Risk management and disaster preparednesssite.iugaza.edu.ps/anassar/files/2010/02/chapter_8.pdf · Risk management and disaster preparedness 141 In addition to health and safety,

139

chapter eight

Risk management and disaster preparedness

Introduction

Life-cycle management of infrastructure requires that water, sewer, andstormwater utilities provide safe and reliable service in spite of earthquakes,floods, accidents, and even terrorist attacks. This requires infrastructure man-agers to deal with several forms of risk that go well beyond engineeringdesign. They do this by adding security and risk management to other tasksof planning, design, construction operation, and maintenance. Providingsecurity and avoiding disasters should become part of everyday business inutilities.

Public confidence is very important in utility operation. According to anonline

Business Week

poll taken October 24–31, 2001, public opinion seeswater supplies as vulnerable. Only 41% of the participants responded thatthe government is “very” or “somewhat” prepared to safeguard water sup-plies,

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Thus utilities must be on guard to prevent disasters and avoid under-mining public confidence in basic water services.

The world of risk has expanded, and the purposes of this chapter are tooutline the risks, relate them to the integrity of infrastructure systems, andexplain how to reduce vulnerability. One tool for reducing vulnerability isthe “vulnerability assessment,” and legislation has been introduced into theU.S. Congress to provide funding for the water utilities. Wastewater andstormwater systems also face important risks and will do their own formsof vulnerability assessments.

Consequences of disasters and emergencies can be dire. Some listed bythe AWWA for water utilities are the following:

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• Personnel shortages• Contamination of water supplies• Contamination of air• Well and pump damage

L1573_book Page 139 Friday, August 2, 2002 7:20 AM

140 Water, Wastewater, and Stormwater Infrastructure Management

• Pipeline breaks and appurtenance damage• Structure damage• Equipment and material damage or loss• Process tank or basin damage• Electric power outage• Communications disruption• Transportation failure• Hazardous effects on system components

Setting goals and desirable service levels involves life safety, fire sup-pression, public health needs, and commercial and business uses. Servicepriorities begin with critical facilities, such as medical installations, policeand fire, and emergency centers.

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Risks to water, sewer, and stormwater systems

Reducing vulnerability and improving reliability are two sides of the samecoin. Threats will always be there, but if vulnerability can be reduced, utilityservices can continue in spite of them. Reducing vulnerability and improvingreliability extend to almost everything the utility does, and are quality man-agement issues.

The most visible risks to water, sewer, and stormwater systems involvepublic health and safety, which affect system design and management andrequire capital investments and decisions. Figure 8.1 shows a chemical stor-age area, illustrating one safety concern.

Figure 8.1

Chemical storage area. (From American Water Works Association. Copy-right 2001. All rights reserved)


Risk management and disaster preparedness 141

In addition to health and safety, risks involve damage and social effects.Table 8.1 shows the range of risks that must be assumed by the utility. Thistable is a “work in progress,” because our knowledge and awareness of risksincrease with experience.

Many of the risks are caused by threats or hazards from both naturaland human-caused sources. These are are summarized in Table 8.2, basi-cally following a listing by the AWWA with some additions.

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For example,natural hazards include earthquakes (Figure 8.2) and floods. Figure 8.3shows the inundated water treatment plant in Grand Forks, NorthDakota, and Figure 8.4 shows flood pumping in the small town of Elba,Alabama.

Table 8.1

Risks to Water, Sewer, and Stormwater Systems

Risk category Water supply Wastewater Stormwater

Health, safety, environment

Contamination, sickness, death

Contamination, damage to property, health risks, environmental damage

Children playing around flood facilities, pipes, ponds, etc.

