5

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The literature pertaining to the present investigations “Effect of Plant Growth Regulators

and Nutrients on Fruit Drop and Quality in Ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.) cv. Umran” and

appropriate literature on other fruits, relevant to the present investigations has been briefly

reviewed in this chapter.

The term plant growth regulators (PGRs) was coined by Davies (1987). The PGRs are the

chemicals that control plant growth and development. They regulate the rate at which individual

parts of a plant grow, integrate the growth of those parts to form the whole organism and control

reproduction. Since 1937, gibberellins, ethylene, cytokinin and abscissic acid (ABA) have been

used as PGRs. Together they are regarded as ‘classical five’. Recently several other compounds

that affect plant growth and development have been described (Creelman and Mullet, 1997).

They include olegosaccharides, brassinolides, jasmonates, several inorganic chemical substances

and polyamines are regarded as ‘non-traditional plant growth regulators’.

The application of PGRs in fruit growing is going on for decades. Some of the functions

of PGRs include propagation through cutting and grafting, induction of parthenocarpy,

prevention of pre-harvest fruit drop, increasing fruit setting, flower and fruit thinning etc. Some

of the most commonly used PGRs in fruit growing include Indole-3 acetic acid (IAA), Indole-3

butyric acid, naphthalene acetic acid, 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T and GA3. In ber (Zizyphus mauritiana

Lamk.), the PGRs and nutrients are widely used for increasing fruit set, controlling fruit drop,

enhancing quality and uniform maturity. In spite of huge potential of PGRs in ber cultivation,

there is no recommendation of commercial application of PGRs in ber except ethephon

application for early and uniform ripening of fruits (Anon 2008) from Punjab Agricultural

University, Ludhiana.

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In the following paragraphs the research done by various workers on the aspects of

application of PGRs and nutrients in ber has been reviewed in detail. The effect of PGRs and

nutrients on fruit drop and quality has been embodied under following sub-heads:

2.1 Effect of PGRs and nutrients on fruit drop and fruit setting.

The work done in India and abroad on the effect of plant growth regulators and

nutrients on fruit drop and fruit setting of ber has been reviewed in this section.

2.2 Effect of PGRs and nutrients on physical fruit traits

In this section, the work done in India and abroad on the influence of PGRs and

nutrients spray on the physical fruit characters of ber like fruit size, weight, volume,

specific gravity, colour, surface, palatability rating and fruit yield per tree has been

discussed in detail

2.3 Effect of PGRs and nutrients on bio-chemical fruit traits.

The changes in bio-chemical characters of ber fruits like total soluble solids,

acidity, vitamin C content and total sugars with the application of growth regulators and

plant nutrients has been summarized under this sub-head.

2.4 Benefit: Cost (B: C) ratio

The influence of PGRs and nutrients on ber in terms of economics has been

discussed under this section.

2.1 Effect of PGRs and Nutrients on Fruit Drop and Fruit Setting

2.1.1 Fruit Set

Ber trees can withstand extremely high summer temperatures and are found to grow well

in regions having maximum temperatures of 39 to 42° C, and can tolerate temperatures as high

as 49-50° C. However, fruit set is adversely affected at temperatures above 35° C. The trees shed

leaves and enter dormancy during the extremely hot summers in the subtropics of northern India.

This appears to be an adaptive mechanism to escape damage through desiccation during hot

weather.

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Yamdagini et al (1968) reported that the maximum fruit set (8.47 %) occurred on the

eastern side of ber tree and the minimum setting (2.04 %) was on the northern side of ber tree.

Vashishtha and Pareek (1979) studied fruit setting in seven Z. mauritiana cultivars and reported

that the range of fruit set was from 5 per cent in the cv. Ilaichi to 14.9 per cent in the cv. Aliganj.

Sharma et al (1990) evaluated Banarasi Karaka, Ponda, Ilaichi, Gola and Tikdi cultivars

of ber. They reported that the peak period of flowering and fruit set was September-October for

all cultivars. The earliest flowering (11 September) and initiation of fruit set (21 September)

were observed in Tikdi, which had the shortest duration of flowering (47 days) and fruit set (36

days). The maximum fruit set (28%) and fruit retention (20%) were observed in Tikdi. The

longest duration of flowering (61 days) and fruit set (50 days) and the lowest fruit retention (4%)

were observed in Ilaichi.

Ziziyphus mauritiana cultivars Umran, Gola, Kaithli and Sukavani (local control) were

evaluated for fruit setting by Chovatia et al (1992). They revealed that cv. Umran had the highest

percentage fruit set (24%). Neeraja et al (1995) reported that the fruit set following open

pollination was highest in Umran (23.1%), followed by Seb (18.6%) and Gola (13.7%).

