Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Faculty of Engineering and Environment
BE 1173 Project OrganisationsHuman Resource Management syllabus
Summer semester 2013
Edited by
Robert Moehler
Email: [email protected]
Tel.: +44 191 227 4746
i
ii
ContentsBE 1173 Project Organisations................................................................................................................ i
Human Resource Management syllabus.............................................................................................i
Contents............................................................................................................................................... iii
1 Lecture: Scene Setting...................................................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................1
1.2 Managing People...................................................................................................................2
1.3 The Syllabus...........................................................................................................................2
1.3.1 Examples of Polemic Headlines......................................................................................3
1.3.2 Management of the Changing Workplace.....................................................................6
2 Lecture: Scene Setting 2................................................................................................................8
2.1 Seeking organisational happiness..........................................................................................9
2.2 Reading Research Papers.....................................................................................................10
2.3 Organisational and Team Climate........................................................................................11
2.4 Critical Success Factors........................................................................................................12
2.4.1 Task Design..................................................................................................................12
2.4.2 Group Composition......................................................................................................12
2.4.3 Organisational Context................................................................................................12
2.4.4 Internal Process and Boundary Management..............................................................13
2.4.5 Group Psychosocial Traits............................................................................................13
2.5 Project Chemistry Outcomes...............................................................................................13
2.5.1 Social............................................................................................................................13
2.5.2 Task Related.................................................................................................................13
2.6 Paper Summary...................................................................................................................14
3 Lecture: Project Culture...............................................................................................................16
3.1 The Culture of Workplace Organisations.............................................................................16
iii
3.2 ACTION SYSTEMS.................................................................................................................17
3.2.1 Behaviour and Experience...........................................................................................17
3.2.2 TASK 1: Culture in your Workplace............................................................................18
3.3 Some Business Metaphors:..................................................................................................19
3.3.1 Free Spirits...................................................................................................................19
3.3.2 Setting Fire to the First Floor........................................................................................20
3.3.3 Fords losses are magic.................................................................................................20
3.3.4 The Frog and the Pan of Water....................................................................................21
3.4 TASK 2: GENERATE YOUR OWN CULTURE CASE STUDY......................................................21
3.4.1 YOUR HYPOTHESIS IS:..................................................................................................22
3.4.2 Background Notes: Four Dimensions..........................................................................22
3.4.3 Four Dimensions..........................................................................................................22
3.5 A Corporate Strength Questionnaire...................................................................................24
3.6 TASK 3: Cultural stereotypes...............................................................................................26
3.6.1 TASK CULTURE.............................................................................................................26
3.6.2 POWER CULTURE.........................................................................................................26
3.6.3 PERSON CULTURE........................................................................................................26
3.6.4 ROLE CULTURE.............................................................................................................26
3.7 Some Research Papers to Review and Analyse:...................................................................27
4 Motivation 1................................................................................................................................28
4.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES:........................................................................................................28
4.2 Why Motivate?....................................................................................................................28
4.3 The Red Gate Software case................................................................................................28
4.3.1 TASK 1: REVIEW CASE STUDY COMPANY - RED GATE..................................................29
4.4 Motivation Theories and Practice........................................................................................30
4.4.1 Motivation Theories.....................................................................................................30
4.4.2 Popular Motivation Theorists.......................................................................................30
iv
4.5 TASK 2: MOTIVATION - REFLECT ON YOUR ANSWERS TO THE RED GATE CASE STUDY.......32
4.6 TASK 3: MOTIVATION - FURTHER EXERCISES TO REVIEW YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF MOTIVATION THEORIES...................................................................................................................32
5 Motivation 2................................................................................................................................34
5.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES.........................................................................................................34
5.2 Motivation within the Dynamics of Project Management...................................................34
5.3 A Review of Recent Published Research papers from the International Journal of Project Management...................................................................................................................................34
5.4 TASK 1: Compare and Contrast these 3 Papers....................................................................40
5.4.1 General Discussion.......................................................................................................40
6 Management & Leadership 1......................................................................................................41
6.1 Management Styles.............................................................................................................41
6.1.1 Authoritarian (or autocratic style)...............................................................................41
6.1.2 Democratic...................................................................................................................41
6.1.3 Laissez-faire.................................................................................................................42
6.2 Communication systems......................................................................................................42
6.3 Leadership and Management..............................................................................................42
6.3.1 Leadership....................................................................................................................43
6.3.2 Management...............................................................................................................43
6.4 TASK 1: Develop your Own Leadership Theory....................................................................44
6.5 Leadership Style Matched to Project Type: an example of current thinking!.....................45
6.6 Some Leadership Definitions from famous people..............................................................45
7 Management & Leadership 2......................................................................................................47
7.1 Leadership: Seeking a new leadership style........................................................................47
7.1.1 Considered to be the old style.....................................................................................47
7.1.2 Considered to be the new style...................................................................................47
7.2 Behaviour of Leaders - 2 distinct categories........................................................................48
7.3 Needs Orientated and Task Dominated Work Place Cultures..............................................48v
7.3.1 Relationship Behaviour: needs and relationship orientated.......................................48
7.3.2 Task behaviour: Initiating Structure............................................................................48
7.4 REVIEWING DIFFERENT POPULAR THEORETICAL MODELS..................................................49
7.5 Action Centred Model..........................................................................................................49
7.5.2 Review a work place situation using Adair’s................................................................51
7.6 Managerial Grid...................................................................................................................53
7.7 Contingency Theory.............................................................................................................54
7.8 A Power Base for Leaders....................................................................................................55
7.8.1 Likert sub-divides a leaders power base into 4 categories...........................................55
8 Management & Leadership: Situational Leadership....................................................................56
8.1 Leadership Behaviour Types................................................................................................56
8.2 Follower Readiness Levels...................................................................................................57
8.3 Competence and Commitment............................................................................................57
8.4 TASK 1: Looking at Leadership Style.....................................................................................57
8.4.1 The Situations / Tasks: Seeing the problem from both sides!....................................59
9 Project Governance.....................................................................................................................62
9.1 Evaluation of alternative approaches of the effective Management of Projects.................62
9.2 Management of People.......................................................................................................62
9.2.1 Bureaucracy and Roles: Organisational Structural Influences on Behaviour................63
9.3 TASK 1: Designing Organisational Structure........................................................................64
9.3.1 Function-based structure.............................................................................................64
9.3.2 Product-based structure..............................................................................................65
9.3.3 Questions to be addressed..........................................................................................66
9.4 TASK 2: List and Compare the Advantages and Disadvantages of a Function Based Organisation and a Product Based Organisation – from the perspective of the employee.............67
9.5 TASK 3: Leadership Style; Motivation and Organisational Work Groups.............................67
9.6 Project Management: The Gathering Together of Individuals for a Single Purpose............69
vi
9.7 TASK 4: Discuss the advantages / disadvantages to an Organisation of Pure Project Management Organisational Structure philosophy.........................................................................70
9.8 Selection of Structure..........................................................................................................70
9.8.1 Relating Project Structures to Project Objectives........................................................71
9.9 TASK 5: Reflect on your own organisation...........................................................................72
9.10 Further Study: Structures to Facilitate the Empowered Organisation................................73
9.11 TASK 6: Experiment: Have a go at re-engineering your workplace to fit some of the above models.............................................................................................................................................73
10 Project Governance 2..............................................................................................................73
10.1 Some Key Roles and Individuals within a Project Management Governance Framework. . .73
10.1.1 Metaphors of the Organisational Jungle......................................................................74
10.1.2 TASK 1: Can you identify these people and the roles they have in your organisation?74
10.2 Programmes and Portfolios as a Form of Governance.........................................................75
10.3 Dilemmas in Organisational Structure.................................................................................76
10.3.1 Business Strategy.........................................................................................................77
10.3.2 Structure......................................................................................................................77
10.3.3 Work Groups................................................................................................................77
10.4 TASK 2 CASE STUDY: Dilemmas in Organisational Structure...............................................78
References...........................................................................................................................................82
vii
1 24/01/2013 Introduction
…every completed project has a secret life rooted in the joys and difficulties, the motivations and enthusiasms of the process, of getting there (Allison, 1997).
1.1 Who am I? and if yes, how many?Dipl.-Ing. Robert C. Moehler (Möhler) M.Sc. Lectuerer in Project ManagementFaculty of Engineering and EnvironmentNorthumbria UniversityWynne Jones Building (106a)Ellison PlaceNewcastle upon Tyne NE1 8ST T: +44 0 191 227 4746F: +44 0 191 227 3167E: [email protected]
Scholar in Governance and Organisational Studies FoEE, Northumbria University, Newcastle: Lectureship on the M.Sc. Project Management Programmes,
duties include Lecturing on the modules:– Project, Programme and Portfolio Management; – Research Methods; – Project Organisation and – Strategic Project Management.
FoEE, Northumbria University, Newcastle: Doctoral researcher, duties included making sense of the skills landscape and developing tools that help explaining the current dynamics. This work originates on a research project, funded by EPSRC and NECC:
– Moehler (Forthcoming) Employer strategies to engage with the skills development agenda in the Tyne and Wear region. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. Northumbria University.
Research interests:– Skills Development, incentive settings and experience (H. Dreyfus);– Organisational Theory (e.g. Actor Network Theory, Institutionalized logics and legitimisation)– Philosophy of science
How can organisational specific skills development for complex and technical challenging projects be managed? What are the restricting and enabling logics of the stakeholders involved in this learning journey?
“The only thing we learn from history is that we learn nothing from history.” Friedrich Hegel
“Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.” George Santayana
ESSENTIAL READING
Many, many other books will give you lots of information with regard to human resource management and project management – so many that you will be spoilt for choice which may extend into a real problem for you – there is just too much around!
1
For myself – I have used the following books:
(Morris, Pinto & Söderlund, 2011) - Morris, P. W. G., Pinto, J. K. & Söderlund, J. (eds.) (2011) The Oxford Handbook of Project Management. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
(Morris & Pinto, 2007) - Morris, P. W. G. & Pinto, J. K. (eds.) (2007) The Wiley Guide to Project Organization & Project Management Competencies. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
followed by -
(Huczynski & Buchanan, 2007) - Huczynski, A. & Buchanan, D. A. (2007) Organizational behaviour: an introductory text. 6th edn. London: Prentice Hall.
First published in 1985. It has been regularly updated and expanded since then and is now very current and a substantial “single source” book for this subject area.
The International Journal of Project Management; and International Journal of Project Organisation and Management are a rich source of published research information.
1.2 IntroductionSuccessful Project Organisations require successful human resource management; it is a central feature of how organisations gain and maintain success.
Project management requires a focus on the (end) product that is essential – there has to be something there to see or to use, something made or built on the ground, for example; but also there also has to be an ongoing focus on the process – without the process, the product will not happen. So the contradiction continues, without a focus on the product, the process is meaningless. Some perhaps get a buzz out of the process – team-working, partnerships, empowerment, and so on – but forget what they are in business for –
to get that project completed on time, to price, to quality.
My hypothesis, therefore, is
Project management success can only be judged by the product.
It is also suggested that improved performance in industry requires more than better processes, new technology or contractual regulation.
Improved performance is dependent on motivated and valued people, working in a culture of co-operation, teamwork and continuous improvement.
1.3 Managing PeopleManaging People is about:
Getting from them the most that they can give to sustain and develop your business.
This includes enabling people to find a job sufficiently interesting and satisfying to encourage them to perform well.
2
Motivating people to work efficiently and effectively which requires the manager to understand the relationship between motivation and productivity.
Managing people:
is all about getting things done through (other) people,
not simply keeping everybody apparently busy and happy.
1.4 The SyllabusThe term “human resource management” for some people is an unpleasant term suggesting (to some) that people working in an organisation are nothing more than resources to be managed as any other organisation resource (i.e.., tools and equipment) – a “Taylorism” perspective, perhaps. F.W. Taylor theories of Scientific Management argue for a clear division between the work done be management and workers; scientific methods to determine the best way to do a job and to select the best people to do a job; along with training methods and surveillance to improve productivity.
This syllabus does not go into this “territory” but concentrates on those practices which might engage employee participation and commitment; and those organisational practices that might also motivate and encourage commitment – but also to get the best from a workforce that meets the needs of the business they work for in the internal and external context that they belong to.
It is a “massive” subject area – and in the context of the timescale of this module and programme of study, I have had to make decisions with regard to which syllabus topics would be of use (and of interest) to you.
In some cases, there will be no definitive processes to adopt: so much of effective practice depends upon context. Successful project management is a complex phenomenon. I attempt to introduce you to the dynamics of human resource relationships within project management activity and what they might achieve.
This selection of appropriate syllabus has therefore been based on my attempt to bring a number of subjects to your attention that should “sensitise” you more to your own workplace environment – with you more able to manage and expand your own role in your workplace, and hopefully, your own influence on the business environment you belong to.
2 Managing People, Context and Structures (31/01/2013) RCM
2.1.1 Examples of Polemic Headlines Some banner headlines / quotations to stimulate your thinking (I use these to generate opinion –
they are dramatic and suggest strong opinions).
One type of business (no structure?): 3
This business is really successful at working in a particular way; it is very flat, very open and going
forward we must not lose that, we must not lose the magic (Unknown, 2004).
Can you afford to have a flat open, management system with no hierarchy?
Another type of business (too aggressive?):
You want pistols, hot-blooded people bent on making their mark. Not mild mannered conforming types who will succumb to the awesome power of the existing culture (Pitchett. P. & Pound, 1993, pp. 33 - 34 ).
Perhaps a note of caution here – the author is also the publisher. Can you afford “hot blooded
people” – thrusting, ambitious – can you hold on to them? Can you give them what they want? Can
they give what you want?
