REVIEW ON MANUFACTURING OF FIBRE METAL LAMINATES …€¦ · laminates (CARALL). In 1989, Glass Laminate Aluminium Reinforced Epoxy (GLARE) was developed and patented [24]. It was

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International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology (IJMET)

Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2017, pp. 561–578, Article ID: IJMET_08_10_063

Available online at http://www.iaeme.com/IJMET/issues.asp?JType=IJMET&VType=8&IType=10

ISSN Print: 0976-6340 and ISSN Online: 0976-6359

© IAEME Publication Scopus Indexed

REVIEW ON MANUFACTURING OF FIBRE

METAL LAMINATES AND ITS

CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES

K.Logesh

Research scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Sathyabama University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

V.K.Bupesh Raja

Professor & Head, Department of Automobile Engineering,

Sathyabama University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

Vipin H Nair, Sreerag K.M, Vishvesvaran K.M and M.Balaji

UG Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Veltech Dr.RR & Dr.SR University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

ABSTRACT

Fibre Metal Laminates (FML) is new class of materials which are in high demand

because of its superior mechanical and metallurgical properties. Such materials can

be manufactured by a variety of ways depending on size required, end application and

cost affordability. However FML are susceptible to defects which are governed by

factors such as type of skin and core material selected, preparation method used, post

treatment and load applied. Possible defects can be overcome by following care while

preparing the material as per end requirements. FML can be used for applications

which demand low weight to high strength ratio such as aeronautics, automobiles,

marine and structures.

Keywords: Fibre Metal Laminates, Skin, Core, Preparation Method, Mechanical

Properties, Post Treatment.

Cite this Article: K.Logesh, V.K.Bupesh Raja, Vipin H Nair, Sreerag K.M,

Vishvesvaran K.M and M.Balaji, Review on Manufacturing of Fibre Metal Laminates

and its Characterization Techniques, International Journal of Mechanical Engineering

and Technology 8(10), 2017, pp. 553–560.

http://www.iaeme.com/IJMET/issues.asp?JType=IJMET&VType=8&IType=10

1. INTRODUCTION

Advancements in the field of materials and manufacturing have brought forward new kinds of

materials. Laminate materials are new class of composite materials which have been

developed recently. Such materials are tailor made to be used for specific applications. The

first fibre metal laminate was developed during 1967. It was found that in comparison with a

K.Logesh, V.K.Bupesh Raja, Vipin H Nair, Sreerag K.M, Vishvesvaran K.M and M.Balaji


typical aluminium sheet, a laminate of same thickness made of fibre and aluminium had twice

the fracture toughness [1]. Like a typical composite material, laminate materials are generally

produced to enhance the overall properties such as low density and corrosion resistance of the

fabricated components [2-3]. However the properties of such materials get shared to give

benefits as well as drawback such as low fatigue resistance and high moisture absorption [4-

14].

The innumerable combination of materials that can be combined to create a composite

material, makes it open ended to research and development. Such materials are used

extensively in aeronautics, automobiles and structural materials [15-19].

In this paper, sandwich material, which is a type of composite material is considered and

discussed. A sandwich material consists of layers of its composition arranged to replicate a

sandwich, such as plywood. Fig.1. shows the morphology of typical sandwich materials. It

consists of a skin which acts as the matrix, while the interlayer acts as the reinforcements.

Like any composite material, the composition of the sandwich material can be selected based

on the end requirement, i.e, the properties desired from the produced composite. There can be

several layers between the outer skins in the sandwich material.

