However, as was
discussedbefore, thispotentiallypaves theway for theextremedespotic self‐interestof the ruling
party. In light of the recent Occupy movement and pan‐global riots shaking the world, Richard
Barnet’s‘hungrymob’isanaptdenominationfortheoutraged‘99%’.Barnet’ssolutiontothehungry
mobcallsforthesocialcontractofHobbes,‘aworldofstruggleoverinadequateresourcesthatcries
out for Leviathan, the authoritarian state that can keep minimal order’103, a worryingly fitting
ultimatumforthecurrentsituation.TheMalthusianfantasyofnaturalorderhasbeenthoroughlyput
tobedwhendealingwiththesituationofhumanitywithourcreationofartificialaffluence;itexistsas
alawoforderonly intheconfinesofthenaturalworld. Insuchanaturalworldthere isnoneedfor
authoritarian rule simply because Nature intermittently thins any over‐expansion of its
counterparts.104 Whilst this rule is currently in effect in large areas of the planet with regards to
humanity, such as the impoverished nations of the African continent andmany areas of the Asian
subcontinent,itisoflittleconsequencetotheexponentiallymitoticmajority.
4.3RousseauandtheRecalcitrantMasses
Jean‐JacquesRousseauoffersarespitefromfindingourselves impaledonthehornsofthisdilemma
betweenLockeandHobbes;bothofferingtheoreticallysoundsocialcontractsbut,whendealingwith
theinnateegocentrismofhumankind,appeartobepracticallyflawed.Rousseaurecognisesthisweak
characteristicofourdevelopmentandappealsdirectlytothisveryissue.Addressingthenatureofa
socialcontract,heidentifiestheneedforacommongoal,auniversalideatowardswhichacollective
bodymay strive, all aiming for the same result and thuspromoting equalityandmutual existential
beneficence. Under such an idea, all mean egotism vanishes, self‐interest becoming a destructive
impediment.Fromthispositiontheremayriseagoverningfigureorbodywhowouldleadthevalues
of the individuals in the direction of their best interest. Whilst this appears to be similar to the
Hobbesian condition of a state under sovereign rule it differs in that the body of the people has
created this ruling figure to direct and regulate them. Essentially the citizenry is performing self‐
regulationthroughathirdparty;keepingchecksonwill,appetite,andconsumptionbyaself‐imposed
governinglaw.
However, each of these options presents issues when attempting to orchestrate and manage a
nation‐widebioregionaldivideofcommunities.Undereveryconditionthereisthelurkingfatalismof
obdurate human characteristics that cannot be ignored. Such damaging inclinations have been
presentedandexaminedinChapter1ofthisstudy.Noneofthetheoriesthusfarpresentedofferany
reprievefromtheindividualcommunity’sstateofconflictwiththelargersociety.Theissueofsuccess
103RichardBarnet,TheLeanYears:PoliticsintheAgeofScarcity,p.296 104‘TheMalthusianfantasyoffersanalternativetotheLeviathanstate.Thereisnoneedforcivilauthoritytoregulatescarcegoods,becauseNature,crueltobekind,periodicallythinsthesurpluspopulationbyfamine’‐Barnet,TheLeanYears,pp.296–97
Page|38
in theaspectof longevity is approachedbyno‐one,and thecommunitiesappear tobedestined to
exist in either perpetual or intermittent conflict with any governing body that arises. Perhaps the
issuehere is thatmany theoristsappear to conflatehumanity’spotential naturewithouressential
nature: thepotential natureofhumankindbeing the idealwhichwepreachand towardswhichwe
strive,astateofreciprocalmutuality105.Opposingthisistheessentialnature;thisbeing,attheriskof
appearingdecidedlymisanthropic,theunfortunate realityofrecalcitrantegotism.This isoneofthe
main downfalls of the eco‐communalist movement; when considered on the national scale the
anarchistic and utopian aspects open the many vulnerable facets in the fundamental ideology to
criticism.Theverynatureoftheconceptitselfappearssimplisticandmyopic,relyingonvoluntarism,
andhaving relativenaivety tomanyof theseobdurate issues thus fardiscussed.Thisbynomeans
invalidatestheprevailingtheoriesbehindthetenetbywhichsuchcommunitiesareformedbutonly
givesrisetoissuesyettobeeffectivelytackledinthepracticalapplicationofsaidtheories.Thematter
of contention here is the apparent inability of collective states of humanity to achieve a level of
interactionthatismutuallybeneficialforallparties involved,noneacting intheexpressself‐interest
that is the underlying theme throughout the occupation of the planet. Each situation proposed
eventually leads back to the need for a formof authoritarian control in order for the stability and
senseofindividual libertyalongsidecommunitythat isconclusivelyanovertrequisiteforapotential
sustainedexistence.Thecontinuedendeavouroftheeco‐communeseemsfutilewhenconsideredon
thisscale.Itnolongerbecomesanacceptableresolutiontotheplightwhileitstillfailstoaddressthis
nextstep;insteaditemergesasmerelyatonicservingtosooththeguiltysoul,adoptingasurvivalist
demeanour somewhat akin to an ostrich, head buried in the sand,whilst preaching from an elitist
pulpitontheignoranceandillsofcapitalistsociety.