A view on the need to manage people:
There must be a congenial corporate culture, capable and assertive human resource leadership, and a truly supportive top management.
The importance of top management’s role must not be underestimated.
How executives experience and interpret human resource issues and whether they truly see investments in people as a source of competitive advantage will determine the extent to which they pursue a leadership position in human resource management.
Like all other essential business tasks, human resource management is the responsibility of operating management, not of the human resource department (Anderson, 1997).
Anderson (1997) expressed this in response to a previous article by Mervis (1997) quoted in (Patterson et al., 1997, pp. 22 - 23).
As a part of their recommendations, Patterson et al.(1997) finally ask;
What then are the essential ingredients for creating an organisation that views investment in people as a source of competitive advantage?
4
2.1.1.1 TASK 1: People – Who needs people?A CONTEXT DISCUSSION: Some questions to begin this process of study.
Current issues that involve people in your organisation:
What are the “hot” topics in your organisation / country at this moment in time? What do you consider to be the big issues with regard to successful business?
What do you think might be the consequences and how do you think these might be dealt with?
If you can’t think of a current issue – think back to any experiences you have had with regard to change – how was it dealt with – what were the processes to deal with the change?
Hot Topic Consequence and action required
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
5
You need people:
What value does your organisation place on the people employed by the
business? How does this manifest itself? What indicators would you use?
What are the nutrients (support systems, workplace practices, etc) in your
organisation that develop and support people?
What are you seeking? I suggest it’s people who are in their “natural” habitat – square pegs
in square holes, I suggest at a minimum level – people that have the skills, knowledge and
aptitude to do a “good job” – but also, I believe, you also need people with grit and
determination to remain in post when the going gets tough; people who can receive and
accept responsibility; and those who continually seek a better way of doing business.
2.1.1.2 TASK 2: Nutrients1 in your business (these can be internal / external to the organisation) –
List them:
Random Most important to least important
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
What can you summarise from this list (Perhaps try and answer the question “why” – always
the hardest question of all, in my opinion, but also the most illuminating)?
1 A number of questions to ask of yourself and your organisation - What supports you, what nurtures you, what encourages you, what gives you the momentum or energy to do what you need to do, what prepares you for new work / initiatives, what facilities are there provided to fulfil your potential and realise fully any ambitions you may have?
6
Current Issues - My own thoughts reflect issues on different levels:
2.1.2 Management of the Changing Workplace Mergers, companies swapping assets, mixing different workplace cultures;
Moving into new market places, dealing with the new and the un-rehearsed;
Breaking down “old” ways of doing business, fresh starts;
Management of Staff Development;
Keeping pace with your competitors, staying ahead of your competitors, fear of being left behind;
Learning organisations, learning from success and failure;
Getting the best out of your workforce;
Retaining your workforce, attracting the best people to your organisation;
Fear of losing your market share;
New procurement methodology putting your business at risk (JIT – dedicated suppliers – what happens when the need for your service disappears?);
Bandwagons (you climb on board or stay sensible?);
And finally, in this period of intense financial instability:
how do you hold on to key staff in a declining marketplace?
Some personal thoughts and comments:
The world of business: are these your experiences?
Unremitting change, colliding priorities, pressure for results - the modern world of work.
No business or part of a business is immune.
The modern manager must reduce costs, stay in touch with technological developments, and understand the dynamics of your ever-changing marketplace and customer demands.
You cannot afford to retreat to the apparent safety of your bunker and issue orders.
Organisations need to be flexible and responsive.
Decision-making needs to be devolved.
You must harness experience, skills and energies of diverse groups of people and build teams to get results.
7
The background to this programme of study is a commercial and business environment that could be described as hostile and competitive but with lots of opportunities to shine and do well:
Business today has to be more efficient and more effective than ever before.
Business and people have to work smarter.
Resources in business (people!) have to be used to their maximum potential.
Groups and teams within organisations have to be productive and pro-active.
Organisations cannot rest and sit on their laurels. They have to be constantly on the move. They have to seek new targets, new goals.
Individuals have to be able to take responsibility; work on their own; be tough and robust; and determined to complete tasks. To be self-starters and completers.
Conversely, no one person can be an island in a business; they have to work with others; listen to and trust others; and seek out techniques to get the best out of themselves and others in group work situation.
8
2.1.3 TASK 1: Is happiness important to you?I have included this little introductory exercise to help you begin the process of your own
articulation of what makes you “happy” (and perhaps those around you in the workplace) – and
then to further think about what motivates you as a person at this moment in time, in your life
and your career.
Ask yourself - what represents personal happiness at work to you? Is it:
a clear desk,
a cluttered desk,
a new computer,
a new car,
a challenging job,
etc.?
List your happiness Factors? (it is sometimes useful to list these randomly and then list them in order of importance to you – in this way you “freewheel” your initial thinking without slowing you down by offering a detailed judgement)
Random In Order of Importance
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
9
2.2 Seeking organisational happinessIs this important? What would be your receipt for success?
2.2.1.1 TASK 2: How would you describe YOUR organisational happiness?
10
2.3 Reading Research PapersA general structure to reading a research paper would be as:
1. Did the paper describe an important problem addressed via a clearly formulated question?
2. Was the field work approach appropriate (i.e., qualitative / quantitative)?
3. How were the setting and the subjects selected?
4. What was the researcher's perspective, and has this been taken into account?
5. What methods did the researcher use for collecting data—and are these described in enough
detail?
6. What methods did the researcher use to analyse the data—and what quality control measures
were implemented?
7. Are the results credible, and if so, are they important?
8. What conclusions were drawn, and are they justified by the results?
9. Are the findings of the study transferable to other settings?
For myself, I like to look at the substantive element of the work – what is it saying; but also to try to
understand the research process – the field work – is it authentic and authoritative?
From research papers such as these, theories can be developed, explained and explored which relate
to the workplace and to project management, in particular. They explain and articulate the
dynamics of the project workplace.
You may ask – what is a good theory?
There is nothing more practical than a good theory(Lewin, 1952).
They can be used to try and understand behaviour – and ultimately through this understanding and
application – to influence and to change behaviour. That is, successful, purposeful project
management is inextricably linked to successful people management.
11
2.3.1.1 An Initial Reading Exercise:Nicolini, D. (2002) 'In search of “project chemistry”', Construction Management and Economics, 20
(2), pp. 167-177.
The paper (Nicolini, 2002) “In search of Project Chemistry” uses as its’ context, the construction
industry. Using this volatile and dynamic (my words) project environment, it highlights what might
be considered “special” about a project. The “special” internal operational work environment of the
project – project chemistry - can lead to effective project performance.
My question for you:
How does the successful management of people fit into the scenario as put forward by Nicolini?
Key issues raised in this paper, I suggest are:
Importance of interpersonal relations, team spirit and collaboration.
Relationship dimensions and factors that may lead to successful project performance.
Project chemistry then becomes for Nicolini, a metaphor to highlight a particular aspect of business and work practices, albeit there are inherent risks as well – with “chemistry” comes the challenge of “risk” – it may not be in a fully managed and controlled environment with a “black-box” hidden internal project environment, perhaps developing.
There follows an attempt to define and articulate the heuristic potential of project chemistry.
2.4 Organisational and Team ClimateAtmosphere within an organisation – organisational climate – relates to the behaviour of individuals.
Organisational Climate is a result of either:
Nicolini posits 3 alternative dimensions.
Focus 1: Organisational Characteristics created from the:
Size of the organisation;
The degree of centralisation of decision-making within the organisation;
The number of levels of hierarchy;
The nature of the technology employed;
The extent to which formal rules and policies proscribe (i.e., prevent) individual behaviour.
Focus 2: Interaction of Individuals as a response to the context in which they work and is, in
consequence, a12
Shared response to the organisational situation.
Focus 3: Perception of Managers – and the role of their leadership – to create and shape the
climate in which the project team will operate. This will include
The organisational structure that they set up;
The way employees are rewarded;
How employees are recruited and promoted.
Those who argue against the value of assessing organisational climate as being a contributory factor
to project success, suggest that context needs to be aligned with organisational climate. The
“climate” has to serve a “purpose”. You have to understand what project is required, to fully
match / balance organisational climate to effective project performance.
2.5 Critical Success FactorsNicolini uses the example of the cross-functional nature of project work in the construction industry
– the gathering together within the construction project of a range of different employees with
different areas and levels of expertise, experience and knowledge, coming together to produce “the
project”. He suggests that this experienced model of working is being translated into other project
management environments to good effect.
Conditions conducive to organisational climate include:
2.5.1 Task Design
Challenging task
High levels of autonomy and empowerment
Formalised but flexible problem solving and progress measurement.
2.5.2 Group Composition
Right mix of expertise
Leader selected to match the project context
Openly negotiated roles and responsibilities
Stable and continuing membership
2.5.3 Organisational Context
Clear articulation of strategic vision
Practical line support
Project focussed accountability and reward systems
13
2.5.4 Internal Process and Boundary Management
Group defined goals and feedback
Project leader facilitates rather than dictates
Discussion welcomed and differences addressed
Use of networking outside of project boundaries to influence resource
2.5.5 Group Psychosocial Traits
Trust, respect, willingness to change, cohesiveness attributes exist.
2.6 Project Chemistry Outcomes.Nicolini puts together a set of attractive outcomes as a result of project chemistry. He divides these
up into social and task related outcomes
2.6.1 Social
Reduced social distance
Mutual understanding
Low conflict / constructive disagreements
High motivation and collective focus
Increased morale and dedication
2.6.2 Task Related
Improved problem detecting
Increased innovativeness
Improved communication
Reduced defects
Reduced waste
Reduced bureaucracy and related costs
Absence of litigation and legal costs
14
It would seem to me that these are extremely attractive and worthwhile attributes of a good positive
working environment which, as in all team working, is greater than the sum of the parts – there is
something extra special about a successful project environment that brings out the best in its’
workforce and increases the project teams capability.
Group effectiveness and group performance are enhanced.
The challenge in the project work environment is to achieve this with nurture and ongoing
maintenance essential.
2.7 Paper SummaryProject chemistry effects project performance
Good project chemistry will produce
Close social relationships
Friendly and open environment
Low levels of conflict
High motivation
Focussed team activity
High team morale and team dedication
Project chemistry is an outcome of the relationships between people, the task, and the organisation.
Project chemistry needs to be understood, nurtured and maintained.
A further task for you – is to review the process of the Nicolini paper and test it for authenticity and
authority. Is the research process appropriate?
15
2.7.1.1 TASK 3: SUMMARISE YOUR Key Points from the Nicolini research paper
Random Findings RANK - Most Important Findings
1
2
3
4
5
What lessons can you learn from this – to put into practice into a project management setting in
your own professional, industrial or workplace context?
How would transfer these findings into a Project Management context of your own experience?
16
2.8 Context: Work places
2.9 The Culture of Workplace OrganisationsThe culture of work place organisations can help or hinder the progress or survival of the
organisation. Even what may be seen as a developing organisation (and therefore, classed
in the realms of good practice) can still get itself into dangerous territory.
Managing people is all about getting things done through them, not simply keeping everybody apparently busy and happy.
But as Covey (1992) suggests that this is not easy and asks questions such as
How do you unleash the creativity, talent, and energy of the vast majority of the
workforce, whose jobs neither require nor reward such resources.
How do you decide between tough management that forces a better deal as against a
kinder management that hopes for a better bottom line; or do you try to seek a third
alternative that is tougher and kinder?
How do you have change, flexibility and continuous improvement and yet still
maintain a sense of stability and security?
How do you maintain control, yet give people the freedom and autonomy they need to
be effective and fulfilled in their work?
(See also Covey (1994), The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People.)
But of course, the bottom line is -
What works?
What doesn’t work?
I suggest that any management theory needs to be tested against and embedded or grounded in
practice – the practice within the Industry you belong to – in my case, the Construction Industry.
It also needs to be set against the need for all organisations to be developing organisations -
constantly testing the way they do their business and constantly trying to find better ways of
doing what they do.
17
2.10 ACTION SYSTEMSCulture leads to action: The way we do things around here.
All organisations / companies / businesses / projects are ACTION SYSTEMS. The
current work place culture of an organisation can help (or hinder) action. This may be simply
expressed as “the way we do things around here!” So there may be a way of “doing
business” that will help the organisation deal with a particular problem or issue. There may
be a difficulty if the problem or issue needs to be dealt with in a different or special way to
“normal”. In some cases, you may get a negative response and inaction based on “we’ve
never done it that way before”. For the new project - there may also be the problem of the
new “team" with no action systems developed yet. You have to make it up as you go along.
2.10.1 Behaviour and ExperienceIt is suggested that there is a relationship between behaviour and experience with our
experience informing or directing our behaviour. In the same way – the work place culture of
an organisation will set action standards and practices that are set by that culture.
We (often?) reproduce the action the culture of the workplace dictates; the manager
submitting to the demands of the organisation. Often needing people to be “divided beings”
– a person for work / a person for home – the “hard person” at work and yet the caring /
loving parent at home. A term used to describe this dilemma – kinetic sting – the price to
be paid for your role in the company. This can often lead to real hate of the job and the
organisation but for some, a price that has to be paid. But, would you work for such an
organisation?
18
2.10.2 TASK 1: Culture in your WorkplaceLIST Any work place practices that have influenced the way you work or behave?
These may be overt / covert.
These may have been particularly apparent in the early days of joining an organisation or
perhaps during a period of change – i.e., take-over by another company; change of
manager, etc.
Your examples may include –
At a low level – culture can manifest itself in such things as
dress sense (suit, tie, smart clothes or the opposite);
communication systems – telephone, written memos, emails, even verbal language.
hours of work – start early / late, finish early / late, work unpaid overtime, etc.;
sometimes going against your own natural way working / doing business.