Figure 1 A typical laminate material [20]

1.1. History of Laminate Materials

The earliest known literature about the use of bonded laminate structures dates back to 1950

[21]. It was revealed that Fokker Aero-structures of Netherlands made first attempts to

prevent emergence of fatigue cracks by using laminated materials. It was identified that its

performance was better than monolithic structures made up of same materials. Research on

Fibre metal laminates (FML) was coined by Aerospace Engineering in Delft University of

Technology, Netherlands. They developed a fibre metal laminates comprising of Aramid

fibres in Aluminium laminates (ARALL) [22-23]. It was commercialized during 1982 with

two variations: ARALL 1 with AA7075 as the laminate and ARALL 2 with AA2024 as the

laminates. Later two more types of ARALL came into existence and commercialized

respectively. More research on FML brought forward Carbon reinforced Aluminium

laminates (CARALL). In 1989, Glass Laminate Aluminium Reinforced Epoxy (GLARE) was

developed and patented [24]. It was later commercialized in 1991 [25]. Generally E-glass

fibres are used to make GLARE.

1.2. Classifications of FML

Numerous research activities in FML have given rise to many different kinds of laminated

materials. Figure 2 shown below reveals the classifications of FML. Based on the layup of the

reinforcements a FML can be of two types: Unidirectional Hybrid Laminate (UDHL) and

Cross-ply Hybrid Laminates (CPHL). Comparatively the CPHL is better in terms of impact

performance and damage resistance [26]. Fig.3 shows the general layup of reinforcements and

metal laminates of a sandwich material. In case of UDHL the fibres will be either oriented in

00 or 90

0 orientations. In the CPHL fibres will be twined similar to the form of textile fabrics.

Review on Manufacturing of Fibre Metal Laminates and its Characterization Techniques


Based on the material used as the laminate, FML can be of the following types: Titanium

based FML, Magnesium based FML and Aluminium based FML. CARALL, GLARE and

ARALL are classes of Aluminium based laminates. There are four types of ARALL and six

types of GLARE, each having specific properties depending upon the types of aluminium

used to fabricate the same [22-23]. The materials chosen as the laminate is such that it

contributes to the reduction in weight of the FML without sacrificing its superior mechanical

properties such as high strength, yield strength, impact resistance, etc. Titanium has the

advantage of strength to weight ratio, however it is not preferred for low applications. The

mechanical properties such as impact resistance and hardness of magnesium is lower than

aluminium and titanium, hence it is preferred only for applications which do not required high

strength. Aluminium has some advantages like strength to weight ratio, fatigues and corrosion

resistance[24-27]. Applications of aluminium metal laminates includes aero structures and

automobile components [21-24][28-31].

Based on the types of reinforcements used FML are of the following types: Kevlar

reinforced laminate, CARALL and GLARE. Kevlar has the benefit of extremely light weight

however being costly makes its applications restricted to scientific research and government

aided projects. Glass and carbon fibre has the advantages of low cost yet reliable hence highly

preferred for commercial applications [22].

Based on the layup of the laminates and reinforcements in FML can be of the following

types: 2/1 laminate in which there will be one layer of reinforcement sandwiched between two

metal laminates and 3/2 laminate in which there will be three layers of metal laminates

separated by two layers of reinforcements. The fibre may be oriented in different directions

between the laminates [32-34]. Figure 4 shows a 3/2 laminate.

Figure 2 Classification of Fibre Metal Laminates



Figure 3 Layup of reinforcements and metal laminates in FML [35]

Figure 4 3/2 laminate materials [36]

2. FABRICATION OF FML

FML are prepared with an aim of reducing the overall weight without sacrificing the

beneficial properties on a specific application [24][37]. Fabrication of FML consists of four

steps: pre-treatment, preparation of prepreg, production of FML and post treatment.

2.1. Pre treatment

The skin has to be pre-treated in order to enable proper bonding of the metal laminate with the

reinforcements. The skin and the fibre reinforcements have to be cut to the required

dimensions before carrying out the pre-treatment processes [38]. Modification of surface

properties of the skin or metal laminate is carried out by mechanical abrasion and degreasing

by using solvents [25][39].