Performance failure

Loss of fire flow Overflow of untreated sewage and enforcement action

Inadequate protection from flooding

Construction or maintenance failure

Another utility damages pipe during digging

Trench cave-in Pipe damaged during construction

System or component failure

Pipe break Sewer backup due to clogging, leading to property damage

Flooding due to clogged facilities, leading to property damage

Liability Pipe leak leads to cave-in and damage to property

Industrial waste contaminates aquifer

Redirected flood waters damage property

Financial Rates are inadequate to pay costs for utility, leading to crisis

Inadequate rates to pay for improvements, leading to fine

Utility held responsible for damage, not able to pay judgment

Employee problems and accidents

Employee inhales chlorine

Employee injured in maintenance event

Employee sues for discrimination

Disaster, human-caused

Pranksters contaminate water in tank

Construction project damages large sewer

Industry dumps toxic waste in drainage system

Disaster, natural Breaks due to earthquakes

Tornado damages treatment plant

Flood overwhelms facilities



Table 8.2

Categories of Hazards

Natural-disaster hazards

EarthquakeFlooding — river, flash, coastal, dam breakWind — hurricanes, tornadosWaterborne disease — Cryptosporidium, Giardia,

E. coli

, LegionellaDrought and dustOther severe weather — cold, heat, snow, ice, high winds, lightningFire — forest, brush, firestormMudflow and landslideVolcano and ashfall

Human-caused disaster hazards

Hazardous-material releasesBreaks, system failures, power or computer system failuresMajor accidents (nuclear power, construction, transportation)Structure firesTerrorism, vandalism, riots, strikes, sabotage, hoaxes, cyber attacksNuclear power plant accidents or nuclear explosionsWar and civil unrest

Figure 8.2

SF Bay Quake 3. (From Federal Emergency Management Agency, Mitiga-tion Resources for Success CD.)



Figure 8.3

GF WTP. (From Federal Emergency Management Agency, Mitigation Re-sources for Success CD.)

Figure 8.4

Elba pumping. (From Federal Emergency Management Agency, Mitiga-tion Resources for Success CD.)



Risk management

Risk management is the term used to explain the different ways an organi-zation handles risk. In risk management, one considers hazards that canthreaten vulnerable elements of a system, assesses risks and consequences,and develops actions, including mitigation, response, recovery, and commu-nication of risk to constituent groups.

As shown in Figure 8.5, risk management involves business risk andrisk from natural and human-caused hazards. Business risk is generallyconsidered to include all contingencies that affect the finances or legalliabilities of the organization. The facilities and operations sides of theorganization get involved with many of the same risks, especially thosedealing with infrastructure.

Many different terms are used in the risk management field. Theyinclude hazard assessment, disaster mitigation, risk assessment and reduc-tion, vulnerability assessment, mitigation, emergency management, andcontingency planning, among others. On close inspection, however, thesefields involve the same general processes, which are identifying, manag-ing, and responding to threats to an organization and seeking to answerthe following questions:

3

Figure 8.5

Utility Risk Management Program.

Disaster Preparednessand

Emergency Planning

UtilityRisk Management

Natural and Human-Caused Hazards

Phases• Contingency Planning• Disaster Mitigation• Emergency Response• Recovery from Disaster

Mitigation Planning• Hazard Identification• Vulnerability Assessment• Mitigation

Risk Management Programs• Insurance• Safety• Health• HR Issues• Property• Financial Risk

Business Risks

OrganizationalAdministration

Facilities andOperations



• What can go wrong and why (what are the hazards and threats, whatdisaster can occur)?

• How likely is it (what is the risk, chance, probability, likelihood)?• How bad can it be (who or what would be affected, what is the

vulnerability, what would be the consequences)?• What can we do about it (what should be the management actions,

mitigation, response, or recovery)?

These can be reduced to a few essential steps. This list is by Alan Levitt,and key words are added to each step to facilitate the following discussions.

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• Determine, recognize, and appreciate all potential out-of-courseevents (hazard assessment).

• Determine (measure) levels of these risks (risk assessment).• Reduce levels of risk to as low as reasonably practicable or to accept-

able levels (risk reduction).• Ascertain how and why each out-of-course event can affect people,

places, and processes and the consequences of the effects (vulnera-bility assessment).