NOW list these in ORDER OF IMPORTANCE
and add your comment with regard to your own personal feelings towards these practices –
on a scale of 1 (low) to 5 (high) scoring system , how happy where you following these
practices.
Random In Order of Importance to you
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
CONCLUDE
1. Have you been under pressure to conform in some way to the “norm”?
2. Do you consider yourself to be now a part of the work-place culture and an “insider”?
3. How do you feel about this?
19
2.11 Some Business Metaphors:These are “business stories” that can help to set scenes. Do you relate to any of these?
2.11.1 Free SpiritsAs well as needing people who “fit in”, there is the converse thought that there is the
opposite dimension to look at – people who can discover and learn for themselves?
You may need people who are free spirits prepared to go where no human being has trod
before – a need for great exploration / seeking new discoveries. Perhaps for people who
can cope with the unexpected – to think on their feet, to think “in action”. Not to rely on
rehearsed solutions. A term used to describe this is going beyond “cognitive apprenticeship”
– that is, going beyond the way that the business has taught you how to do things.
The film “Saving Private Ryan” - think of it as a management metaphor – the management of
uncertainty. Young, dynamic companies often seek this model – no structure, no hierarchy,
no holding back from experimentation or trying something new.
But this approach also can be extremely dangerous, even for well established companies –
will you succeed, can you afford not to succeed? Look at Nick Leeson situation with Barings
Bank (also became a film) – a technically empowered rogue who wreaked havoc with illegal
trading on the derivatives stock exchange.
What would you conclude from these 2 examples of practice?
Have you any examples from your own employment history of being in situations like this?
20
2.11.2 Setting Fire to the First Floor.From Kenneth Allison, 1997, Getting there by Design, page 132, Architectural Press.
Honda – who attempt to set up a work environmental triad comprising enduring values, trust
and empowerment – have a way of encouraging innovation by setting up a balance between
set tasks and loose controls. How these are managed is interesting. In the words of a
Honda executive discussing how task groups work: “We put them upstairs, remove the
ladders, and say, “You have to figure out a way of getting down”, then we set fire to the first
floor. I think human beings display their greatest creativity under these circumstances”
(Quoted from Pascale, R., 1990, Managing on the Edge, Simon and Schuster.)
What would you conclude from this business metaphor?
Have you any examples from your own employment history of being in a situation like this?
My own thoughts:
Sadly it often needs a serious situation to develop before thinking and action ensue. Note –
the use of the word empowerment – an important, currently popular, concept that needs
further examination (also look at the word – subsidiarity – the inevitable conclusion of
empowerment, in my opinion.) The advent of distributed computing and telecommunications
has enabled unprecedented levels of accountability and responsibility to be pushed down
the line and out from the corporate nerve centre – generally with positive results – measured
in terms of efficiency, productivity and to some degree, the satisfaction, fulfilment and reward
of those so empowered. But it can go horribly wrong!
2.11.3 Fords losses are magic.A newspaper headline from a few years back – “Fords losses are magic” – allowed the car-
maker to fundamentally change its way of doing business. After years of making continuous
profits, management never felt in a position to change their archaic production practices.
After a loss making year – they had the reason / impetus / gravitas to get change started.
There was now a readiness for change!
21
A story for breaking out of an existing culture – have you any experiences such as these?
2.11.4 The Frog and the Pan of Water.Charles Handy often quotes the following story –
Put a frog into a pan of hot water and it will jump out and save itself.
Put a frog into a pan of cold water and gently turn up the heat – the frog is clever
– it is able to adapt to the rise in temperature and stay alive, but – there is a limit
to how much the frog can change and adapt. Sadly, the frog doesn’t know when
this is. There comes a time when the water gets so hot that it explodes and dies!
The point behind the story being – applied as a business metaphor – that if you try to put a
business into a dangerous situation – it will do the obvious and protect itself. However,
potentially dangerous situations can creep up on you over a long period of time -– a
business can change and adapt to suit the external situation it finds itself in (reduction in
market share, reduction in market price for it’s goods) until the elastic cannot stretch
anymore – with result of implosion / explosion.
2.12 TASK 2: GENERATE YOUR OWN CULTURE CASE STUDYBased on the following, I want you to prepare a Culture Case Study analysis of an
Organisation that you have experience of.
This exercise has been set out as a mini-research project which asks a question, which you
can convert into your hypothesis which you will then prove or disprove using a questionnaire
and then a process of analysis (with testing against a model) followed by some analysis and
reflection.
22
Begin by answering the following –
Has it a strong or weak Culture? Strong Weak.
YES / NO YES / NO
(note – that this is a polarity question, perhaps always unfair – but I have put it in to corner you.)
Write down your hypothesis, beginning with the name of your chosen organisation
For example – this MSc degree course in Project Management has a strong culture.
2.12.1 YOUR HYPOTHESIS IS:
Now I want you to begin a detailed process of analysis (and eventually to prove or disprove your
original assessment).
2.12.2 Background Notes: Four Dimensions.Note: this survey activity is based on work done by Deal and Kennedy (1982).
This is used by Huczynski & Buchanan (2007).
2.12.3 Four Dimensions
2.12.3.1 ValuesOrganisations have a strong value system, which gives direction and purpose to their
membership.
Churches, religious associations and cults are prime examples of this.
Espoused values such as fairness, the importance of education, loyalty, or quality show that
the company stands for something, and gives it a reason to be.
A corporate system develops over a number of years.
2.12.3.2 Heroes and heroinesThese provide role models to aspire to and emulate.
Can be company founders, successful CEO’s.
23
May be ordinary employees who accomplish extra-ordinary things and embody the corporate
culture’s ethic of success.
Alive or dead, these people motivate staff by personifying the company, which is after all, an
abstraction.
2.12.3.3 Traditions and RitualsThese are the means by which the culture’s values are communicated to employees on a
daily basis. They include meetings, ceremonies and taken for granted rituals. Strong
cultures look for opportunities to celebrate, reward and symbolise rites of passage,
promotions and achievements, which conform to, and reinforce basic corporate values.
These are rarely written down. Nevertheless, they show members, which behaviours are
permitted and which are discouraged.
2.12.3.4 Networking CultureThe informal communication network is the vehicle for transmitting culture.
Storytellers tell newcomers how they should behave in order to succeed in the company;
Priests are the guardians of the culture’s values; they speak in parables, and know the company’s history;
Whisperers and gossips spread news, embellish stories and create heroes and heroines;
Cabals are the small groups of people who organise themselves to advance up the organisation.
These communication roles are a feature of all companies. In a strong culture they support and communicate important corporate values to all organisational levels.
(a bit of personal reflection here – which one are you, or perhaps you are a few of these, in your organisation?)
FOLLOW UP EXERCISE AFTER YOU DONE THE QUESTIONAIRE
Development into a common feature analysis - seek out the common features.
DISCUSSION / REFLECTION.
Is a strong organisational culture a good or a bad thing?
Does it help or hinder an organisation?
24
2.13 A Corporate Strength Questionnaire
This questionnaire is intended to rate your perception of the strength of the culture of the organisation chosen by you along the four dimensions of values, heroes and heroines, traditions and rituals and the cultural network (Huczynski & Buchanan, 2007).
SA Strongly AgreeA AgreeN NeutralD DisagreeSD Strongly Disagree
SA A N D SD
1. 5 4 3 2 1New recruits are carefully made aware of how things are done in this organisation.
2. 5 4 3 2 1When an organisation member performs excellently they are recognised at formal ceremonies. (e.g. fresher’s week, strategy away days, employee’ family fun day’s)
3. 5 4 3 2 1Well-established traditions are a feature of this organisation. (e.g. fresher’s week, strategy away days, employee’ family fun day’s)
4. 5 4 3 2 1As a newcomer, it isn’t long before someone tells you a story about the organisation in the “old days”.
5. 5 4 3 2 1Employees can easily recognise the organisations basic beliefs which are reflected in many of its practices, procedures and programmes.
6. 5 4 3 2 1The memories of the organisations great heroes are kept alive for current members.
7. 5 4 3 2 1Members of this organisation have distinctive ways of communicating and relating to one another. (e.g. use of names – first names / surnames only; extensive emailing.)
8. 5 4 3 2 1The organisation has a procedure for matching new recruits with established staff to help them become better integrated.
9. 5 4 3 2 1The organisation has a single ideal that symbolises to all its members what it stands for (e.g. quality, learning, customer care).
10. 5 4 3 2 1The success of some organisation members is communicated to and serves as a model for others.
11. 5 4 3 2 1Organisational ceremonies are taken seriously by senior staff who always attend them (e.g. graduations, long service award presentations).
12. 5 4 3 2 1The organisation’s grapevine regularly carries information about significant events that affect all employees.
25
Corporate Strength Questionnaire – scoring and interpretation.
Add the scores for the following sets:
A score B score C score D score
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8
Q9 Q10 Q11 Q12
TOTALS:
A B C D
GRAND TOTAL:
A relates to VALUES.
B relates to HEROES and HEROINES.
C relates to TRADITIONS and RULES.
D relates to CULTURE NETWORK.
Now make a comparison to the following benchmark as suggested by Deal and Kennedy
Values Heroes & Traditions & Cultural Grand TotalHeroines Rituals Network
Strength
Very strong 13 – 15 12 – 15 12 – 15 13 – 17 47 – 60
Strong 11 – 13 10 – 11 10 – 11 11 – 12 41 – 46
Medium 9 – 10 6 – 9 7 – 9 9 – 10 33 – 40
Weak 7 – 8 4 – 5 5 – 6 8 – 9 26 – 32
Very weak 3 – 6 3 – 4 3 – 7 3 – 7 12 - 25
NOW, have you proved or disproved your hypothesis?
26
2.14 TASK 3: Cultural stereotypesFour pre-dominant cultural stereotypes can characterise organisations.
All these elements may exist in all organisations – but at the end of the day which dominant theme exists, will depend upon the context it which it exists.
2.14.1 TASK CULTUREOften consisting of individuals operating in teams or as a matrix organisation.
Can provide a “home” for professionals – organisations providing professional autonomy, often flat hierarchies and consultation within an organisational climate surrounded with expertise.
At best: co-operative, expert, good in a changing environment, with strong relationships between mutually respected colleagues. Not a risk taker.
At worst: tends towards excessive navel-gazing, can be a “smoke screen” for the real stereotype – a power culture (can be shown up in an emergency, for example).
2.14.2 POWER CULTUREOften centred around a strong individual surrounded by reliable individuals who think and act in a similar way. Few formal rules or bureaucracy but can be a very disciplined organisation. Decisions made quickly and unequivocally. People judged on basis of effectiveness and results. Can be bogged down with Machiavellian practices.
2.14.3 PERSON CULTURECreated from cluster of individuals who have come together for mutual benefit. The organisation is loose, decentralised and networked. Professionals can feel stronger allegiance to a person culture because they have a greater sense of commitment to their own professional standing. They generally work for themselves. Can be difficult to organise and exercise power over.
2.14.4 ROLE CULTUREGenerally has formally defined roles, rules, and procedures. They seek minimum risk and maximum efficiency and effectiveness. Can be rigid and slow to change. Can be reliable in action albeit individuals may hide their “talents” behind their roles. Very process orientated and can exist within job secure and 9-5 organisations.
Which do you think are most suitable for the industry you belong to and the project management context that exists therein? (and answer the follow up question – and why? Further Reading (Rowlinson & Root, 1996; Zuo & Zillante, 2006; Ankrah, 2007))
27
2.15 Some Research Papers to Review and Analyse: 1. The Importance of Project Culture in Achieving Quality outcomes in Construction (Thomas et
al., 2002).
2. Towards a new workplace culture(Savolainen, 2000).
3. Understanding Approaches to Culture (Fellows, 2006).
REVISIT THE LEARNING OUTCOMES OF THIS Chapter:
Review your development:
You should be able to
1. Understand the ingredients of work place culture
2. Understand the positive and negative effect that culture can have on worker motivation and
therefore subsequently, performance.
28
3 Motivation 1
3.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES:You should be able to understand the general principles and theories of worker motivation and apply them to work place situations.
3.2 Why Motivate?Predicting, understanding and influencing work behaviour can help to make an organisation more efficient – it will be able to achieve more from its’ workforce; it will recruit more easily suitable people to “fit” into its’ workforce.
Work motivation is a set of energetic forces that originate both from within as well as beyond an individual’s being, to initiate work-related behaviour and to determine its form, direction, intensity and duration (Pinder, 1998).
Our motives are a major determinant in our behaviour. It is thought that if we / you understand what motivates a person, it will help to influence (or increase) behaviour patterns. The conclusion being – if an organisation can identify motivators, it can manage (manipulate?) these to increase levels of employee satisfaction and productivity levels amongst its staff.
An example from a young and expanding IT company:
3.3 The Red Gate Software caseTheir company website has to offer the prospective applicant (Red Gate Software Limited, 2012):
When you join Red Gate you'll be doing a real job from day one. We don't have long graduate induction or rotation schemes. Each year we have vacancies for technical graduates to join us in software development, software testing, user experience, IT and product support, and for humanities graduates to join us in Marketing. We offer an excellent financial package and a comprehensive benefits package including a £2,000 graduate signing bonus.
Red Gate will challenge you and invest in your personal and professional development from the outset. Depending on your role, you may have the option to attend international trade shows or conferences. You will be working with people who are experts at what they do; you'll learn from them and they'll learn from you. Because we're a growing company, the sky's the limit for your career development.
Red Gate's philosophy is all about 'simple'. We make ingeniously simple tools that are simple to use and simple to buy. Simplicity extends to our recruitment process too. There are no long application forms or assessment centres and you'll interview with people doing the same job as you.