105Eckersley,EnvironmentalismandPoliticalTheory,p.171
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Thus we see that, just as industrial society is fundamentally unstable and subject toreversion to agrarian existence, so within it the conditions which offer individualfreedom are unstable in their ability to avoid the conditions which impose rigidorganisation and totalitarian control. Indeed, when we examine all the foreseeabledifficultieswhichthreatenthesurvivalofindustrialcivilisation,itisdifficulttoseehowthe achievement of stability and the maintenance of individual liberty can be madecompatible.
–HarrisonBrown,TheChallengeofMansFuture106
106HarrisonBrown,TheChallengeofMansFuture,inSchumacher,SmallisBeautiful,p.45
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Conclusion
How is the common interestof the collectivity tobeachievedwhenman throughouthistoryhave shown themselves tobepassionate creaturesprey to greed, selfishness,andviolence?–WilliamOphuls,Reversal istheLawofTao:TheImminentResurrectionofPoliticalPhilosophy107
It is evident, even through such a brief study as this, that themultifaceted dilemma humankind is
facing is a potential catastrophe that grows seemingly impossible to avoid. There is a veritable
cornucopia of literature on this quandary, each detailing the various short‐comings of the
contemporary societies, condemning all that has happened and all that is happeningwhilst barely
attemptingtobroachthesubjectofaneffectivesolution,simplyaddressingthisonalocalscale.From
thesewritingstherehavebeendrawnvaguetheoriesandhypotheses,someputintopracticesuchas
thenotionof theeco‐commune,onpossible solutions to sucha state.However, eachof theseare
themselves flawed, retrospectively discredited and shunned with each new publication and
humankindsinkseverdeeperstillintothemireofimpendingextinction.
As initially presented, the Findhorn Foundation and Ecovillage market themselves as being
tantamount to a self‐reliant, autonomous, sustainable community, and, for all practical purposes,
verging on aUtopia. However, through the examination of the ongoing reliance on capitalist input
thatappearstobethecruxoftheFoundation’secologicallybenignexistence,ithasbeenascertained
thatthisisnotentirelyso.TheFoundationhassimplyemergedasasuccessfulbusinessmodel.Unless
an individual has partaken in, and greatly profited from, the very system against which the
Foundationstands–therulingcapitalisteconomy–then inclusion intotheelitisteco‐club isproven
tobeproblematicatbest.Thefeeforentry isalargesumofthecapitalearnedpriortobecominga
conscientiousobjector to the systemonehasbeen enveloped in, that is required topurchase land
andestablishresidency.Onceaccepted intothisorganisationonewouldexpectthenirvanaofself‐
reliant sustainability to be instantly achieved, freeing oneself from all ties to the prevailing failing
state.Yettherestill remainthevariousfeestobepaidandservicesprovidedthatrequire incomein
ordertobebenefitedfrom.Thusthereisstilltheunderlyingissueofthegenerationofprofit.Ascited
earlier, many of the residents still maintain employment in businesses outside the Foundation,
bringinginoutsidecapital.Whereistheautonomyandself‐relianceinthis?
InharkingbacktotheexampleofnomadicNeolithicagriculturalistsofthefirstchapter,onecansee
thatthecharacteristicsevidentinsuchasocietyhavenotwanedwiththeprogressionoftime.Ifeach
107WilliamOphuls,ReversalistheLawofTao:TheImminentResurrectionofPoliticalPhilosophy,inStuartS.Nagel,EnvironmentalPolitics,p.37
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element of the study is exchanged for a facet ofmodern society, with the sub‐boreal forest being
replacedbythecapitalisteconomyandtheagriculturalistswitheco‐patriots,thenaparallelisdrawn
betweenthenomadicnatures.Thestatehasstrippeditselfbare,resemblingtheexpendedsoilofthe
Neolithic landscape; exceeding the ability to reproduce at the same rate as consumption requires.
Consequently,therearetheconscientiousfewwhomoveontogreenerpastures.Inourmodernday
parable these ‘greenerpastures’ take the formof the intentional eco‐commune.However, like the
newforesttobeclearedandcultivated,this issimplyatemporary solutionthatwill run its course.
Withouttheabilitytomanoeuvresuchanoperationasthistoanation‐widesituationfreefromthe
trappingsofadominantcapitalistinfluenceitcouldbesurmisedasimpossibletoliveouttheidealsof
suchphilosophiesashavebeenpresentedthusfar.Themultitudinousanti‐capitalistinsurgencyofthe
eco‐communalistbodyleadstoaninadequateconclusionoflittleconsequencewhentheissueofthe
commonsisnotaddressedontheglobalscalethatisrequired.Themajorityofliteraturepublishedon
suchmattersissadlyjusttherehashedrealisationofimpedingapocalypsesthatfirstappearedinthe
1960s. All major initiatives undertaken to solve the environmental crises examined to date have
involvedvariousrearrangementsofenclosuresregardingthecommons.Thisonlyservestoenablethe
potentiality of a Mesopotamian ecological disaster for each state as there is no thought towards
interregional animosity and self‐interest, feeding the struggle for dominance. The obdurate
characteristicsofhumankindarenotaddressedandtheHobbesianideaoffreewillmerelybeingthe
manifestations of passion and appetite; objectivemorality and reason disappearing in the stead of
pursuitofpleasureandavoidanceofpain,becomesincreasinglydifficulttoavoidaccepting.