• Establish means and mechanisms by which consequences can becounterbalanced in a manner acceptable to business and regulators(mitigation).

Some areas of risk management are not well developed, however,because risk levels are not well understood for lack of an empirical database.Natural disaster preparedness is further along, for example, than protectionagainst human-caused threats.

Risk management is fairly well developed for health risks through stan-dards for drinking water and environmental standards. For example, theSDWA regulates risk in water supply utilities and drives part of investmentdecisions. See Chapter 11 for a further discussion of risk managementthrough law and regulations.

Environmental auditing is presented as a risk management tool. Taken tothe extreme, it would involve a lot of self-testing of the local corporate environ-ment, together with samples of all effluents and products that might affect theenvironment. Less obtrusively, it might be an information system to alert man-agers to risks associated with company operations. This could be an early warn-ing system, identifying safety hazards and hidden liabilities, including those ofacquisition targets and suppliers. Corporate risks are of two kinds — regulatoryenforcement, either of civil or criminal statutes, and unidentified risks.

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Risk management for water supply utilities is fairly well understood.Wastewater security has received less attention, although the WEF has pub-lished a guide for wastewater security. After the September 11 terroristattacks, wastewater utilities have become aware of more risk categories.

6

Also, the CWA drives investment decisions in wastewater utilities, and therisk of an enforcement action is involved.



Table 8.3

Terminology in Risk Management

Term Definition

Contingency planning

Planning to assure continuity between the impact of a problem and return to “as-intended” functioning of an organization. Used by business planners.

Consequence Outcome of an event (ISO).

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Crisis management

Crisis management involves special measures to solve problems during a crucial or decisive point or situation, such as war or a kidnapping.

Disaster preparedness

A disaster is an event that may occur but is not probable, and will cause widespread destruction and distress. The term is used in medical, search and rescue, relief, fire, and accident response.

Emergency management

The term “emergency management” is used for police, fire, and medical work, as well as by utilities. The U.S. has the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). “Emergency preparedness” is also used.

Event Occurrence of a particular set of circumstances (ISO).Hazard assessment

A hazard is a “potential source of harm” (ISO)

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or “a source of potential damage associated with a disaster.

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A “threat” also refers to possible harm. A hazard does not lead to disaster unless it penetrates the defense and causes harm.

Incident management

An incident is an event of a certain type. A widely used concept is the Incident Command System (ICS).

Mitigation Limitation of any negative consequence (ISO).

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In water supply, mitigation includes reliable and flexible supply systems, mutual aid, conservation, alternative treatment, and the removal of high—risk components.

Recovery A phase of an emergency, indicating a period after response until systems return to normal or better.

Response The phase following an emergency or disaster. Risk Combination of the probability of an event and its

consequence (ISO).

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“Residual risk” is risk remaining after “risk treatment” (ISO).

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Risk identification is the process of finding, listing, and characterizing elements of risk (ISO). Risk reduction consists of actions taken to lessen the probability, negative consequences, or both, associated with a particular risk (ISO).

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Risk analysis Systematic use of information to identify sources and to estimate risk (ISO).

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Risk management

Coordinated activities to direct and control an organization with regard to risk (ISO).

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Risk treatment Process of selection and implementation of measures to

modify risk (ISO).

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Safety and security

Safety is freedom from unacceptable risk (ISO).

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Safety and security have similar meanings. Safety is a general term meaning to be secure from harm, danger, and evil. Security means freedom from danger, harm, or risk of loss.

Source Item or activity having a potential for a consequence (ISO).

9



For stormwater systems, the purpose of the system is to handle hazards,and we do not normally consider a hazard interrupting regular service, aswe do in water supply and wastewater. Stormwater systems are designedbased on acceptable risks. But stormwater systems do present risks, in similarways to water supply and wastewater. For example, close associationsbetween stormwater and transportation facilities increase interdependencybetween the systems and can increase risk.