Most importantly of all, we offer a great working environment. Red Gate is relaxed and informal but we take our work very seriously, allowing you to make your mark on our products and the way we do business. Whatever part of the company you work in, you'll be part of a small team with open discussions and the free flow of ideas.
29
Some questions to try and answer:
1. What do you think about this description of what sort of workplace environment you would work for?
2. What sort of people do you think they are trying to attract?
3. Does the language used do the job you think it is intended for?
3.3.1 TASK 1: REVIEW CASE STUDY COMPANY - RED GATE.List what would attract you to this company? (it is sometimes useful to list these randomly and then list them in order of importance to you – in this way you “freewheel” your initial thinking without slowing you down by offering a detailed judgement)
Random In Order of Importance
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
30
List what you would not like about this company or make you just a little worried?
Random In order of Concern
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
3.4 Motivation Theories and Practice
3.4.1 Motivation TheoriesMany Motivation Theories exist.
You may ask: what use are they, what purpose do they serve?
What use do you think can be made of them?
Theories help to understand practice. It is suggested that they allow you to work with a model to analyse or try to make sense of how a workplace works, for example, and in this way, enables you to work, in a structured and organised way towards improved practice. It can be argued that all theories are fallible; it is only that some are more or less fallible (and, therefore, more accurate) than others.
There is nothing so practical as a good theory (Lewin, 1952).
3.4.2 Popular Motivation Theorists
3.4.2.1 Hierarchy of needs theoryMaslow: A hierarchy of needs theory going from our basic, low level, biological requirements of food, water and shelter through into the ever higher needs of safety, affiliation, knowing and understanding, aesthetics, self actualisation, and finally into transcendence. It is argued that as each
31
level is satisfied, we then move into the next higher level – and it is that level which then becomes our dominant motivator. However, you could argue that some of us will do without, or sacrifice, some of the lower level motivators to find success at a higher level.
3.4.2.2 Theory X and YMcGregor: This theory was based on Maslow and develops into a set of models or styles of management, called Theory X and Y, that relate to employees and are based on your perception of what motivates your employees. Theory X suggests that your employees are lazy, they dislike work and that they need to be forced into work with tactics that control, coerce, direct and may even threaten with punishment (i.e., if you do not do this, I will stop you be able to do that, type language / action). Theory Y managers believe that there employees like work, are creative, seek responsibility and exercise self-direction.
3.4.2.3 motivation – hygiene theoryHerzberg: Advanced the motivation – hygiene theory which separates those actions in our workplace which motivate at a higher level from those which operate at a lower level only, dealing with the hygiene factors in the workplace. The higher motivators considered intrinsic to an employees job to make them work harder are things such as responsibility, recognition, achievement, advancement opportunity, work itself (and the design of how the work is done), learning and growth opportunity. Such attributes of the workplace such as pay, benefits, working conditions, quality of supervision and inter-personal relationships are not considered to be motivators, only hygiene factors which, if present, only prevent job dissatisfaction. They do not, it is argued, increase satisfaction; they only prevent dissatisfaction. You may ask, is this true of you?
3.4.2.4 needs theoryMcClellend: Is a needs theory that argues that we hold achievement, power and affiliation as our important needs and that they exist in all of us, albeit to different levels. Are these relevant to you?
3.4.2.5 reinforcement and behaviour modification theorySkinner: Produced a reinforcement and behaviour modification theory. It looks at what we as managers do to increase worker motivation and that we should always be seeking to reward desired behaviour and therefore use positive reinforcement and generally try to ignore poor behaviour. Skinner also looks at other behaviour modification practices that include negative reinforcement and punishment.
3.4.2.6 dimensions of expectancyVroom: Relates motivation to the dimensions of expectancy and suggests that a person will do something or work as hard as required based on what the outcome will be in terms of expectation of reward. Expectation of promotion, for example, will encourage extra effort (and likewise, removal of promotion expectancy discourages extra effort – what is in it for me, I hear you say).
32
3.5 TASK 2: MOTIVATION - REFLECT ON YOUR ANSWERS TO THE RED GATE CASE STUDY.
With the benefit of reading through the different motivation theories,
Which motivation theory most accurately reflects your own personal current motivation situation?
Why do you think this is so?
3.6 TASK 3: MOTIVATION - FURTHER EXERCISES TO REVIEW YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF MOTIVATION THEORIES.
CASE STUDY SITUATIONS (Huczynski & Buchanan, 2007):
1. You have been asked to be the leader of a student work group by me. One member of the group repeatedly fails to turn up for meetings. She does not do her share of the work and you are often left to complete it for her. This confirms your view of people like her being fundamentally untrustworthy.
Which theory applies?
2. There is a last minute rush to re-equip one of the computer labs in your School. Overtime payments have been authorised for both work sections. The head of hardware reports that his staff have responded well and will meet the deadline. The software manager, however, complains that she is not able to induce her staff to work late or work weekends. They complain of having to do the same old things. When they were there they spent their time talking about the state of the local football team, and were just not getting on with their jobs. She reckons that she will have to cut their overtime bonuses if they don’t shape up.
Which theory applies?
3. Your group syndicate is preparing a report to the rest of the year group. Only 2 people are allowed to present from each group and within your group you do have 2 people who have volunteered to do this. They would like to have the practice but unfortunately do not have any experience. You do have two other group members who are very experienced and have excellent presentation skills. They would do an excellent job.
33
Which theories would you use to ensure that everybody remains motivated?
4. One of your modules in your programme is very hard it seems. Hardly anyone gets a first for any of their work, only a few get 2.1’s, and most get a 2.2 or a 3rd. The module tutor has complained about the quality of the work with general comments about all students being lazy these days.
Which theories explain how much time each student will devote to this module?
Which theories suggest what the lecturer should do to improve performance?
5. Many of your friends are encouraging you to run for President of your Student Union. You think that this might be a good idea, but you know that it will detract you from your studies (there are only so many hours in a week!). You worry that your marks for your degree course might suffer. What do you decide?
Which theories are relevant?
6. You have joined a “blue-chip” construction project management organisation as a graduate trainee. The construction sector has witnessed an amazing roller-coaster ride in recent years of boom / bust with subsequent challenges of recruitment and redundancy. Your organisation has decided to relocate to new purpose built premises to reflect the leading-edge image of the organisation. Work teams have also been re-organised into “project work teams” of six, and they are empowered to make their own working arrangement. The response has been mixed; some teams are already performing very well but some not so well. Team leaders have already reported that some team members are slowing the others down.
What theories are relevant?
SUMMARY:
34
4 Motivation 2
4.1 LEARNING OUTCOMESYou should be able to:
Understand different motivational dynamics present in a project orientated work place.
Consider different approaches to a suitable working place environment to encourage and facilitate well motivated employees.
Understand the consequence of the unique motivational experiences associated with project orientated organisations.
4.2 Motivation within the Dynamics of Project Management
…every completed project has a secret life rooted in the joys and difficulties, the motivations and enthusiasms of the process, of getting there (Allison, 1997).
I begin this section by repeating the adapted quotation I have used as the opening “headliner” to my learning notes. For me, it encapsulates much of what I have enjoyed working in the construction industry – that is, you work on “tangible” artefacts – buildings – which you can see through from the “beginning” - of specification, to design and to the build phases, through to the challenge of the “end” - completion and occupation. It is exciting to stand on a piece of ground and watch the first hole in the ground being dug; it is challenging to persist and persevere when the weather conditions are bad or when crucial components arrive on site damaged or inferior to what is required; it is full of pressure and tension – and stress – coping with the cash flow on a contract, or dealing with the challenges of a mainly sub-contracted workforce. I have always been motivated by the process of construction – the challenge of building – of project management.
Our motives are a major determinant in our behaviour. It is thought that if we / you understand what motivates a person, it will help to influence (or increase) behaviour patterns. The conclusion being – if an organisation can identify motivators, it can manage (manipulate?) these to increase levels of employee satisfaction and productivity levels amongst its staff.
4.3 A Review of Recent Published Research papers from the International Journal of Project Management
Paper 1: When project-based management causes distress at work by Asquin, Garel & Picq (2010).
Reviews project management work place environments that may cause pressure, heavy commitment, risk and perhaps suffering.
35
They set a high level scene by quoting Kwak & Anbari (2009): Project-based working is so widespread today that it can be seen as a component of the new ideology of modern capitalism as well as a pervasive element of social life.
They suggest that a myth is created of good fortune to be gained from project-based work.
The language of project-based management seems laden with connotations: surpassing of oneself, challenge, initiative, personal achievement, professional development.
Employees working on projects become actors suggesting a form of autonomy that they are supposed to enjoy.
They conclude that forms of distress emerge for which no responsibility is really taken.
They paint a rather disturbing and dramatic picture using a quotation from a French national newspaper: The nature of work has changed; it has become more fluid, flexible and reactive and, for many employees, certainly more interesting. However, the changes have also given rise to a new phenomenon: pressure. Various indicators show that work intensification and the resulting pressure are having a dangerously damaging effect on working conditions, with worrying increases in absenteeism, mental-illness, occupational diseases, workplace accidents, even suicide and, to a different extent, alcoholism and drug addiction in the workplace (Askenazy, P., 2005, Le Monde, 31/12/2005, France). Personally I would want to contest this statement – I have not seen much of this myself in my workplace – but perhaps I am naive and not fully experienced in the challenges of project management in a “full-on” commercial setting. However, they do set a disturbing set of features of project management activity that do need to be addressed: the employee is at risk!
Employee Risk Management
3 categories are used to subdivide and deal in detail with employees “at risk” workplace practices:
1 Individual risks from excessive commitment and involvement.
They use the example of an employee seconded on a part time a week basis to a project in the same company - he had felt obliged to join the project team – it was seen as a “feather in his cap” (a career step-up move) – but the exposure from being in the “company limelight” had a detrimental effect: The pressure I had been subjecting myself to, plus the pressure from my department had been putting on me for so many long months, as well as the pressure from the project manager and then form the team members, it was all too much: I was exhausted, drained, completely lacking motivation. At first, the project environment had been an attractive work place situation: Knowing your opinion is being sought, that your needed, frankly it’s gratifying, and the project manager took advantage of that in order to push me into always working just that little bit harder. On the plus side, there was excitement in the project and good working relationships had been forged with the rest of the project team (much better than in his normal workplace).
Motivational dynamics are naturally present in project activity: A locus for high levels of commitment because of their intrinsic characteristics: they present a time-limited challenge that stirs individuals into action, giving them clear objectives to be fulfilled through team work and marking a break from daily routine.
They therefore conclude that involvement is generated from:
36
intellectually – ideas contribute directly into the team;
socially – you are a part of a team;
emotionally – the energy you deploy creates an attachment to the project and the
team.
(it would seem there is no escape?)
They suggest that you can sub-divide these personal issues as:
No alternative: The “team ethic” drives you on to doing things you would not normally consider – long hours, hugely increased effort to meet deadlines, for example.
Professional Risks: Social pressure and the intimacy often found within project team can lead to members being challenged about their ability to “do the job”. You are often forced to commit yourself without being certain you can do keep your promises.
Suffering psycho-affective disorders: Pressure does not suit everyone - projects can generate performance anxiety and increase in competitive spirit - consequences being stress, burnout and lead to unattractive ways to “take off the pressure”.
2 Destabilising of professional identity
In a project team gathered together from many professional disciplines (and therefore different levels of expertise), the views of specialists may be watered down: technically we were well below what we were capable of. The position of the “expert” in the project team can be compromised by the other team members not being on their “wave length” and having to have their work diluted in the project can lead to stress. Traditional professional identity can be over-ridded by the affiliation with the project and the project team – whilst may seem a strong point – the dependency of working within interdependent and multi-skilled work teams can sometimes compromise professional identity.
3 Precariousness of professional careers
Attachment to project work could compromise career development – the “temporariness” of the project always meaning that project team members are always having to “move on” and look for the next project – often in competition with fellow team members from the same project. Personal ability may also be tied into the success or otherwise of the project - a successful project suggesting that you have done well, a bad project suggesting that you were to partly to blame! Balancing career development and project opportunities can also be a nightmare for some!
Conclusions:
1 Feelings of isolation for the individual
2 Loss of collective capability
and, finally, a question -
3 Is project-based work a tool for individual collective and organisational development (and success) or a new form of exploitation and domination?
37
Paper 2: The Project Involvement Index, psychological distress, and psychological well-being: Comparing workers from projectised and non-projectised organisations by (Chiocchio et al., 2010).
Many organisations are using projectisation of their production units to increase efficiency and competitiveness (even if their natural work habitat does not facilitate project-driven work units).
This paper views project worker activity from the (negative) perspective of worker inefficiency exists (with the consequence of reduced productivity) if poor health conditions are evident.
Job demands from work overload, time pressures, etc. can lead to fatigue and ultimately to stress. In particular, project overload, disruption to progress, inefficiency caused by competing commitments in multi-project situations result in a psychological stress response
High demand, low control
High production complexity; low levels of routine operations
Even if projects are characterised by uncertainty and variable expectations – highly efficient project organisations will strive for standard procedures across projects: they will also seek to sustain continuous learning through knowledge management between projects.
Where projects are the “business”, organisational structure will be tailored to manage uncertainty. Duplication of effort, variable workloads, complex decision making processes, multiple communication channels require employees to have project specific training and competencies.
Findings
Irrespective of job category, employees involved in non-project based organisations who are also involved in projects show higher levels of distress and lower levels of well-being than employees involved in projects that come from project based organisations.
Project work, despite its challenges, is perceived to be more rewarding than routine based work.
Healthy organisations provide clarity of goal, opportunities for growth, pride in group task completion, and organisational cohesiveness.