The procedures for pre-treatment were explained with the following steps [40]:

Degreasing the metal laminates by immersing it in Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK)

solution,

Cleaning with water,

Creation of micro roughness using a 400 and 200 grit abrasion papers. Any

contaminants were wiped out using tissue papers,

Etching for 10 minutes at room temperature by immersing it in a 5% NaOH solution,

Rinsing with hot water,

Etching the metal laminate for 12 minutes in sulfochromic solution. (ASTM standard

D2674-72, 2004) and (ASTM standard D2651-01, 2004) standards were used during

the etching process,



Producing porous layers of pseudoboehmite aluminum oxyhydroxide (ALOOH) on

the metal laminate by immersing it in hot water for one minute,

Coating the surface of the metal laminate using an organosilane adhesion promoter, γ-

Glycidoxypropyltrimethoxy silane (γ-GPS),

Drying in an oven at 1000C for one hour. It was noted that the coating improved the

strength and durability of the adhesive. The metal laminate used for his study was

aluminium.

2.2. Preparation of the prepreg

The preparation of FML is preceded by the manufacture of prepregs[25]. A single sheet of

fabric reinforcement can be cut to the desired size and held in a mould [41]. The mould is the

connected to resin feed and a vacuum source as shown in Fig.4. The transfer of resin from

source towards the vacuum enables ingression of the resin into the fibre. This is called as resin

ingression technique. In order to delay the curing of the resin with the fibre, the mould is

transferred to a deep freezer and held for 24 hours at -180C. The prepreg which is the uncured

resin impregnated fibre is wrapped in a polythene sheet and frozen for future use. Prepreg

produced in this manner was called as just-in-time prepreg (JIPREG). The prepregs can be

stored without any changes in its properties upto 20 days.

2.3. Production of the FML

There are many methods available to produce a FML: hand layup, stamp forming, autoclave

and Resin Transfer Moulding (RTM). There are several types of RTMs, the popular ones are

Structural Resin Injection Moulding (SRIM), Vacuum Assisted Resin Injection (VARI),

Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Moulding (VARTM) and Resin Film Infusion (RFI).

2.3.1. Hand layup

In case of the hand layup technique as shown in Fig.5 the reinforcement will be prepared just

before it is to be used. The reinforcement material mostly in the form of fabric, fibres or

powders will be mixed with a suitable resin to enhance its bonding with the skin. As soon as

the reinforcements is mixed with the resin. It will be placed between the skins. Then light to

moderate pressure is applied to the skins in the form of pressing by hand or a roller. The

applied pressure compresses the prepreg and enables proper bonding between the skin and the

reinforcements. Enough time is allowed to enable proper bonding. The hand layup technique

is used for creating large laminates which are to be used for low cost and light load

applications [42-43].

Figure 5 Hand layup technique



2.3.2. Stamp forming

Stamp forming is similar to the above method except that heavy force is applied to bond the

laminate and prepreg as shown in Fig.6. In this method layers of laminate and the prepreg are

arranged as desired over the cavity of a blank. The cavity resembles the final desired shape of

the finished laminate. It is then pressed using a round tipped tool into the blank. The applied

pressure forces the prepreg to get bonded to the laminate. The layers are held in a die, blank

holder and punch setup. The shape of the produced part is determined by the design of the die

and punch [44]. Pressure is applied from both sides of the mould. Hence this method is also

called as press forming or stamp forming depending upon the direction of the applied force

[25][45].

2.3.2. Stamp forming

Stamp forming is similar to the above method except that heavy force is applied to bond the

laminate and prepreg as shown in Fig.6. In this method layers of laminate and the prepreg are

arranged as desired over the cavity of a blank. The cavity resembles the final desired shape of

the finished laminate. It is then pressed using a round tipped tool into the blank. The applied

pressure forces the prepreg to get bonded to the laminate. The layers are held in a die, blank

holder and punch setup. The shape of the produced part is determined by the design of the die

and punch[44]. Pressure is applied from both sides of the mould. Hence this method is also

called as press forming or stamp forming depending upon the direction of the applied force

[25][45].