All threats to the organization produce risks, and there are advantagesto integrating the risk management program to consider them all. Riskmanagement is an overall term that can include a range of issues, and isbecoming more widely recognized as an area of management. For example,the Safety Manager can be responsible for emergencies, or there can beseparate managers for safety and emergencies. In the U.K., the concept of a“risk owner” is sometimes used to refer to the responsibility for tracking aparticular line of risk such as during a construction project.

The term “integrated risk management” means to look at all riskstogether. The position of “Chief Risk Officer” (CRO) is used by some corpo-rations. Integrated risk management for corporations includes insurance andnoninsurance risks, such as currency and interest rate risks.

7

Regarding riskmanagers using different language, Felix Kloman wrote, “We talk extensivelyabout integrating risk management within profit, nonprofit, and governmen-tal sectors, but we remain encapsulated within our specialty bubbles.”

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In an attempt to standardize language in risk management, the Interna-tional Standards Organization (ISO) has published draft standard terminol-ogy for the field. Some of these, with related terms, are given in Table 8.3.

9,10

ISO definitions are marked by an asterisk.

Risk assessment, vulnerability analysis, and contingency planning

Risk assessment or analysis is the systematic use of information to identifysources and to estimate the risk. Achieving this is the goal of contingencyplanning, in which levels of risks must be measured and be reduced to aslow as reasonably practicable.

Terrorism The unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives (FBI definition, quoted in Reference 11).

Vulnerability analysis

Vulnerability analysis identifies all possible vulnerabilities, presents historical data about past disasters, assesses future probability and frequency of emergencies and disasters, analyzes impacts and effects, and validates data.

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Table 8.3 (continued)

Terminology in Risk Management

Term Definition



The science of measuring risks is well advanced for some threats butnot for others. In general, risks to water, sewer, and stormwater systemswould be difficult to quantify, although possibilities can be listed andmapped, as shown in Table 8.4.

The general process of contingency planning involves enacting disas-ter scenarios, estimating demands, identifying measures for meeting min-imum needs, and isolating critical components or systems that may causesystem failures. This is generally referred to as vulnerability assessmentor analysis.

Vulnerability analysis means to determine the consequences of thehazards affecting the facility or operations of concern. It requires identi-fication and measurement of risk, and identifies vulnerabilities. It pre-sents historical data about past disasters, assesses future probability andfrequency of emergencies and disasters, analyzes impacts and effects, andvalidates data.

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In vulnerability analysis, the effects of the hazards on water systemcomponents and water quality and quantity should be determined. Theentire system should of course be analyzed, as well as the components.The AWWA wrote that vulnerability assessment in water utility emergencyplanning has four basic steps:

2

Table 8.4

Measurement of Risks

Risk category Measurement

Health and safety This category includes some risk categories, such as deaths from water constituents, where empirical data may be available; for the most part, however, risk is difficult to quantify.

Performance failure If a structure is designed for a fixed level event, and the load is exceeded, as in a flood, the risk can quantified. If failure is caused by an unexpected event, such as a mistake, it cannot be quantified.

Construction or maintenance failure

These failures would be difficult to quantify because they can occur in many ways. Claims for construction damages might be quantified from insurance data.

System or component failure

These might be quantified from data on service records, but in practice, they would be difficult to quantify.

Liability In theory, the many possible areas of liability could be mapped, but risk would be difficult to quantify.

Financial Some financial risk, such as adequacy of rates, could be modeled.

Employee problems and accidents

Employee risks would be difficult to quantify, although data might be available through the insurance industry.

Disaster, human-caused

This category of risk is becoming more visible, but would be difficult to quantify.

Disaster, natural Natural disaster risk can be quantified for earthquake and flood damage, but for some events, such as fire or lightning damage, it is difficult to quantify.



1. Identify components of the water supply system.2. Estimate potential effects of possible disasters.3. Establish goals for performance and levels of service.4. Identify critical components.