Organising tasks into projects with clear deadlines, multi-disciplinary challenges, intense teamwork and high worker cohesion, foster attributes which will positively affect mental health.
Paper 3: Profiling work motivation of project workers by Dwivedula & Bredillet (2010).
These authors set out to understand the constructs of work motivation in project-based organisations and to make comparisons to traditional organisations to find out what is “special” with regard to motivation factors that might exist within project-based organisations.
Motivational attributes (using a range of existing research material) that can be found within the project management environment, they suggest are:
Challenging nature of work
Feedback on performance, enjoyable nature of work
Task identity, task significance, and job autonomy
38
Shared identity, need for relatedness, cohesiveness, and communication
Model of work motivation for project organisations - contributing factors
Their main conclusions are summarised into a 5-dimensions model:
1 Employee development job advancement
variety of knowledge
participative decision making
high level of knowledge
development of competencies
sense of achievement
2 Work climate variety of tasks
social interaction
feedback from work
significant job
communication flow
3 Perceived equity adequate pay
adequate recognition
freedom at work
feedback from colleagues
4 Work Objectivity complete piece of work
clarity of goals
5 Job Security job security
Traditional organisations are characterised by vertical structures for flow of authority and communication; there is little customer focus.
Projects are temporary structures engaged in the creation of temporary products or services: they require cross-functional skills for successful completion; they are characterised by performance constraints and environmental uncertainties.
Traditional organisations appear to have a dominant job characteristics theoretical model with skill variety, task identity, task significance, training and feedback incorporated via formal techniques .
They use the example of the construction industry whereby large organisations are becoming increasingly flat – achieving greater client focus with multi-function teams that are adequately empowered – is the key to success.
39
Further observations
1 Employee development: worker empowerment is more easily achieved within project environments because of the nature of the work – a great deal of flexibility, creativity and intellectual analysis is needed; ambiguous standards with uncertainty of outcomes combined with often established and shared methods of working in the project tea – all mitigate against management control from outside of the project team.
2 Work climate: if project team members have a common objective to attain, have sufficient task interdependence, and when they are able to constantly interact with each other, a positive work place climate is achieved.
Perceived equity: combines financial and non-financial rewards, grounded in the theory that an employee is motivated if effort is matched by reward. In particular, professionals are considered to value a sense of responsibility and can be expressed through a desire for freedom at work. Non-financial reward such as recognition and feedback are considered important whilst financial reward based on performance is seen as another form of feedback.
3 Perceived equity: constituents include financial and non-financial rewards. Belonging to the area of Equity Theory” which argues that motivation occurs when there is a direct link between effort and reward (the challenge, in my opinion, is to articulate “reward” – what is meant by reward?).
4 Work Objectivity: specificity of project objectives with measurable accountability increases motivation.
5 Job Security: this is a recently emerging factor as the consequences of the current financial “tsunami” bite. The significance of organisations needed to reduce staff numbers, having a secured job is considered to be a significant motivator to employees.
The final conclusion of this paper suggests that the concept of worker motivation may not be all that different between traditional and project based operations; the key difference being – that the source of work motivation may be different.
The multidimensional nature of work motivation reveals that initiatives directed towards
empowering the employee;
providing a motivating work environment;
challenging and interesting nature of work;
formal and informal communication; and
job security
significantly explain work motivation in a project context.
40
4.4 TASK 1: Compare and Contrast these 3 Papers1. Look for common issues
2. Look for differences in opinion
3. Is there a common message arising from these 3 Papers?
4.4.1 General Discussion
1 What are the unique motivation dynamics generated from project management activity?
2 What are the problems associated with project management activity with regard to
employee well-being?
3 How would you maintain full employee effectiveness within project management workplace
situations.
41
5 Management & Leadership 1
5.1 Management StylesAt a basic level this can be the difference (and all points along the continuum scale) between Co-
operation -v- Coercion scale.
Co-operation is based on education, engaging interest – the humanistic movement.
Coercion is based on function / authority techniques that try to force someone to do
something – follows Taylorism principles. A style that is confrontational and it is
suggested that this is only successful in the short term.
Management style may vary according to the
situation;
organisation;
the people;
the manager.
Performance and motivation (and satisfaction) of groups / teams may be affected by the type of
leadership adopted in a work situation.
3 styles of leadership normally recognised in mainstream management literature -
authoritarian; democratic; and laissez-faire.
5.1.1 Authoritarian (or autocratic style) all policies determined solely by the leader.
all authority centred on one person - the leader.
leader dictates task, role and mode of work.
obedience secured through reward system.
quick decisions produced.
morale and ownership of decisions may be impaired.
42
5.1.2 Democratic all policies determined by group / team discussion and
decision.
wishes and suggestions of team members are incorporated.
alternatives proposed with choice / decision made on way
forward.
objective praise and criticism from leader.
increased morale, quality of decisions, ownership of decision.
slower decisions.
dilution of best solutions with compromises sometimes made.
muddiness with responsibility for decision accountability.
5.1.3 Laissez-faire minimum of leader involvement.
goals set and individuals left to make own decisions to reach
targets.
leader does not attempt to appraise or regulate.
allows team / group members to fulfil individual development.
team / group may lack control, direction and cohesion.
inefficiency and chaos may result.
5.2 Communication systemsStyles of management / leadership may relate to communication systems in use-
autocratic - orders issued to subordinates.
democratic - interchange of ideas allowed.
laissez-faire - information only supplied on request.
A useful way of seeking understanding of how a particular work place is managed is to look
at and track the communication systems in operation in that work place. This is a good lead
or indicator of what style of management is in place.
5.3 Leadership and ManagementLeadership, management, power and authority are all closely related terms and sometimes
are difficult to separate and understand individually.
43
Some language to investigate first -
5.3.1 Leadership.“A leader is someone who exercises influence over others.
In a group, it is the performance of those acts which help the group achieve its preferred outcomes” (Cartwright & Zander, 1968, pp. 304)
A more romantic working definition is that provided by Bryman et al. (2011).
“.... the creation of a vision about a desired future state which seeks to enmesh all members of an organisation in its net” (pp. 6).
Successful leadership must be seen in its context, argues Bryman, and that one successful
style of leadership in one context might be unsuccessful in another. Bryman also suggests
that there is a direct correlation between personality characteristics and leadership success.
Successful organisational performance may depend on -
A leader who is dynamic and inspirational;
or, it may not need a leader, some organisations may be so routine task
orientated that they do not need leaders.
5.3.1.1 Collective leadershipCollective leadership - A famous study looked at a street gang (Thrasher, 1927.) in
Chicago. Dimensions of natural leadership and sharing of leadership roles were
analysed where the supplementary strength of others were integrated into task completion
roles. In other words, the leader changed according to specific ability (and common
recognition of that ability).
5.3.2 ManagementAccording to Stewart (1999, pp. 74) management “... is to do with deciding what should be
done and then getting other people to do it.”
The functions of management include -
establishing overall purpose and policy.
forecasting and planning for the future.
44
organising work, allocating duties and responsibilities.
giving instructions or orders.
control - checking that performance is according to plan.
co-ordinating the work of others.
Leadership functions may be considered as -
Initiating - keeping the group action moving.
Regulating - influencing the direction and the tempo of the group’s work.
Informing - bringing information or opinion to the group.
Supporting - creating an emotional climate which holds the group together.
Evaluating - helping the group evaluate its’ decisions or procedures.
plus - you might like to add such tasks as being a scapegoat; being a parental figure;
making decisions on behalf of others, etc.
5.4 TASK 1: Develop your Own Leadership TheoryYour own personal choice – someone you admire – your “hero” as a leader – what traits /
characteristics do they demonstrate.
LIST
Random In Order of Importance
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
45
8 8
NOW - develop you own theory of leadership –
What should leaders be expected to be able to do?
Summary:
What is your “take home” message?
5.5 Leadership Style Matched to Project Type: an example of current thinking!
A précis of Müller & Turner (2007) argues that leadership style has an impact on project success, that certain leadership styles are more able to achieve a successful outcome. They use the 3 dimensions of intellectual, emotional and managerial competence to assess project managers leadership styles.
Their hypothesis being:
1. The project manager’s leadership style influences project success.
2. Different leadership styles are appropriate for different project types.
5.6 Some Leadership Definitions from famous peopleLeadership is an elusive quality that can be hard to define. Here are a few people who have tried… (which one suits you?)
"A leader is a dealer in hope." Napoleon Bonaparte, French soldier, statesman, revolutionary (1769-1821)
"A leader is best when people barely know that he exists, not so good when people obey and acclaim him, worst when they despise him. 'Fail to honour people' they fail to honour you.' But of a good leader, who talks little, when his work is done, his aim fulfilled, they will all say, 'We did this ourselves.'" Lao Tzu, Chinese founder of Taoism, author (6th Century BC)
"A leader shapes and shares a vision which gives point to the work of others." Charles Handy (1992)
46
"A leader takes people where they want to go. A great leader takes people where they don't necessarily want to go, but ought to be." Rosalynn Carter, US First Lady (b.1927)
"As we look ahead into the next century, leaders will be those who empower others." Bill Gates
"Be willing to make decisions. That's the most important quality in a good leader." General George S. Patton Jr.
"Leadership and learning are indispensable to each other." John F. Kennedy
"Leadership is a combination of strategy and character. If you must be without one, be without the strategy." Gen. H. Norman Schwarzkopf
"People ask the difference between a leader and a boss. . . . The leader works in the open, and the boss in covert. The leader leads, and the boss drives." Theodore Roosevelt
"You manage things, you lead people." Admiral Grace Murray Hooper, US naval officer (1906-1992)
“Leadership: the art of getting someone else to do something you want done because he wants to do it.” Dwight D Eisenhower (1890 - 1969) US Statesman.
"Leadership: The capacity and will to rally people to a common purpose together with the character that inspires confidence and trust" Field Marshal Montgomery
My own personal favourite:
"Management is efficiency in climbing the ladder of success; leadership determines whether the ladder is leaning against the right wall." Stephen R. Covey
(apologies for the lack of political correctness in some of them – they are a bit dated!)
47
6 Management & Leadership 2
6.1 Leadership: Seeking a new leadership style
6.1.1 Considered to be the old style Leadership was seen as a trait few had and few could develop;
you had it or you didn’t;
if you had it, you didn’t share it;
you told people what to do and how to do it;
you operate a strict chain of command and control;
you guarded knowledge and information; and
you watched your back for the knives.
6.1.2 Considered to be the new style Managers as leaders -
a movement from autocracy to trusteeship.
the concept of management is being replaced by that of leadership: give up the compulsory control; gain influence, voluntary co-operation, trust, respect, commitment.
management is not so much about scientific, determinist, mechanistic techniques and explanations - much more about building knowledge, people, teams, organisations that work well together, achieve their purpose, and provide fulfilment for those involved.
new leaders “assemble and maintain human organisations in sustainable organisational forms”: this takes the orchestration, nurturing; political and inter-personal skills and moral insight; all those previously derided soft skills turn out to be valuable management and leadership tools.
team approach is used from shop floor to top management: everyone, no matter how inexperienced, should be treated with basic human respect as part of a team.
not just about the changing nature and demystification of leadership: leadership itself, is being devolved / dispersed to more people.
instead of looking for one super-manager, virtually everyone in the organisation needs these qualities.
A Key to New Leadership is giving and receiving feedback and seeking improvement (and being seen to be doing so).
48
6.2 Behaviour of Leaders - 2 distinct categoriesThe Ohio State University studies of 1940 (which have become seminary source data) attempted to make sense of the complex and diverse nature of leadership with the creation of two distinct categories.
It is considered that this traditionally perceived category still exists between
employee centred leadership.
(democratic)
and job centred leadership.
(autocratic)
Not either end of a spectrum of behaviour; both styles are independent of each other; some argue that a democratic style within a task orientated culture (you have to get the job done) but also with a style that maintains group relations is the most effective style.
Again, the challenge in your work place is to adopt a management style that gets the best out of your work force, not just in the short term, but also in the long term to maintain organisation efficiency and effectiveness.
6.3 Needs Orientated and Task Dominated Work Place CulturesHuczynski and Buchan (2007)also examines the difference between needs orientation and task dominated work place cultures as –
6.3.1 Relationship Behaviour: needs and relationship orientatedA socially sensitive model: The leader is interested in and listens to subordinates, allows participation in decision making, is friendly and approachable, helps subordinates with personal problems and is prepared to support them if necessary.
The leader’s behaviour indicates genuine trust, respect, warmth and rapport. This enhances subordinates’ feelings of self-esteem and encourages the development of communications and relationships in a work group.
6.3.2 Task behaviour: Initiating StructureA task orientated model: The leader plans ahead, decides how things are going to get done, assigns tasks to subordinates, makes expectations clear, emphasises deadlines and achievement, and expects subordinates to follow instructions closely. The leader’s behaviour stresses production and the achievement of organisational goals. This type of behaviour can stimulate enthusiasm to achieve objectives as well as encouraging and helping subordinates to get the work done.
This approach recognises that a task-orientated approach can have a positive motivating dimension with the emphasis on production.
49
6.3.2.1 Fruit for thoughtMy own thoughts set in the context of the Construction Industry (which I belong to) is that with tried and tested models of work, with the production process of the project already identified, the task-orientated approach may be the predominant approach. The focus “vehicle” is the task – completed to time, cost, quality, etc. But, to me, the wise manager / leader will also encourage and practice needs relationship management techniques to get the best out of their work force.
However, for new ways of doing business (new partnering relationships, new resourcing challenges, any degree of innovation) the industry must move into relationship behaviour and actively encourage participation.
The balance is always between these two approaches – when to use / not use either approach?