The performance of 8 ber cultivars viz., Chhuhara, Ellaichi, Sanaur-2, ZG-2, Umran,

Kaithli, Nazuk and Gola was compared by Aulakh et al (2005). They reported that the flowering

in Chhuhara, Ellaichi, Sanaur No.2 and ZG-2 started during the last week of August while

flowering in Umran, Kaithli, Nazuk and Gola commenced on the first week of September. Fruit

set in all cultivars was observed during the second week of October.

Hiwale et al (2008) evaluated fifty germplasm lines of ber maintained at Central

Horticultural Experiment Station, Vejalpur, Gujarat and revealed that the per cent fruit set and

retention was in the range of 0.13 to 16.0 and 7.41 to 13.67 per cent, respectively. Thus there

exists a wide variation n fruit setting. Similar situation for Chinese Jujube (Zizyphus jujuba

Mill.) was reported by Liu et al (2008); they investigated 180 cultivars and revealed that 87.9%

to 99.9% flowers and 68.5% to 100% young fruits dropped off during development and the final

fruit set was only 1.1% on the basis of flower amount and only 8.5% of the cultivars could set

more than one fruit per bearing branch.

8

An increased fruit set was recorded in ber cv. Banarasi Karaka by spray of urea 2 and 4

per cent, whereas the dose of 6 per cent resulted in fruit drop (Rajput, 1976). Under rainfed

conditions, foliar feeding is often a practical method of supplementing nutrient requirements,

particularly of nitrogen and micronutrients. Nitrogen fertilization of ber trees through foliar

sprays of urea increased fruit set, fruit retention and yield in cultivars Banarsi Karaka (Rajput

and Singh, 1976; 1977), Gola (Joon et al., 1984) and Umran (Chauhan and Gupta, 1985; Singh

and Ahlawat, 1995). Sandhu and Thind (1988) reported that application of NAA 5 and 10 ppm

resulted in maximum fruit set in ber cv. Umran. Bankar and Prasad (1990) sprayed GA3 and

NAA 10, 20 and 30 ppm on eight-year-old trees of ber cv. Gola at flowering and again 15 days

later at fruit set and revealed that the fruit retention was increased by all the treatments,

compared with water-sprayed controls. In Chinese jujube, 200 ppm ethephon along with urea

sprays accelerated the movement of nitrogen from leaves to other parts of the tree and increased

the fruit set (Hao and Zeng, 1991).

Kamble et al (1994) revealed that the foliar applications of Ferrous, Zinc, Manganese and

Boron to 12-year-old ber cv. Karaka trees increased the number of flowers per shoot, per cent

fruit set and retention. Zinc sulphate 0.4 per cent, ferrous sulphate 0.4 per cent and boric acid 0.2

per cent gave the best results when sprayed in August-September.

Shukla and Singh (1998) sprayed ber cv. Banarasi Karaka with 0.5 and 0.75 per cent

nitrogen as urea, potassium nitrate, ammonium chloride and ammonium nitrate one month after

fruit set. The highest fruit retention was obtained with 0.75 per cent nitrogen as urea. Pandey

(1999) reported that the application of NAA 20 ppm and GA3 15 ppm resulted in the greatest

fruit retention in ber cv. Banarasi Karaka.

Singh et al (2001a) sprayed varying concentrations of urea, zinc sulphate, potassium

sulphate, borax, NAA and ascorbic acid on ber cv. Umran and revealed that NAA 10 ppm

significantly increased the fruit set followed by urea 2 per cent. The effects of foliar sprays of

urea and NAA were evaluated by Bhati and Yadav (2004). The highest fruit retention (66.44 %)

was observed with urea 2 per cent coupled with NAA 20 ppm. The application of NAA

increased the fruit set significantly than control with all doses of 10, 20 and 30 ppm. Angamuthu

et al (2004) reported that in ber cv. Tikdi, fruit set increased with the application of IAA (indole

acetic acid) 100 ppm but decreased with IAA 200 ppm. Singh and Bal (2006) reported that

9

spraying with 1.5 per cent potassium sulphate and 1.5 per cent potassium nitrate resulted in the

highest mean fruit retention (75.22%).