These steps, although stated for water supply systems, apply to sewerand stormwater as well. They would be implemented this way:

1. Identification of system components requires an inventory withmaps, condition inspections, and data for operations and mainte-nance scenarios, including emergency actions.

2. Quantifying magnitude determines the scale and magnitude of eachpotential disaster or contingency. Estimating effects of anticipateddisasters on each component of the system involves disaggregationof systems to assess the effects of each disaster type on each compo-nent (for example, a storage reservoir might be vulnerable to a mud-slide, whereas the treatment plant might fail during a power outage).

3. Estimating demand during and after the disaster for all purposes isan extension of normal demand estimating procedures. Determiningthe capability of a system to meet demands during emergenciesrequires modeling and analysis to match demands and supplies dur-ing the emergency.

4. Identifying critical components that cause failure during emergenciesis the result of the vulnerability analysis and pinpoints the compo-nents that need strengthening.

The AWWA manual specifies that the water system includes five sub-systems and their components: source, transmission, treatment, storage, anddistribution. Water systems also include critical support systems and lifelines(Table 8.5).

2

Wastewater and stormwater systems can also be disaggregated into theircomponent parts, as explained in Chapter 2. Disaster and security studies areconcerned with different parts of the systems. For example, interrupting asource of water can be disastrous; whereas in a stormwater system, a saboteur’susing the system to gain access to a critical facility might be the major issue.

The other steps in a vulnerability assessment involve estimating magni-tude of disasters, determining capability to meet demands during emergen-cies, and identifying critical components that cause failure. Additional dis-cussion of these processes is beyond the scope of this chapter, but the readercan refer to Reference 10 for a thorough review of the literature about them,at least as they apply to water supply utilities.

Mitigation measures, including design and construction

Mitigation consists of “disaster-proofing” activities which eliminate orreduce the probability of disaster effects. The AWWA says that they reduce



the vulnerability of components or systems. The general goal is to producereliable and flexible supply systems. Table 8.6 presents mitigation measureslisted by the AWWA and PAHO.

2,14

In comparison to emergency management, little information has beenpublished about design and construction to mitigate disaster effects.Although some information has been presented about treatment plants, there

Table 8.5

Water Infrastructure Systems and Components

Subsystem Examples of components

Administration and operations

Personnel, buildings and computers, records, emergency plan

Source water Watersheds and surface sources, reservoirs and dams, aquifers, wells and galleries

Transmission Intake structures, aqueducts, pumping stations, pipelines, controls

Treatment Structures, controls, equipment, chemicalsStorage Tanks, valves, pipingDistribution Pipelines, valves, pumps, materialsElectric power Substations, transmission lines, transformers, generatorsTransportation Vehicles and construction equipment, maintenance

facilities, supplies, parts and fuel, roadway infrastructure

Communications Telephone, radio, telemetry, mass media outlets

Table 8.6

Management and Engineering Measures

Management measures Engineering measures

Planning for emergency response Source water and transmission — providing alternative sources, protecting wellheads, retrofitting dams and aqueducts

Administrative systems in place Treatment — isolation, bypass, fire resistance, flood-proofing, alternative systems

Cooperative plans for water-sharing and interconnections

Distribution — design, control, interconnections

Improvements in communication to include codes, backup systems

Remove high-risk components

Personnel — education, cross-training, replacement, ensuring a safe workplace

Bury in solid soils/rock, use vegetative cover

Placement of redundant equipment and auxiliary generators

Replace rigid systems with flexible systems

Improved access Use retaining wallsPreparing to conserve Detect slow landslides, relocate away

from landslidesProvision of alternative transport Repair leaks in areas of unstable soilsFrequent inspections



is little about disaster-proofing of distribution systems, with the exceptionof recent work regarding earthquakes. For earthquakes, advances have beenmade in seismic upgrades, such as redesign of critical pipelines in faultzones. The AWWA wrote guidelines for utilities to design water systems tomaintain structural integrity of storage facilities, pipeline viability, and con-trol systems continuity.