6.4 REVIEWING DIFFERENT POPULAR THEORETICAL MODELS
6.5 Action Centred Model
50
Team
individualtask
Figure 1: Adair’s “circles” of engagement
The degree and orientation of circle overlap will demonstrate or illustrate the way task, group and individual needs interrelate. If the area of overlap is concentrated heavily towards “group” – then the work place activity may be at the detriment of the task and the individual. The needs of the “group”, possibly preventing the task being completed and the development of an individual. The same discussion can be looked at with an over-emphasis on the “task” (short termism production strategies being the danger) or with an over-emphasis on the individual (and the dangers of “collectiveness” being ignored – everyone going off in their own direction and not holding to the discipline of collective action) (Adair, 1973).
The intention behind this 3-circle model of an ACTION CENTRED LEADER being that the leader must:
Direct the job to be done – task structuring;
Support and review the individual people involved in doing it;
Co-ordinate and foster the work team as a whole
My own personal thoughts: this is more of a model than a theory – simplistic in format – and perhaps un-realistic in practice in its full and purest form. But in its simplicity, it graphically illustrates how long term success in any work place situation requires the 3 dimensions of TASK, GROUP (or team) DEVELOPMENT, and INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT to be considered – the model suggests – in equal proportions – in my view, this is unrealistic. But equally, if one “circle” becomes (extremely?) over-dominant, then the long-term success of the work place is seriously at risk.
A more detailed breakdown challenge for the leader is as follows (Bolden et al., 2003):
6.5.1.1 Task define the task make the plan allocate work and resources control quality and rate of work check performance against plan adjust the plan
6.5.1.2 Team maintain discipline build team spirit encourage, motivate, give a sense of purpose appoint sub-leaders ensure communication within the team develop the group
6.5.1.3 Individual attend to personal problems praise individuals give status recognise and use individual abilities develop the individual
51
6.5.2 Review a work place situation using Adair’s Action Centred Leadership model (it might be useful to use a Likert scale and see how the circles develop; it might be also be useful and illuminating to review this approach over the life-cycle of a project – and see if there is anything to learn from this more detailed investigation).
1. Which are the dominant circles?
2. For long term success in the work place – How should the circles interrelate?
Task define the task make the plan allocate work and resources control quality and rate of work check performance against plan adjust the plan
Team maintain discipline build team spirit encourage, motivate, give a sense of purpose appoint sub-leaders ensure communication within the team develop the group
Individual attend to personal problems praise individuals give status recognise and use individual abilities develop the individual
52
Measuring the Performance of a Leader
based on Adair's Action Centred Approach
scale excellent non-existent
score as 5 4 3 2 1
Task
define the task 1
make the plan 2
allocate work and resources 3
control quality and rate of work
4
check performance against plan
5
adjust the plan 6
TOTAL average (÷ 6)
Team
maintain discipline 1
build team spirit 2
encourage, motivate, give a sense of purpose
3
appoint sub-leaders 4
ensure communication within the team
5
develop the group 6
TOTAL average (÷ 6)
Individual
attend to personal problems 1
praise individuals 2
give status 3
53
recognise and use individual abilities
4
develop the individual 5
TOTAL average (÷ 5)
By using this simple scoring system, you can build up your picture of the size of each “circle”; the degree of “overlap” will be your estimation of how each circle is in “balance” with each other.
6.6 Managerial GridBlake & Mouton (1964) collected evidence from a wide range of companies belonging to developed countries. Main findings suggest that to improve performance, planning and communication had to excel. The 9 by 9 approach was used to locate a managers “managerial style” within the two critical dimensions of a concern for production and a concern for people.
Hig
h
9 1,9 9,9Country Club Management Team Managementthoughtful attention to the needs of people work accomplishment is from committed people;
for satisfying relationships leads to a interdependence through a "common stake" in
comfortable and friendly organisation organisation purpose leads to relationships of trust
atmosphere and work tempo and support
Middle of the Road Management5 5,5
Con
cern
for P
eopl
e adequate organisation performance is possible
through balancing the necessity to get out work while
maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level
exertion of minimum effort to get required efficiency in operations results from arranging
work done is appropriate to sustain conditions of work in such a way that managers
organisational membership interfere to a minimum degree
Impoverished Management Authority-Compliance Management
Low
1 1,1 9,11 5 9
low high
Concern for Production
Figure 2: The Blake and Mouton LEADERSHIP GRID
54
6.7 Contingency TheoryFielder’s (1967) research was based on highly focussed teams and worker groups. It is argued that an LPC score can help you better understand your own position and relationship with regards to your own work colleagues. Easiest way to complete this score is to think of someone you have problems working with.
Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC) score:
Rate this person on the following scale:
Pleasant 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 unpleasant
Friendly 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 unfriendly
Rejecting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 accepting
Tense 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 relaxed
Distant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 close
Cold 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 warm
Supportive 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 hostile
Boring 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 interesting
Quarrelsome 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 harmonious
Gloomy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 cheerful
Open 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 guarded
Backbiting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 loyal
Untrustworthy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 trustworthy
Considerate 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 inconsiderate
Nasty 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 nice
Agreeable 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 disagreeable
Insincere 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 sincere
Kind 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 unkind
55
Scores: Your score tries to interpret your own relationship with that person and subsequently your own leadership style.
57 or less (low LPC) suggests that you are a Task-orientated person
64 or higher (high LPC) suggest that you are a Relationship-orientated person.
Summary Position:
Low LPC Leader High LPC Leader
Task completion gives self-esteem interpersonal relationships provides self-esteem
Task first people first
Hard with those who fail loyalty a key issue.
Likes detail (no trust?) bored with detail (trust established?)
Summarise your own position with regards to this theory – where do you stand?
For myself, I would want to hold task completion as a major indicator of successful performance YET, still hold on to the relationship / people first / loyalty / trust relationship dynamics – a very difficult balancing act! The challenge being – how would you achieve this in practice?
6.8 A Power Base for LeadersLikert (1961) summarised the Ohio differences with illustrative quotations from front line supervisors as ... this interest in people approach is all right but it’s a luxury. I’ve got to keep pressure on production, when I get production up, then I can afford to take time to show an interest in my employees...to... we accomplish high production by letting people do the job the way they want (as long as they accomplish the task) ...
6.8.1 Likert sub-divides a leaders power base into 4 categoriesexploitative autocratic - no confidence or trust in work force.
imposes decisions.motivates by threat.little communication.
benevolent authoritative - condescending superficial trust and confidence.never delegates, imposes decisions.motivates by reward.paternalistic.
participate - has some trust and confidence in employees.listens but still controls decisions.motivates by reward and involvement.uses ideas generated by others.
democratic - has complete confidence and trust in employees.allows employees to make decisions.
56
motivates by participate goal setting.shares ideas and opinions.
Again – by looking at the practice indicators – allows you to make a judgement of the type of leadership model being practiced.
7 Management & Leadership: Situational LeadershipHersey & Blanchard (1988) argue (effectively, in my opinion,) for qualities of leadership that take into account the situation;
leaders must adapt their style to the situation;
which suggests,
that they must be able to diagnose the situation.
They base this theory on the twin axis of
relationship behaviour
and task behaviour.
With a varying leader behaviour of
Delegating (task dimensions)
Participating (relationship dimensions)
Selling (relationship dimensions)
and Telling. (task dimensions)
(But again, be careful – Bryman (2011) suggests that this model is inadequate. For a detailed argument challenging the robustness and pragmatic utility of this theory – read Graeff (1997)).
Hersey and Blanchard characterized leadership style in terms of the amount of Task Behaviour and Relationship Behaviour that the leader provides to their followers. They categorized all leadership styles into four behaviour types, which they named S1 to S4:
7.1 Leadership Behaviour TypesS1: Telling - is characterized by one-way communication in which the leader defines the roles of the individual or group and provides the what, how, why, when, and where to do the task – they tell!
S2: Selling - while the leader is still providing the direction, they are now using two-way communication and providing the socioemotional support that will allow the individual or group being influenced to buy into the process.
S3: Participating - this is now shared decision making about aspects of how the task is accomplished and the leader is providing less task behaviours while maintaining high relationship behaviour.
57
S4: Delegating - the leader is still involved in decisions; however, the process and responsibility has been passed to the individual or group. The leader stays involved (only) to monitor progress.
Of these, no one style is considered optimal for all leaders to use all the time. Effective leaders need to be flexible, and must adapt themselves according to the situation.
7.2 Follower Readiness LevelsThe right leadership style will depend on the person or group being led - the follower. The Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory identified four levels of Follower Readiness R1 through R4:
R1 - They generally lack the specific skills required for the job in hand and are unable and unwilling to do or to take responsibility for this job or task.
R2 - They are still unable to take on responsibility for the task being done; however, they are willing to work at the task.
R3 - They are experienced and able to do the task but lack the confidence to take on responsibility.
R4 - They are experienced at the task, and comfortable with their own ability to do it well. They are able and willing to not only do the task, but to take responsibility for the task.
Readiness Levels are also task specific. A person might be generally skilled, confident and motivated in their job, but would still have a readiness level R2 when asked to perform a task requiring skills they don't possess.
7.3 Competence and CommitmentA further development links competence and commitment (i.e., motivation) as
1 High competence and high commitment
2 Moderate to high competence and variable commitment
3 Some to low competence and low commitment
4 Low competence and high commitment
The challenge for the project manager being – to understand the “position” of their workforce and to manage accordingly.
7.4 TASK 1: Looking at Leadership StyleBased on Situational Leadership principles: Carry out this exercise with a colleague from your own workplace with each one of you taking the role of either supervisor or subordinate.
Introduction: When would you use a particular leadership style?
This is assuming you are flexible and sensitive enough to a situation and can adapt your personal leadership style to match a situation. These thoughts are based on the Hersey / Blanchard model of leadership which suggests that the most effective style of leadership takes into account the amount
58
of support and direction giving is needed based on the readiness of followers (i.e., workers) to perform a particular task.
The four leadership styles identified by Hersey / Blanchard are –
Telling: in which the leader gives direct instructions and supervises performance closely.
Selling: in which the leader takes care to explain decisions and gives subordinates an opportunity to check their understanding.
Participating: in which the leader shares ideas and involves subordinates in decision making.
Delegating: in which the leader gives responsibility for decision making and implementation to subordinates.
The over-arching principle in this theory, is that you adapt your leadership style to fit the context, to fit the situation.
I could argue, that this approach is too flexible, that the situation dictates too much, that the situation needs to be adjusted to fit the needs of the organisation or the business you are about.
What do you think?
59
7.4.1 The Situations / Tasks: Seeing the problem from both sides!Situation 1: The Office Worker
Side 1: You are the Superior. You are Pat Lowry, the office supervisor. One of your administrators, Bill Taylor, seems to spend a lot of time on the job socialising, talking with others and regularly coming back late from lunch. As a result, a lot of the clerical work does not get done on time, and you can see the work of others being disrupted. You have asked Bill to come and see you because you want to see what can be done about this.
How are you going to handle the conversation? In particular, what style are you going to adopt: telling, selling, participating or delegating?
Decided upon your style: Your style is -
______________________________
then -
decide how you are going to open the conversation,
answer -
how you are going to progress with it, what questions you might ask and in what sequence,
answer -
what responses you would expect to get,
answer -
and how you hope to end the conversation.
answer -
There is a knock on the door and your subordinate comes in.
Side 2: You are the Subordinate: You are Bill Taylor, an administrator in the general office. Your job is pretty mundane and routine, and you do not see it as much of a challenge. Nevertheless, you enjoy the job. The people you work with are nice, and you enjoy talking to them as you go around to collect the mail and other paperwork. Sometimes you all go out to the pub for lunch, and sometimes you are late in getting back. Your boss, Pat Lowry, has asked you to come for a talk today. You are not sure what it is all about, but you suspect that it might have something to do with these long lunches. You knock on the door and enter.
What style of leadership would you expect to get the most positive and constructive response from you? answer -
60
Situation 2: The Sales Worker
Side 1: You are the Superior. You are Chris Peacock, the manager of the sales department. One of your staff, Peter Albrow, has started coming to work late over this last couple of months. He can arrive anything between 10 and 30 minutes late each day. This is annoying other people on the staff, as well as yourself, and you have asked him to come and see you about it so that you can persuade him to come in on time.
How are you going to handle the conversation? In particular, what style are you going to adopt: telling, selling, participating or delegating?
Decided upon your style: Your style is -
______________________________
then -
decide how you are going to open the conversation,
answer -
how you are going to progress with it, what questions you might ask and in what sequence,
answer -
what responses you would expect to get,
answer -
and how you hope to end the conversation.
answer -
There is a knock on the door and your subordinate comes in.
Side 2: You are the Subordinate.
You are Peter Albrow, and you have worked in the sales department for some time. You have recently moved to a new apartment, which is further away from the office. If you miss the bus / train connection, which has a reputation for being unreliable, you can be late for work. This has happened a few times recently. Your boss, Chris Peacock, has asked to see you today. You are not sure what it is about, but you suspect that it might be about your timekeeping.
You knock on the door and enter.
What style of leadership would you expect to get the most positive and constructive response from you? answer -
61
Situation 3: The Computer Worker
Side 1: You are the Superior. You are Les Johnson, head of the computing department. Peter Long, one of your subordinates, has special computing skills and is at present deeply involved in a major project. Something urgent has come up, and an exciting software development programme for a major customer, and you have asked him to come and see you, to give him this extra work on top of his existing work load which cannot be passed on to anybody else.
How are you going to handle the conversation? In particular, what style are you going to adopt: telling, selling, participating or delegating?
Decided upon your style: Your style is -
______________________________
then -
decide how you are going to open the conversation,
answer -
how you are going to progress with it, what questions you might ask and in what sequence,
answer -
what responses you would expect to get,
answer -
and how you hope to end the conversation.
answer -
There is a knock on the door and your subordinate comes in.