Singh and Bal (2008) investigated the effect of potassium sulphate (0.5, 1.0 and 1.5%),

potassium nitrate (0.5, 1.0 and 1.5%), paclobutrazol (100, 200, 300 ppm) and naphthalene acetic

acid (20, 40 and 60 ppm) on fruit retention and quality on ber cv. Umran, they concluded that the

fruit retention was increased with the foliar application of 0.5 per cent potassium sulphate.

Mishra and Krška (2008) studied the effect of borax, urea, GA3 and girdling on fruit setting of

Zizyphus jujuba and found borax 0.3 per cent to be the best treatment for fruit set whereas urea

gave poor results.

Ghosh et al (2008) revealed that the application of NAA 25 ppm on six years old Banarasi

Karaka cultivar of ber gave the highest fruit retention (75%). No beneficial effect of GA3 on fruit

retention was observed. They implicated that plant growth regulators could significantly change

the hormonal status of the ber plant resulting in more fruit retention.

Wangbin et al (2008) examined the effects of molybdenum (Mo) foliar sprays on fruiting

of jujube ‘Dongzao’ (Zizyphus jujuba Mill). Two treatments (Mo 50 ppm + girdling + GA3 15

ppm and Mo 100 ppm + girdling + GA3 15 ppm) applied during flowering period increased the

fruit set significantly as compared to other treatments. The results showed that Molybdenum

deficiency could be a major factor affecting the fruit setting in jujube.

Wu et al (1993) studied the effects of PCPA on the fruit set of plum cultivars Junli and

Huangguli. The results indicated that spraying at the stage of 75 per cent flower-fall with PCPA

(30 x 10-6 M) increased the fruit set. Spraying with a mixture of PCPA (30 x 10-6 M) + borax

(2000 x 10-6 M) + potassium dihydrogen phosphate (2000 x 10-6 M) also had a good effect.

George and Nissen (1993) reported that the application of hydrogen cynamide in low

chill peach cultivar Flordaprince advanced the fruit maturity by about 19 days but severely

reduced the fruit set by about 40 per cent. In the investigations of Phuangchik (1994), the

application NAA 10 ppm + GA3 20 ppm + Fulmet 20 ppm (1.63 %) resulted in maximum fruit

set in mango cv. Nam Dok Mai Tawai.

10

BiaoYan (1998) reported that the foliar application of Fengxuanbao (a growth regulator

produced in China) to Naili plum variety 40, 60 or 70 ppm increased the fruit set by 40.7, 45.0

and 39.0 per cent, respectively, compared with controls. Ruiz et al (2005) studied the effect of

application of paclobutrazol during the dormant season to improve apricot (Prunus armeniaca)

fruitfulness. The paclobutrazol treatments did not significantly influence fruit set on apricot.

Racsko et al (2006) evaluated the reaction of four sour-cherry ('Debreceni botermo', 'Erdi

botermo', 'Meteor korai', 'Ujfehertoi furtos') and three European plum cultivars ('Besztercei',

'Cacanska Lepotica', 'Stanley') to an auxin-synergistic preparation (Nevirol 60 WP). The

treatment resulted in a 27-35 per cent increase in fruit setting in sour-cherry, and 15-24 per cent

in plums.

2.1.2 Fruit Drop

Fruit drop is a major and serious problem in ber production. Generally the number of fruit

set is very high, but the extent of fruit retention varies according to the cultivar type and on the

level of production of endogenous plant hormones. Several studies have been made on fruit drop

and level of fruit retention. Teotia and Chauhan (1964) reported that maximum fruit drop

occurred in ber during early development stage. They also recorded highest fruit drop in cv.

Banarasi Pewandi as compared to Thornless and Banarasi Karaka. Eight to nine per cent fruit of

the total fruit set was recorded at maturity by Yamdagini et al (1968). The bearing and related

characters provided useful information on proper times of flower and fruit drop and harvesting

for the categorization of ber varieties (Singh et al.,1972).

Vashishtha and Pareek (1979) studied the fruit drop in seven Z. mauritiana cultivars and

indicated the lowest fruit drop (24.1 %) occurred in Ponda and the highest was recorded from

Illaichi (68.6 %). Panwar (1980) studied the pattern of fruit drop in ber cvs. Kakrola Gola,

Kaithali and Umran and reported that in Kakrola Gola, the fruit drop was up to 80.6 per cent

which was much higher than other cultivars. They reported that more than 50 per cent of the drop

occurred was of fruit less than 1 cm diameter. As the fruit development advanced the fruit drop

was decreased.