Design and operation are key aspects of disaster preparedness. For exam-ple, in 1975 the inability to close a valve led to a ten-day shutdown in Trenton,New Jersey. This could have been a design issue or an operational issue, inthat the valve had not been exercised.

General design of treatment plants includes little mention of emergencyplanning or disasters. For floods, design provisions would include protectionof intake structure, and protection against flotation, ice jams, internal flood-ing, Giardia, and Crypto. Treatment plant design focuses on chemical han-dling and spill containment, as well as chlorine leaks. Electric fault protectivedevices also receive attention.

Reliability as a key design goal means the extent to which a systemperforms its function without failure. John Spitko’s chapter on “Design Reli-ability Features” discusses the consequences of loss of plant and bad water.

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Reliability is driven by regulatory consequences of loss of part or all of aplant and consequences of not meeting standards. A systems approachwould make sure failure of a component does not lead to failure of system.Reliability depends on treatment train, equipment, processes, standby equip-ment, redundancy, parallel systems, and flexibility.

Principles and ideas for reliable systems are:

• Ensure that failure of any one component does not cause operatingfailure or noncompliance.

• Provide operational flexibility to handle problems with source watervariability.

• Have reserves and redundancies to keep operating if one unit is outof service.

• Have one or more processes perform the same function, such as filtersand sedimentation to remove particulates.

• Gain flexibility through redundancy, conservative sizing, or unit ar-rangements.

• Ensure overall reliability through interconnections and differentsources.

• Avoid independent process trains; use interconnections instead.• Use gravity flow instead of pumping.• Ensure component system reliability — electrical, controls, and many

other factors.• Consider disasters in design.• Use waterproofing.• Control access.• Have plant security.



• Store chemicals on site to mitigate truck blockades.• Have on-site generation of chemicals, chlorine.• Have a HAZMAT program.• Have a safety program.• Do a vulnerability analysis.• Have multiple intake ports or well screens.• Use off-stream sources.• Have dual power sources and standby power.• Have chemical storage reliability.• Ensure reliability of process design.• Ensure smooth O&M.• Have shop drawings.• Have computerized maintenance systems.• Have trained people.

An example of a design feature that increases reliability is the “flex pipe,”which is illustrated in Figure 8.6.

Emergency management

Emergency management and disaster preparedness anticipate diverse situ-ations that threaten security. They involve police or military skills, but criticalinfrastructure systems such as water supply require special expertise. Emer-gency management is allied with civil defense, and during the 1970s the U.S.organized the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Its missionstatement is “to reduce loss of life and property and protect our nation’s

Figure 8.6

EBMUD flexpipe. (From Federal Emergency Management Agency, Miti-gation Resources for Success CD.)



critical infrastructure from all types of hazards through a comprehensive,risk-based emergency management program of mitigation, preparedness,response and recovery.”

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Although emergency management involves boththe government and the private sector, in the case of water, sewer, andstormwater, the utility must take primary responsibility.

Emergency management involves close coordination among differentparties. Figure 8.7 shows a meeting of emergency managers.

Security

The field of security focuses on human-caused threats. Concern about secu-rity led to The President’s Commission on Critical Infrastructure Protection.After the commission’s report, Presidential Decision Directive 63 in May1998 established the National Infrastructure Protection Center (NIPC) insidethe FBI. The NIPC is concerned with eight “critical” infrastructures: telecom-munications, electric power, gas and oil storage and delivery, banking andfinance, transportation, water supply systems, emergency services, and gov-ernment operations.

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One element of the NIPC network is the Water Sector Critical Infrastruc-ture Protection Advisory Group (CIPAG), which began to meet in 2001. UnderNIPC, the InfraGard initiative set up a public–private information-sharingmechanism that funnels threat warnings to sectors, including the water sup-ply sector. This will be reported through an Information Sharing and AnalysisCenter (ISAC) for the water supply sector. The ISAC will be a secureWeb-based interface for water utilities to share security information.