Side 2: You are the Subordinate. You are Peter Long and you work in the computing department. At present, you are up to your eyes in a major programming project, which is interesting and requires skills that nobody else in the department has. Your boss, Les Johnson, has set up a meeting with you today. You are not sure what this meeting is about, but you think it might mean more (unwelcome) work for you.
You knock on the door and enter.
What style of leadership would you expect to get the most positive and constructive response from you? answer -
62
Now, compare notes!
8 Project Governance
8.1 Evaluation of alternative approaches of the effective Management of Projects
A few opening statements upon Project Governance is:
“...a set of management systems, rules, protocols, relationships and structures that provide a framework within which decisions can be reached for project development and implementation” (Bekker & Steyn, 2008).
“...concerned with creating the conditions for ordered rule and collective action...” (Stoker, 1998).
“...synonymous with good and transparent management of firms and institutions”(Müller, 2009).
Müller (2009) suggests that: “Contemporary governance is grounded in Foucault’s (1926-1984) philosophy of Neo-liberalism, in which individuals are not directly “steered” by their supervisors but through subtle forces in the society (or company, or organisation) in which they live (or work for)... develop a strategy for creating a domain whereby individuals are responsible and engage in “self-care”.”
Project underperformance can arise from:
The cross-functional, and cross company management of many projects can provide a fertile ground for project failure.
Poor performance of projects can often be attributed to lack of information management, project monitoring and control.
A lack of transparency and proper financial control of organisations has often led to corporate failure and scandal.
PMBOK (2000) suggests that the concept of Project Control as a mechanism remains mainly within the confines of Planning and Execution of the Project: that is belonging to the internal environment of the project (the full internal environment being the four process phases of Initiate, Plan, Execute and Close).
Project Governance, it is suggested, takes cognisance to the External Environment (factors, pressures and influences) that provide the context in which the project is activated and realised.
8.2 Management of People To be done successfully requires you to resolve two sets of objectives:
those of the organisation
and those of the people involved in it.
63
Problems will occur when these two separate objectives are in conflict which will need to be resolved by good management.
8.2.1 Bureaucracy and Roles: Organisational Structural Influences on Behaviour
Tall / flat structural differences in organisation may effect individual and corporate motivation with thoughts of -
motivation may be helped or hindered by organisational structure.
the organisational structure can influence behaviour.
Bureaucracy has tended to dominate large, modern organisational structures.
stresses the definition of roles and their relationships.
Hierarchy refers to the number of levels to be found in a particular organisation.
Organisations may be defined as goal-orientated systems seeking effectiveness and
efficiency.
Organisational structure may be summarised, though, from two different viewpoints -
1. structure is a means for attaining the objectives and goals of an organisation.
2. structure is the extent to which, and the ways in which organisational members are constrained and controlled by the organisation and the distribution of activities and responsibilities and the organisational procedures and regulations.
People behaviour and attitudes to work is often influenced by the structure of the organisation they belong to. Constraints and demands of the job can dictate behaviour. It is therefore impossible to explain the behaviour of people in organisations solely in terms of individual or group characteristics or motivation.
That is, work methods used,
types of communication systems used,
performance judgement methods,
can all influence / dictate behaviour.
64
A simple comparison between Tall and Flat Structures:
Fill in the missing spaces with help / hinder statements -
Organisational form Motivation
tall help. hinder.
flat help. hinder.
8.3 TASK 1: Designing Organisational StructureShould organisational structure be based on function or product? (The debate between role versatility –v- functionalism specialism) adapted from Huczynski and Buchanan (2007).
Your company makes a biro pen. This involves 3 operations:
Operation T making the plastic tube.
Operation C making the plastic cap.
Operation I making the ink-holder.
Each biro requires a tube, a cap and an ink holder. The different machinery making these items varies in age and is replaced on a regular cycle. The manufacturing team consists of a plant manager, 3 supervisors, and nine operatives. Under these circumstances, this business could be departmentalised by function or by product.
8.3.1 Function-based structureOrganised as 3 functional departments, each department could produce 3 units of production per day.
Manager
Supervisor Supervisor Supervisor
1 2 3
TTT CCC I I I
Operators Operators Operators
65
8.3.2 Product-based structureOrganised into 3 separate but identical production departments. Each worker carries out each of the 3 tasks.
Manager
Supervisor Supervisor Supervisor
1 2 3
T C I T C I T C I
Operators Operators Operators
Before looking at the questions over the sheet, based on your own instinct, which system do you think will be the most productive for this product?
Now, answer the questions over the page.
66
8.3.3 Questions to be addressed
Answer F = function Give a reason
P = product
1. In which structure is the job of the supervisor likely to be more difficult?
2. In which structure will supervisors be most qualified to be promoted to plant manager level?
3. Which structure produces a greater division of labour for operatives?
4. In which structure is conflict between departments most likely to occur?
5. Which structure allows the better comparison of each supervisor’s performance?
6. Which structure produces operators who can be easily be promoted to supervisor level?
7. With which structure will the firm be most affected if one department shuts down through equipment failure or a strike?
Conclusion – for this particular product, what is now your considered answer to the question, which is likely to be the most productive organisational structure to use?
Give your reason -
What lessons can be learnt to translate into other organisational and production environments?
67
8.4 TASK 2: List and Compare the Advantages and Disadvantages of a Function Based Organisation and a Product Based Organisation – from the perspective of the employee.
Function Based Product BasedAdvantage Advantage1 12 23 34 45 5Disadvantages Disadvantages1 12 23 34 45 5
Which system would you prefer and why?
8.5 TASK 3: Leadership Style; Motivation and Organisational Work Groups
CASE STUDY: An Unmotivated Building Inspector.
Adapted from Buchanan and Huczynski (1997).
Nobody at Kirraton Council planning department knew what to do about Simon Lucas. Simon was a building inspector. It was his job to approve proposals for small alterations to buildings (such as extensions and loft conversions) which did not need formal planning permission, and to check that the building work was consistent with the approved plans. The trouble was, he didn’t – at least, not often and not quickly. There had been a number of complaints about delays in approval of plans that were Simon’s responsibility. He did not seem to keep up with the frequent changes in building regulations, which meant he sometimes made decisions that contradicted them. He only rarely carried out site inspections. This meant that some of the less scrupulous builders got away with unauthorised changes to plans, and others who genuinely wanted his advice did not get it. However, it was difficult to pin Simon down. Council guidance was vague: plans should be dealt with “within a few weeks”; site inspections conducted “as and when necessary”, and decisions made “within the spirit”, not the letter of some of the less vital regulations.
Simon’s boss, Katherine Walker, decided that she would check his records and unobtrusively observe him at work – it was an open plan office, so that this was feasible. She discovered that he was 26
68
years old, and had qualified as a building inspector two years earlier. Simon had been recruited by Katherine’s predecessor, apparently partly because Simon had come up the “hard way”. Rather than attending college full-time to obtain the necessary qualifications, he had worked for several years as an architect’s draughtsman and attended college night classes. In fact, he had been on of the last people to qualify in that way. The building inspectors’ professional institute had subsequently decided that part-time study could not develop the necessary skills and knowledge for work as a qualified building inspector. Katherine knew it was true that the part-time route was often seen as “second class”. She heard it said that this had prevented Simon from getting a job in another area of the country where he very much wanted to live. Few senior building inspectors held the view of Katherine’s predecessor that Simon’s route into the profession was superior to full-time study.
Katherine observed that Simon often seemed not to be doing very much. He sat at his desk doodling quite a lot. He sometimes had to phone people more than once because he had forgotten to check something the first time. It took him a long time to find things on his shelves and desk. As far as she could tell, his home life was not a particular problem. Simon was married, apparently happily, and seemed to participate in many social and leisure activities judging from his lunchtime conversations, not to mention his phone calls to squash clubs, campsites, etc., during work time!
Simon’s job was relatively secure. Ultimately he could be sacked if he demonstrated continuing incompetence, but he had successfully completed his probationary period (Katherine wasn’t sure how). Because Kirraton Council covered only a small area, and because Simon’s job was a specialist one, he could not be moved to another town or department. Building inspectors’ pay depended on age and length of service, with only slightly higher rates for those with a relevant college degree. Outstanding performance could only be rewarded with promotion, and this was extremely unlikely for anyone with less than ten years’ service.
The other four building inspectors were quite close-knit group of building sciences graduates who had worked together for several years before Simon’s arrival. He had found it quite hard to establish a relationship with them, and it now reflected badly on them all. They did not involve him much in their activities, and nor did they appear to respect him. Katherine knew something had to be done, but what, and how?
Your challenge is to motivate Simon. Ps – you are not allowed to sack Simon!
1. Leadership Approach – Relationship OR a Task Orientated Approach – what would you do?
2. Restructuring the Workplace – what work groups would you create to alleviate the problem?
69
8.6 Project Management: The Gathering Together of Individuals for a Single Purpose.
Within the concept of Project Management, the gathering together of individuals with the aim of making them a cohesive whole and ensuring the benefit of all stakeholders is a fundamental role of most project managers. The organisation of people into ad-hoc groups takes advantage of bringing together individuals from different specialisms (sometimes called management or functional chimneys – language which suggests compartments that run vertically through the organisation with career progression that is overt) as needed for the project task.
Conventional Management Hierarchy (or pyramid) has provided the basis on which the majority of organisations are ordered. For the militaristic model, this can mean 11 or more layers in the chain of command (foot soldier to the top ranking general).
Other structures will include organisation by
product group.
customer type.
geographical area.
function.
The Nature of Work Organisation is important, as it will
define responsibility and authority.
outline reporting arrangements.
determine overhead management costs.
set the structure behind the organisational culture.
determine one set of stakeholders in the project.
Within the Project Management environment – metaphorical walls or divisions may be created in organisational terms between the project management team and the rest of the organisation perhaps leading to isolationism / elitism? To try to overcome this protective / defensive structure, lines of communication / responsibility are often added which require reporting lines out from the project into other sectors of the organisation – seeking performance integration of the whole organisation.
Pure Project Management Organisations will move an organisation away from functional chimneys and may be the predominant structure in the construction industry?
The Project Team are formed for the particular project and then disbanded on completion – the team is temporary and transitional.
70
8.7 TASK 4: Discuss the advantages / disadvantages to an Organisation of Pure Project Management Organisational Structure philosophy.
Matrix Management has been introduced to achieve the benefits of project based organisational structures without the disadvantages (Maylor, 2010).
The lightweight matrix: The PM acts as co-ordinator only of the work project with duties as chairperson bringing together helpers / specialists as required. Considered the weakest form of matrix structure with little commitment demonstrated by participants. Can be skewed off-course/ agenda by members being not of the right level (too high / too low in the management hierarchy).
The overlay model: A shared model between that of project management and line management with the task of seeing each “project” as a contribution to the whole – the combined role of being a line manager then influences (dictates?) and compromises behaviour within the project team. (is this a bad thing, I ask?)
The heavyweight matrix: Also called the secondment model – with staff being brought into the project team from their “normal” full time job. Can be useful for bringing in expertise and experience – but can be difficult for participants to return to their original work habitat.
Success can be dependent upon -
training given to managers and team members.
support systems to individuals to sell the proposal to them (career, long term possibilities, etc.)
the nature of the individual person – can they cope with new work place practices, future uncertainties, etc
8.8 Selection of StructureRemember – you are trying to achieve the best from the people you manage – but it has to be set in context of the opportunities and constraints of the task, the current organisational structure and the people you employ. Decisions of structure are always (as are all decisions?) set against and within a context (Ulrich & Eppinger, 2008; Maylor, 2010).
71
8.8.1 Relating Project Structures to Project ObjectivesThe Functional Organisation:
Example of usage: minor change to an existing product.
Advantages: quality through depth of specialisation possible within existing functions, possible to hide or lose project costs within existing budgets.
Disadvantages: Relatively slow as a process (difficult to impose importance / time constraints).
Issues for the project manager: integration of functions within the organisation.
Lightweight Project Organisation:
Example of usage: implementing change to an existing work organisation – eg. new IT system.
Advantages: quality maintained.
Disadvantages: some cost advantage due to additional co-ordination – but at expense of the matrix.
Issues for the project manager: two bosses problem.
Heavyweight Project Organisation:
Example of usage: major innovation project.
Advantages: speed and quality (through improvement leaps) and use of relatively stable and focussed organisation as a base.
Disadvantages: perhaps adverse reaction from existing line managers; additional direct co-ordination and administration costs.
Issues for the project manager: two bosses problem.
Project Organisation:
Example of usage: large scale construction projects.
Advantages: speed highest through dedicated, focussed resources; organisation design dependent only on project strategy.
Disadvantages: can incur significant additional costs due to the relative expense of contractors; quality may not improve over time; instability of staff.
Issues for the project manager: management of knowledge (ongoing transfer – the learning organisation?).
72
Fruit for thought: The question to be asked, it seems to me, is – which of the project management models will get the best out of your employees whilst still retaining the overall objectives of your organisation?
Current thinking suggests that businesses today, seek to be responsive, flexible, nimble, and quick to respond to customer needs and your competition from your competitors. In this sense, are any of these organisational structures adequate?
Of course, if your answer is no – then you have to come up with a workable alternative to avoid a Nick Gleeson type disaster. Peters (1992) comments that “matrices become hopelessly complicated bureaucracies and gut the emotional energy and ownership of those closest to the marketplace.”
Examples of some of the problems that seem to exist:
Power struggle between insider / outsider managers (to the project) – seeking status; seeking resources?
Anarchy – people perceive that as soon as you get something working, you change it (have a look at the quotation at the bottom of this section, have a guess at when it was written.)
Groupitis – (a made up word) – decision making is removed from the individual who will not take a decision without group approval.