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Sharma et al (1990) found that early maturing cultivars (that were eight years of age)

were resistant to fruit drop while the late cultivars were the most susceptible to fruit drop. Singh

et al (1991) studied the relationship of embryo degeneration with fruit drop on fourteen year old

ber trees of cvs. Umran, Kaithali, ZG-2 and Sanaur-2. The fruit drop was recorded at 15 day

intervals from 10 days after fruit set to fruit maturity. The cumulative fruit drop was maximum in

Kaithali (85%) and minimum in ZG-2 (68.3 %). They reported that during early stages of fruit

development, the heavy fruit drop might be attributed to unsuccessful fertilization and/or ovule

degeneration.

Chovatia et al (1992) compared ber cultivars Umran, Gola, Kaithli and Sukavani (local

control) and reported that the cv. Gola had the least fruit drop followed by Umran. Grewal et al

(1993) observed a similar pattern, but also noticed that the fruit drop in late maturing cultivars

(var. Sendbura and Narnaul) could be controlled by spraying the fruit with 10 ppm of NOXA

growth regulator. Neeraja et al (1995) recorded the highest fruit drop in Seb (87.94 %) followed

by Umran (83.43 %) and Gola (82.14 %).

Singh and Singh (1974) reported that 30 ppm 2, 4, 5-T reduced the fruit drop by 14.19

per cent over control. However, NAA, 2,4-D and methyl ester of naphthalene acetic acid could

not reduce the fruit drop. Pramanik and Bose (1974) studied the effect of varying doses of GA3

and NOXA on fruit drop of ber cv. Banarasi Karaka and concluded that both GA3 and NOXA 10

ppm decreased the fruit drop considerably. According to Bal et al (1981), 2, 4, 5-T 25 ppm

proved to be the most effective treatment for reducing the fruit drop up to 11.07 per cent in ber

cv. Sanaur-2. However, in ber cvs. Sanaur-2 and 5, Bal et al (1982), evaluated that NAA 10 ppm

and 2,4,5-T 25 ppm were found to be the most effective treatments in reducing the fruit drop.

Grewal et al (1993) reported that the lowest fruit drop was observed in ber cvs. ZG-4 and

Sindhuri Narnaul with spray of NOXA 10 ppm. The impact of different rates of paclobutrazol

(100, 150 and 200 ppm) for fruit production of 10-year-old plants of ber was evaluated by Singh

(2000). He reported that the highest dose of paclobutrazol (200 ppm) was effective in

minimizing fruit drop and fruit cracking. Singh et al (2001a) sprayed varying concentrations of

urea, zinc sulphate, potassium sulphate, borax, NAA and ascorbic acid on ber cv. Umran and

implicated that NAA 20 ppm followed by urea 2 per cent were the most effective in reducing

fruit drop in ber. The effect of NAA, 2, 4-D, GA3, blitox and bavistin on fruit drop of ber cv.

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Umran was studied by Singh and Randhawa (2001). GA3 60 ppm accounted for the lowest fruit

drop and highest fruit set. The effect of chemical and nutrient sprays on fruit drop of ber were

investigated by Yadav et al (2004), the maximum reduction in fruit drop was observed under

NAA 10 ppm (34.80% fruit drop) followed by NAA 20 ppm (36.17% fruit drop) and NAA 10

ppm + zinc sulphate 0.5 per cent (37.82% fruit drop). Angamuthu et al (2004) reported that two

sprays of IAA at flowering and after fruit set reduced fruit drop in ber cultivars Umran, Banarasi

Karaka, Gola, Tikdi and Illaichi. The most effective dose of IAA was 100 ppm.

Yadav and Chaturvedi (2005) investigated the effect of growth regulator gibberellic acid

(15, 30 and 45 ppm) and micronutrients zinc sulphate and ferrous sulphate (each at 0.2, 0.4 and

0.6%) along with a control on the growth and fruit retention of ber cv. Banarsi Karaka. GA3 30

ppm minimized the fruit drop (80.28%) and increased the fruit retention (19.72%). Ram et al

(2005) implicated that application of GA3 15 and 25 ppm decreased the fruit drop and improved

the fruit retention in ber cv. Banarasi Karaka. Nineteen-year-old ber cv. Umran trees were

sprayed with 0.5, 1 and 1.5 per cent potassium sulphate; 0.5, 1 and 1.5 per cent potassium nitrate;

100, 200 or 300 ppm paclobutrazol and 20, 40 and 60 ppm NAA in a field experiment conducted

by Singh and Bal (2006). They reported that spraying with 1.5 per cent potassium sulphate and

1.5 per cent potassium nitrate resulted in the highest mean fruit retention (24.78%) and lowest

mean fruit drop (75.22%).