Figure 6 Stamp forming technique [46]

2.3.3. Autoclave

Autoclave method as shown in Fig.7 is a traditional method used for production of FML. The

stored prepregs are taken out of the deep freezer and its temperature is allowed to get to room

temperature. Then it is separated from the polythene sheets and stacked with the pretreated

metal laminates. Since the layers are stacked by hands, the autoclave method is otherwise

names as hand forming technique. The number of layers depends upon the end requirements

as desired such as 2/1 laminate, 3/2 laminate or 4/3 laminates. It is then placed in autoclave

chamber and vacuumed. Pressure is then applied along with heat to enhance the bonding

between the laminate and the prepreg [41]. This method is simple in design and do not require

a power feed during manufacturing and parts can be fabricated quickly. However it has some

drawbacks such as: not suitable for preparing larger parts, high operating costs, prior

knowledge in curing and properties of the resin, fibre and metal laminate.



Figure 7 Autoclave method [47]

2.3.4. Structural Resin Injection Moulding (SRIM)

In this method resin is prepared separately while the fibre reinforcements and the skin

materials are placed inside a mould. Most cases the reinforcements are arranged sandwiched

between the skin materials. The resin is then injected or pumped under high pressure over the

reinforcement [48]

2.3.5. Vacuum Assisted Resin Injection (VARI)

VARI has the benefit of low cost production of FML and also the ability to manufacture large

sized parts [49]. In the VARI, the layers of perforated reinforcements and metal skins are

arranged as desired. It is then placed inside a one sided mould and covered by flexible film

resembling a mould cavity. Peel plies are provided to enable easy removal of the finished

laminate materials as shown in Figure 8. The process is carried out by removing the air from

inside the cavity by using a vacuum pump attached at one of the longer ends of the

arrangement. It is then followed by pumping of hot resin from the other end. The resin flows

inside the cavity because of the pressure difference and gets infused with the reinforcement

[50].After curing for some hours a FML with the desired properties will be obtained.

Figure 8 Schematic Representation of VARI [51]

2.3.6. Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Moulding (VARTM)

VARTM technique has a similar construction of the VARI. Fig.9 shows the construction of

VARTM and the important parts [52-54]In VARTM the vacuum pump creates a much greater

negative pressure than the VARI. Resin is sucked into the mould cavity because of pressure

difference between the cavity and the resin holder. The quality of the FML depends upon the



fluidity of the resin. After the transfer of the resin into the mould chamber, the composition is

allowed to cure and set.

Figure 9 Illustration of VARTM [56]

2.3.7. Resin Film Infusion

This method has some similarity in construction as compared to autoclave method. It consists

of a single mould cavity in which pellets of resin is placed over the reinforcement. Heat is

supplied to the setup, which melts the resin and distribute over the reinforcements [57]. The

quality of the FML depends upon the temperature supplied, the pressure inside the mould

cavity and the viscosity of the resin to flow and distribute evenly into the reinforcements.

2.4. Post treatment

Post treatment is referred to the curing of the FML after the resin is introduced into the

reinforcements. The curing time differs, depending upon various factors mentioned below.

Pre treatment employed

Type of the resin used i.e., semisolid or liquid during the time of infusion into the

reinforcements.

Whether prepreg is used or not i.e., if the preparation method uses prepregs then the

resin had been already infused into the reinforcement. Hence the post treatment

employs higher heat required to enable resign flow into the pre treated skin material.

Type of the reinforcements and the skin materials used.

3. INVESTIGATION OF FML CHARACTERIZATION

FMLs are generally subjected to the following types of testing: impact test, tensile test,

flexural test, fire retardant characteristic. While conducting tests on FML, care should be

taken on the scaling effect. Literature review revealed that scaled model and full sized model

gave drastically different results. This was because of variation in parameters such as

thickness of fibre laminate, material removed from the metal layer, mass and overall thickness

between scaled and full sized model [58- 61].

3.1. Impact strength

The study of force-time on the laminate revealed three notable occurrences. First is the

materials resistance against impact damage. Second is the fluctuation in force which indicates

decrease in local bending stiffness. Third is the maximum bearing load before the material

cracked to the impactor. The major cause of failure is delamination. It was observed that the



load and the ply direction influenced the failure of the laminates. Lower load to cross ply and

90o orientation of fibre gave better resistance to damage [62].