What has been addressed here displays the beginnings of a movement in the direction of a
sustainable future thatbenefitsboth thehumanworldand,more importantly, thenon‐human,all‐
encompassingbiosphere.Theseare,however,justthebeginnings;thegenesisofapotentialsalvefor
the ills of modern society. The foundations that ecocentric theory has laid down are establishing
deeperrootsinmainstreamsocialandpoliticalthought,givingrisetoahouseunderwhichtheissues
ofglobal involvementanddistributioncanbediscussed.Asusufructuariesoftheplanetthere isno
otheroption than toaddress these issues.Theycannotbe seenasmerelyapossibility,but instead
must be seen as an eventuality. However fatalistic this may sound, it is the reality that is being
draggedkickingandscreaminginfrontofthecollectivepanelofglobalcitizens.Ithastakenmillennia
forustohaulitsleeringcarcasstotheforefrontofourconsciences,butithasfinallymanifesteditself
inthemultitudinousrecenteconomicandecologicaldisastersandcannownolongerbeobservedin
the periphery as a shadow lurking in the realms of potentiality. The ideas presented are the
examinations of the beginnings of a paramount discourse affecting every organism existing in the
presentandeveryorganism that is toexist in the future.There isnodenying it; thishasbecomea
redemptivecauseintheeyesofthebiosphere.
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‘Forweshallmakeafterallafairconclusiontothebriefmusicthatisman’
OlafStapledon,LastandFirstofMen108
108OlafStapledon,LastandFirstofMen:AStoryoftheNearandFarFuture,p.288
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Glossary
Weltschmerz
German.n.sadnessormelancholyattheevilsoftheworld;world‐weariness.[literally:worldpain]
Utopia
n.anyrealor imaginarysociety,place,state,etc.,consideredtobeperfector ideal.[C16:fromNew
LatinUtopia(coinedbySirThomasMorein1516asthetitleofhisbookthatdescribedanimaginary
islandrepresentingtheperfectsociety),literally:noplace,fromGreekounot+toposaplace]
Communalism
n. 1. a system or theory of government in which the state is seen as a loose federation of self‐
governingcommunities.2.thepracticeoradvocacyofcommunallivingorownership.
Communal
adj.1.Belongingorrelatingtoacommunityasawhole.2.Relatingtodifferentgroupswithin
asociety.3.Oforrelatingtoacommuneorareligiouscommunity.
Extinction n.1.theactofmakingextinctorthestateofbeingextinct.2.theactofextinguishingorofbeing
extinguished.3.completedestruction;annihilation.
–CollinsDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage,SecondEdition,WilliamCollinsSons&Co.Ltd.,1986
Page|44
Appendix
1:
ThenGodsaid,“Letusmakemankindinourimage,inourlikeness,sothattheymayruleoverthefishintheseaandthebirdsinthesky,overthelivestockandallthewildanimals,andoverallthecreaturesthatmovealongtheground.”
SoGodcreatedmankindinhisownimage,intheimageofGodhecreatedthem;maleandfemalehecreatedthem.
Godblessedthemandsaidtothem,“Befruitfulandincreaseinnumber;filltheearthandsubdueit.Ruleoverthefishintheseaandthebirdsintheskyandovereverylivingcreaturethatmovesontheground.”
ThenGodsaid,“Igiveyoueveryseed‐bearingplantonthefaceofthewholeearthandeverytreethathasfruitwithseedinit.Theywillbeyoursforfood.
Andtoallthebeastsoftheearthandallthebirds intheskyandallthecreaturesthatmovealongtheground—everythingthathasthebreathoflifeinit—Igiveeverygreenplantforfood.”Anditwasso.(Genesis,1:26–30)109
2:
Andthemultitudeofthemthatbelievedwereofoneheartandsoul:andnotoneofthemsaidthataughtofthethingswhichhepossessedwashisown;buttheyhadallthingscommon.
AndwithgreatpowergavetheapostlestheirwitnessoftheresurrectionoftheLordJesus:andgreatgracewasuponthemall.
Forneitherwasthereamongthemanythatlacked:forasmanyaswerepossessorsoflandsorhousessoldthem,andbroughtthepricesofthethingsthatweresold,
Andlaidthemattheapostles'feet:anddistributionwasmadeuntoeach,accordingas
anyonehadneed.(Acts,4:32–35)110
109http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis+1%3A26‐30&version=NIV(accessed05/12/2011) 110http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%204:32%20‐%2035&version=ASV(accessed05/12/2011)
Page|45
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