The National Infrastructure Protection Center at FBI Headquarters dealswith threat assessment, warning, vulnerability, criminal and national secu-rity investigation, and response. Its mission is to detect, deter, assess, warn(users), respond to, and investigate unlawful acts that threaten or target oureight critical infrastructures (telecommunications, electric power, gas and oil

Figure 8.7

FL meeting. (From Federal Emergency Management Agency, MitigationResources for Success CD.)



storage and delivery, banking and finance, transportation, water supply,emergency services, and government operations).

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The EPA has organized a Water Protection Task Force to help federal,state, and local partners expand their tools to safeguard drinking water fromterrorist attacks. The EPA said that the threat of harm from an attack on ourwater supply is small, and the goal is to provide access to the best scientificinformation and technical expertise. The EPA already has a notification sys-tem to share information among drinking water providers, the law enforce-ment community (local, state, and federal) and emergency response officials,developed with the Association of Metropolitan Water Agencies (AMWA)and the FBI.

Sandia National Laboratory has been assigned a role in developing avulnerability assessment methodology for water utilities. Detect, delay, andrespond are the keywords of the planned approach, according to Sandia,which presented its approach at an AWWA workshop in 2001.

References

1. Ready for the Worst?

Business Week

, December 3, 2001, p. 16.2. American Water Works Association,

Emergency Planning for Water Utilities

,Denver, 2001.

3. Kolluru, R.V., Risk assessment and management, a unified approach, in Kol-luru, R. et al., Eds.,

Risk Management Handbook for Environmental, Health, andSafety Professionals

, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1996. 4. Levitt, A.M.,

Disaster Planning and Recovery: A Guide for Facility Professionals,

John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1997. 5. Harrison, L.L.,

Environmental Auditing Handbook: A Guide to Corporate andEnvironmental Risk Management

, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1984. 6. Water Environment Federation,

Natural Disaster Management for WastewaterTreatment Facilities,

Arlington, VA, 1995. 7. Banham, R., Integrated risk management: rethinking the future,

Reactions

,April 2000, pp. 18–20.

8. Kloman, F., Integrated risk management: understanding the new mantra,

Reactions

, April 2000, pp. 22–23.9. International Standards Organization, Draft ISO Guide 73, Geneva, prepared

by the ISO Technical Management Board Working Group on risk managementterminology, 2001.

10. Grigg, N.S.,

Surviving Disasters: Learning from Experience

, American WaterWorks Association Research Foundation, Denver, 2002.

11. Kozlow, C. and Sullivan, J.,

Jane’s Facility Security Handbook

, Jane’s InformationGroup, Alexandria, VA, 2000.

12. Federal Emergency Management Agency,

Emergency Planning, Student Guide

,Professional Development Series, National Emergency Management TrainingCenter, Emmitsburg, MD, August, 1983.

13. Federal Emergency Management Agency, www.fema.gov, including StrategicPlan, FY 1998 – FY 2007, March 11, 1999.



14. Pan American Health Organization,

Natural Disaster Mitigation in DrinkingWater and Sewerage Systems:

Guidelines for Vulnerability Analysis,

Regional Of-fice of WHO, Disaster Mitigation Series, Washington, 1998.

15. Spitko, J., Design reliability features, in Fuller and Von Huben,

Water TreatmentPlant Design

, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1998, chap. 22, p. 621–631.16. Critical Foundations: Protecting America’s Infrastructures, President’s Com-

mission on Critical Infrastructure Protection, Washington, D.C., October 1997.17. GAO,

Critical Infrastructure Protection: Significant Challenges in DevelopingNational Capabilities,

GAO-01–323, April 2001.


Documents

Risk management and disaster preparednesssite.iugaza.edu.ps/anassar/files/2010/02/chapter_8.pdf · Risk management and disaster preparedness 141 In addition to health and safety,