3.2. Tensile Strength

Tensile test conducted on different FMLs revealed that failure in FML occurred because of

many factors including the metal used as laminate, type of fibre, sequence of laminate

prepereg stacking, geometry of impact, percentage of post stretching, etc. Material properties

like Young’s modulus, yield stress, strain hardening coefficient, anisotropic parameter and the

true stress v/s true strain curve are the basic input parameter required for the pre-processing of

the deep drawing process and hence need to be procured from the tensile test [63]. Analysis of

pre stress on GLARE, ARALL and CARALL revealed that GLARE could with stand greater

stress. The mode of failure was due to fibre and also the laminate material. Improving the

stiffness and strength of laminate material proved to have a drawback. The metal exhibited

brittleness and the failure originated low energy absorption and low damage resistance

characteristics. Fig.10 shows the relation between various reinforcements on failure on

comparing with the base metal. It can be found that GLARE exhibited superior resistance to

failure that other materials [64].

Figure 10 Force vs deflection for various core materials [65-66]

Inclusion of magnesium as the composition in the laminate gives some advantages such as

low density, magnetic resistance and corrosion resistance, along with reduction in crack

resistance and residual strength [67].

The ratio of Metal Volume Fraction (MVF) is unique to FML is shown in equation (1). It

is the ratio between the overall thicknesses of the laminate to the thickness of metal layer.

MVF =

(1)

It was suggested that increasing the thickness of the fibre reinforcement improves impact

resistance of the laminate. Hence in every laminate a slight larger thickness of the resin and

fibre reinforcement is maintained. There is no optimum thickness ratio allocution to determine

and limit the MVF. However care should be taken to maintain lower density. Otherwise the

reason to go for laminate material cannot be justified. Many literatures are available to

correlate the MVF with density [68-71].

FML may experience stress due to unequal thermal contraction especially while using

autoclave method preparation. It was found that the metal and reinforcement show different

behaviour under static loading and dynamic loading respectively [70] [72-74]. Such laminate

will have low energy absorption and premature failure. This can be overcome by stretching

the metal layer to plastic state while the reinforcement remains in elastic region [75].



Tensile test was conducted using UTM on a rectangular specimen in contrast with the

traditional method of using ASTM standards. The test revealed that the strain to failure on

FML was same in comparison with composite material. However the same was greater than in

comparison of FML with the base metal. This is justified by the bonding strength which

added to the tensile strength of FML [76]. Figure 11 and Figure 12 reveals the above

explained result.

Figure 11 Stress strain curve (0-90 FML) [76]

Figure 12 Stress strain curve (45 FML) [76]

3.3. Formability

Cup test and hemispherical dome test are the two methods to determine the forming

characteristics of the FML [54]. The test conducted on FML with different orientations

revealed that the laminate with 0-90 orientation of reinforcements exhibited greater strength

compared to that with ±45 orientations. This intimates that load distribution evenly along the

rolling direction of the metal layer and the reinforcements.

The most widely used test of sheet metal forming is the uni-axial tension test [77]. Plastic

strain ratio (r) is used to determine the uni-axial tension as shown in equation (1). Plastic

strain ratio is the resistance of steel sheet to thinning during forming operation. This is the

ratio of the true width strain to the true thickness strain of the plastically strained sheet metal

[78].



r= εw / εt (1)

Where,

εw - ln (w/w0)

εt - ln (t/t0) = ln (L0w0/Lw)

w - Change in width

w0 - Original width

t - Change in thickness

t0 - Original thickness

Form strength of both FML configurations is approximately around 160 MPa. It can be

noticed that the tensile strength of the [Al, 0-90] FML is approximately 150 MPa while that

for the [Al, ±45] FML is approximately 130 MPa. Generally, the form strength of a material

could be higher than its tensile strength [79-81]. This happens because during a tensile test,

the whole specimen is subjected to a constant stress whereas during forming test, a relatively

small region of the specimen experiences maximum stress. This difference in loading volume

reduces the likelihood of failure in the sample as show in the Figure 13.