Overheads that are imposed can be costly.
Decision-strangulation – so much time is spent trying to get consensus that any individual flair is stifled and the group becomes a barrier to any rapid progress.
What do you think?
8.9 TASK 5: Reflect on your own organisation Look at a range project tasks (small - large) (or an adopted organisation for this process of study).
Identify and describe the project management structure.
Review the performance of the project organisation:
Was the task completion successful?
Was it helped or hindered by the structure of the organisation?
Were the people involved fully utilised within the project organisation?
With the benefit of hindsight (the only perfect science?), how would you organise the project structure to employ your project participants more productively?
73
8.10 Further Study: Structures to Facilitate the Empowered Organisation
Previously, I have looked at a fairly basic, simple set of continuum with simple comparisons;
Clutterbuck & Kernaghan (1995; McCabe, 1998) looks at a range of radical (perhaps even, sophisticated) structures that may facilitate empowered organisations.
Bull’s-eye: Customers are in the middle, the organisation is built around them.
Amoeba: Continual change in shape and structure with continuous division into smaller units as the organisation expands – grow and split being the operative words.
Star: A few employees work direct with customers – can facilitate Project Management needs.
Boundaryless: An extension of the “star” with barriers between organisation and customer vague (and therefore, meaningless). I wonder if this could relate to the current movement into Partnering where boundaries become unclear – and who is the customer /client anyway?
Chemical Soup: Another metaphor for Project Management - management organisation systems – suggesting that teams come together for the project and then dissolve when finished into new combinations.
8.11 TASK 6: Experiment: Have a go at re-engineering your workplace to fit some of the above models.
Would it work?
What would be the advantages?
What would be the disadvantages?
9 Project Governance 2The working environment of the management of projects is to do with task management, within a set of boundaries of time and cost plus other factors. A project therefore, could be described as a temporary organisation – they have a beginning and an ending! Projects reside within a permanent (i.e., they have no start or end time) organisations and could be considered to be the production function of the organisation (Müller, 2009).
9.1 Some Key Roles and Individuals within a Project Management Governance Framework
Generally speaking, successful project management organisations grow organically. Initially set up with a senior expert. He quotes his earlier work Englund & Müller (2005).
74
9.1.1 Metaphors of the Organisational JungleDiagrams, pictures, etc always tell a good “story” – I quite enjoy these “word pictures” of metaphors describing some of the leading “players” in successful project management business environments:
Metaphors of the Organisational Jungle used to describe the personalities needed for successful project management organisations.
The Brown Bear: Are intelligent, have excellent navigation and a long term memory. They have a deep introspective capacity, are caring, compassionate, seekers of deep self-knowledge, dreamers at times and helpers. They have tremendous power and physical strength, intelligence, inner confidence, reserve and detachment. They draw great strength from solitude, choose peace instead of conflict and contemplate the healing power. Their contribution is strength, introspection and self-knowledge.
Suitable for the establishment of new project management environments.
The Lion: Lions roar in concert to scare away their enemies. They are needed to communicate the project management message, including best practice. Can be mid-career professionals often used as a role member for junior members of the project management team. They then move onto new territory.
Suitable for growth mode.
The Eagle: Hover at high altitude, constantly monitoring what is happening at ground level – and can be at that point within seconds! They see the broader picture – often beyond the boundaries of your own organisation. They can also work top-down through to the finest detail. That can be hard to find in an organisation with there capacity to deal with breadth and depth.
Essential to maintain long term survival.
9.1.2 TASK 1: Can you identify these people and the roles they have in your organisation?
When do they get involved (i.e., when are they most active)?
75
9.2 Programmes and Portfolios as a Form of GovernanceMany businesses divide their production between regular, routine based activity and one-off, project based activity.
One-off projects will compete for resources.
There is a need for effectiveness of production of projects and an efficiency in the delivery of projects.
Effectiveness requires an organisation selecting the right project to do and collecting together a range of projects that satisfy the goals and their contribution to it’s corporate strategic needs into a suitable portfolio of activity.
Efficiency is achieved through combining minimum costs of converting the input of resources into an achieved output.
Programmes and portfolios achieve balance between effectiveness and efficiency by providing a product that is fit for purpose that is done through programme management; and the lowering of costs by the economic use of the scale of resources through portfolio management.
Decisions of their “inter-relateness” will influence possible organisational structures to be used for governance purposes.
For example: Project based organisations
Option 1 Maximise the return on individual projects in a multi-project organisation. Projects not related to each other and subsequently do not share resources across projects. The challenge can be to match the skills sets and knowledge base of the project team to that of the projects needs.
Option 2 The grouping together of a range of projects within a portfolio of projects to maximise the effectiveness of delivery – the skill sets of the project teams – to maximise the strategic objectives of the organisation.
Option 3 Using a programme of projects to combine a number of individual projects that share a common objective albeit skill set requirements differ.
Option 4 Hybrid organisations balance the maximisation of effectiveness and efficiency through a combination of programme and portfolio management. They share skill sets through portfolios and relate project objectives through programmes.
76
shar
ed
2 portfolio of 4 hybrid
Reso
urce
s
projects organisation
not s
hare
d
1 multi-project 3programme of
organisation projects
unrelated related
Objectives
Different Governance Styles
Müller (2009) suggests that the hybrid organisation provides by far, the better performance organisation – whereby the importance of careful and simultaneous management of programme and portfolio of projects will ensure the best corporate results.
The objective is therefore to select the best projects to achieve your organisations goals.
9.3 Dilemmas in Organisational StructureOpening Statements: Classical theory (received wisdom?) suggests that the most successful organisations are those with the best structured and optimum organisational structure (i.e. span of control, lines of authority and communication, etc.). However some (dated?) research (Woodward, 1965) contradicts this classical theory in that it is suggested that it is the technology process that determines appropriate structure. In this sense, questions need to asked with regard to the process of production – for example, are your products mass produced or “be-spoke”? (or perhaps even more complicated, a bit of both).
Two Different dimensions of structure can emerge:1. Mechanistic – classical type for stable situations – precise and detailed specification of roles; a
standardised approach to activities and rules.2. Organic – more dynamic, loose unstructured work groups; for situations of change with
informality and adaptability; however, you may lose control.and3. Centralised – to deal with hostility or pressure from external forces.4. Decentralised – to deal with complexity of decision and action.
77
Which can quite easily split into even more dimensions such as:
1. High integration with low control (organic structure).
2. High integration with high control (bureaucratic structure).
3. Low integration with low control (anarchic structure).
4. Low integration with high control (mechanistic structure).
9.3.1 Business StrategyIn order for the organisation to survive, it requires a business strategy to link its operational and administrative activities with the external environment. The anticipated outcome of the strategic process is to win in the face of the competition and to be able to deal effectively with the forces, which represent opportunities and threats to the organisation (Naoum, 2001).
9.3.2 StructureStructure follows strategy. If the strategy establishes the objectives of the organisation and determines the direction in which organisations will go, then the structure facilitates the achievement of these objectives. Structure provides the framework of an organisation and its pattern of management. It is by means of structure that the purpose and work of the organisation is carried out.
9.3.3 Work GroupsThe design of organisational structure is associated with grouping people into units and sub-units to achieve individual and organisational objectives. A cohesive work group provides greater integration, which leads to better co-ordination and managerial control.
Therefore to deal with this Case Study you may wish to put some strategic thoughts together and use these as your guiding influence to inform your choice of organisational structure. So, what is this organisation trying to achieve?
You may also wish to consider just what are the most effective staff groupings should be to ensure an efficient and effective work place.
The Challenge: Should organisational structure be based on function or product?
SOME FURTHER BACKGROUND NOTES:
Structure exists in all organisations – either overtly or covertly. Often we are unaware of it until external factors trigger a re-design. Yet, it could be argued, the arrangement of levels, responsibilities, job descriptions and reporting relationships is the scaffold that links organisational goals to human performance. An effective structure meets both employee and customer needs within the context of organisational goals.
An organisational chart will depict an organisations formal structure and help to co-ordinate the work of individuals and the functions that they perform.
78
Hierarchy refers to the number and levels of authority in the organisation. A simple differentiation is that between tall and flat organisations.
Span of control refers to the number of subordinates that report to one line manager. Within a flat organisation this can be many. The broader the span of control, the fewer the levels of hierarchy but also the fewer opportunities for promotion. With a narrow span of control, daily contact between a line manager and their work force can be frequent.
Functional relationships exist in many organisations where specialists provide a service to line managers (e.g., personnel, accounting).
Formal and informal Organisational Structures exist in most organisations with formal being planned, rational, and stable and deal with position, authority, etc. whilst informal can be spontaneous, emotional, and dynamic.
Design or evolution of structure will generally be carried out to try and out into practice the duties and functions of the organisation.
Traditional, grouping of the workforce will be as per:
Function based on the function they perform.
Product what they produce.
Customer for different types of customer.
Territory based on geography – often based on economical travelling distances.
Plus you may also consider a
Matrix structure based on dual (or even triple) rather than single chain of commands. Some argue that traditional function or product based structures are not sophisticated enough to cope with complex work places. However, there are a number of disadvantages to a matrix structure. For example, role overload can happen and role ambiguity often leads to conflict. Reporting situations can get complicated with, for example, natural reporting (within your professional, functional, discipline) can override reporting to a project line manager.
Matrix organisations tend to have a high level of performance in dealing with complex, creative work products. Also, because the amount of interaction among members in the matrix structures, and the high levels of responsibilities they possess, matrix organisations usually have greater worker job satisfaction.
9.4 TASK 2 CASE STUDY: Dilemmas in Organisational StructureThe Challenge: Should organisational structure be based on function or product?
Case Study: School of the Built and Natural Environment, Morpeth University
You are to design an organisational structure for this University School based on the following background case study notes.
79
You are the newly appointed Head of School, Robert Moehler, and you have to decide on and propose TWO different ways of organising your School and you have to submit these two different alternatives to the Vice-Chancellor of the University to facilitate further debate and a clear decision to be made with regard to which is the preferred option.
TASKS:
1. Prepare an Organisational Structure for each alternative.
2. Declare your principles underlying each structure.
3. Analyse the strengths and weaknesses of each structure.
4. Summarise your findings into one A4 poster style presentation.
THE CASE STUDY: The School of the Built and Natural Environment is one of 7 Schools within Morpeth University. The School combines a wide range of built and natural environment studies from service engineering, many surveying disciplines, construction management, architectural technology, architecture and interior design, to geography and environmental management. It also provides a “ladder of opportunity” from sub-undergraduate degree education, undergraduate education and an expanding post-graduate studies programme of taught and research degrees based on particular staff expertise in project management and it’s generic application across a range of organisational functions. It also wants to expand its’ consultancy and engagement with industry and professional practice and to be seen as a Regional Flagship Location of Excellence. Currently, the emerging national political agenda suggests that the sub-undergraduate degree education programme is under some threat and that this area of education may be transferred to Further Education Colleges (who are anxious to expand their activities into this area of provision) but the school wants to retain this provision as being essential to the overall financial well-being of the school..
Morpeth University is very successful as a university. It has generated and maintains a high status nationally but still has to cope with regional competition from 2 “red-brick” Universities with high research ratings. Whilst these “competitors” do not have such a vibrant and successful built and natural environment provision, they are keen to expand and develop the size and status of their business school provision. Consequently, they are seen as real competition.
The School has a developing reputation across the world and is seen as an attractive proposition balancing quality of education provision with quality of life style. The University is situated in a very attractive part of the country and can offer a good balance between city, suburban and country life. Staff and the local people are naturally very friendly and easy to get on although sometimes the local dialect can take a little time to get used to and understand. The local football team sometimes is successful with (normally) a good attractive style of football and a well-respected manager. The School offers a wide range of in-house consultancy activity to a range of important regional and national organisations.
80
There is a need to improve the productivity and the quality of services provided by the School.
As a newly appointed Head of School you are re-thinking how best to structure the BNE School and organise the staff into coherent work groups. The workforce are looking to you to come up with some new ideas and there is this moment in time when there is an opportunity to integrate staff from different backgrounds into effective work groups, otherwise staff morale would plummet further.
Good teaching attracts students and more students, means more income for the School. The view of students as “customers” means that the high quality performers amongst the staff were becoming a premium. There was also a fair amount of competition amongst other Universities to try and attract these staff to work for them. There was also the need to have staff who could teach beyond undergraduate level but these staff needed to have a number of years experience as practitioners to work with these groups as these students could be critical of both the material presented and the lecturer themselves. It needed a “special” person to work with post-graduate students. However, all staff were also challenged to be successful with their research. Sometimes a good teacher was not a good researcher and vice-versa.
Whilst providing a range of undergraduate and sub-degree named awards fitting into professional disciplines (RIBA, CIBSE, CIOB, RICS, APM, etc), the challenge also was to provide a good range of common curriculum at early levels within academic programmes with specialisation of curriculum developing towards the latter levels of academic programmes.
The School, at the moment, has 80 academic staff and 20 administration / technical staff. A range of central specialist departments (e.g., technical computing staff, estates, personnel, etc.) also support it.
The “products” of the School of the Built and Natural Environment.
1. Teaching of vocational undergraduate full time and part time degree programmes including sub-degree level with approval / accreditation by professional bodies operating in the built environment.
2. Teaching of vocational and generic postgraduate full time and part time degree programmes. It is desired to expand this provision.
3. Research including publication of research papers and research underpinning teaching activity.
4. Doctoral supervision.
5. In-company consultancy.
6. Short courses.
81
ASSESSMENT MODEL: Relationship between organisational structure and performance.
In order for you to attempt a process of objective measurement, you need to agree on a range of key performance indicators.
You need to list a range of KPI’s first!
82
References
83