Figure 13 Stress vs strain on Al-FML [76]

The Scanning Electron Microscopic (SEM) image of the specimen subjected to Erichsen

cupping test is shown in Figure 14 [23].

Figure 14 SEM image of specimen subjected to Erichsen cupping test [23]



3.4. Fire Retardancy

Fire retardant characteristic is an important property for a FML.[23] conducted extensive

research on the fire retardant characteristics on FML. A typical FML material should have the

following characteristics while subjected to flame:

Should not be toxic to human, animals and plants,

Should not release any harmful evaporating gases,

Should not release any additional toxic, harmful or corrosive smoke gases in case of

fire,

Should not negatively affect the flame retardancy.

3.4.1. Flammability

The cone calorimeter investigation is very popular and standard method for ranking and

comparing the flammability properties of polymeric materials. During the entire combustion

process of the sample in a cone calorimeter, a constant external heat flux is maintained to

sustain the combustion of the test sample i.e. the test method creates a forced flaming

combustion scenario. Therefore, the test results from cone calorimeter are very important in

flammability evaluation of any polymeric material [23].

UL94 testing is carried out following two standards: one is the vertical burn test (UL94 V)

and the other is the horizontal burn test (UL94 HB). The LDPE/LDH nano-composites

containing up to 16.2 wt% LDH did not pass any of the UL94 V specifications. All the

samples started burning spontaneously after first 10 seconds flame application, which

continued until the test specimen is completely burnt up to the sample holding clamp. This

means that the nano-composites are not self-extinguishing [23].

3.5. Flexural Strength

The flexural test is conducted analysis on flexural characteristics on FML

AA8011/Polypropylene/AA1100. There are different standards to perform flexural tests. One

such standard is ASTM D790 in which the specimen of 150 mm length, 30 mm width and 4

mm thick is subjected to a load at its centre[23]. The applied load and displacements were

recorded and obtained using the formulas shown in equation (2) and (3) respectively.

σf = 3PL/2bd2

and (2)

εf =6Dd/L2 (3)

Where,

‘L’ is the span length,

‘b’ is the width of the sandwich sheet,

‘d’ depth of the sandwich sheet

Specifically, mechanical properties and failure modes of AA8011/Polypropylene/AA1100

sandwich sheets are characterized. Flexural strengths of three specimens cut from the

sandwich sheets are summarized and the optimum values of load (P), maximum deflection

(D), flexural stiffness (Sf), flexural stress (y) and flexural modulus (E) of sandwich sheets

were found to be 140 kN, 28 mm, 8.23 MPa, 81.56 MPa and 323.81 MPa respectively [82-

87].

Figure 15 shows load-mid span deflection under three-point bending of the sandwich

sheet by flexural test. It is revealed that the deflection of sandwich specimen increased almost

linearly with load upto final failure. Hence it is determined that specimen could withstand

flexural load. Much of the force is absorbed by the thick layer of epoxy resin and the



reinforcement than the skin material. The flexural tests reveal that, the sandwich sheet can be

applied as outer shell of automobiles and aeroplanes [88-90].

Figure 15 Load-mid span deflection of the sandwich sheet in flexural test [66]

4. CONCLUSIONS

FML has more advantages such as low density, superior strength, and hardness over

the composite material and base metal. Hence FML has found applications in many

fields including, structures of aeronautical, automobile and marine.

There are many methods of preparing FML which can be selected based on the

parameters such as cost and finish required from the process.

Specific properties can be induced on the FML by suitably selecting the

reinforcements, MVF and fibre orientation.

Pretreatment on the metal and post treatment of FML can enhance the properties of the

FML.

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REVIEW ON MANUFACTURING OF FIBRE METAL LAMINATES …€¦ · laminates (CARALL). In 1989, Glass Laminate Aluminium Reinforced Epoxy (GLARE) was developed and patented [24]. It was