Gill and Bal (2008) conducted an experiment to study the efficacy of foliar sprays of

NAA (20, 30 and 40 ppm), potassium nitrate (0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 %) and zinc sulphate (0.3, 0.4 and

0.5 %) on fruit drop and retention of Indian jujube. The sprays were applied in last week of

October and again superimposed in last week of November. Minimum fruit drop and maximum

fruit retention was recorded in plants sprayed with NAA 30 ppm.

Singh and Bal (2008) investigated the effect of potassium sulphate (0.5, 1.0 and 1.5%),

potassium nitrate (0.5, 1.0 and 1.5%), paclobutrazol (100, 200, 300 ppm) and naphthalene acetic

acid (20, 40 and 60 ppm) on fruit retention and quality on ber cv. Umran, they concluded that the

fruit retention was increased with the foliar application of 0.5 per cent potassium sulphate.

Haidry et al (1997) evaluated the effects of naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) on fruit drop

in mango cv. Langra. Full grown mango plants were sprayed with 10, 20, 30 and 40 ppm NAA at

13

different stages of fruit development. They reported that although the application of NAA in any

concentration significantly reduced the fruit drop, but the dose of 20 ppm NAA highly

minimized the fruit drop at all stages of development.

Ebeed et al (2001) investigated the effects of spraying with some micronutrients and

growth substances (Fe, Zn, Mn, Fe+Mn, Fe+Zn, Mn+Zn, Fe+Zn+Mn, paclobutrazol at 300 ppm

and NAA at 40 ppm) on fruit drop of mango cv. Mesk. Spraying the trees with Fe+Zn+Mn,

Fe+Mn and NAA had a beneficial effect on reducing fruit drop percentage.

Kaur et al (2004) applied aqueous solutions of growth regulators with Tween 20 (0.1%

v/v) as surfactant two weeks after pit hardening of the fruits of plum cv. Satluj Purple. The

treatments consisted of GA3 20 and 50 ppm, NAA 10 and 20 ppm, 2,4-D 4 and 8 ppm, 2,4,5-T

10 and 20 ppm and control. They recorded minimum fruit drop with 2,4,5-T 20 ppm (29.9%),

followed by 2,4,5-T 10 ppm (33.5%) and NAA at 20 ppm (39.6%), compared with the control

(56.7%). Ruiz et al (2005) studied the effect of the application of paclobutrazol during the

dormant season, as strategies to improve apricot (Prunus armeniaca) fruitfulness. The

paclobutrazol treatments did not significantly influence flower bud drop on apricot.

2.2 Effect of PGRs and Nutrients on Physical Fruit Traits

Before discussing about effect of PGRs and nutrients on physical fruit traits, it is

imperative to have an insight about the ideotype of ber. An ideotype is a model plant with all the

desirable traits. While going for improvement in plant characteristics the ideotypic characters are

kept in mind e.g. for physical fruit traits in ber the ideotypic requirements as defined by Pareek

(2001) are that the ber fruit size should be such that weight of individual fruit is more than 20 g,

fruit colour is bright golden, fruit surface is firm, glossy and smooth, fruit specific gravity is less

than one and not less than excellent organoleptic quality. Thus the PGRs and nutrients which

improve physical fruit traits of ber up to ideotypic requirements are desirable. From time to time

various workers have studied the impact of PGRs and nutrients on physical fruit traits of various

cultivars of ber. The work done in past on this aspect is briefly reviewed as under:

14

2.2.1 Fruit Size

Ten varieties of Ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk) viz Dehli Sufaid, Bahawalpur

Selection-1, Alu Bukhara, Karaila, Umran, Bahawalpur Selection-2, Mahmood Wali, Gorh Sufan

and Khobani were compared for fruit characters under semi-arid conditions of Bahawalpur

District of Punjab province by Ahmad et al (2003a). They reported that Dehli Sufaid led the

other varieties by giving maximum length and breadth (4 x 4 cm).

Dhillon and Singh (1968) reported that 75 ppm GA3 increased the fruit diameter

significantly in Dandan variety of ber as compared to control , whereas, in Kaithali the highest

diameter was obtained with 2,4,5-T. Practically no change was recorded in Umran cultivar.

Singh and Singh (1976) reported that NAA 10 ppm sprayed on ber cv. Banarasi Karaka

resulted in maximum fruit size (length X breadth). Patil and Patil (1979) concluded that CCC

250 ppm reduced the size of fruit in ber. They further reported that application of 10 ppm NAA

and 10 ppm GA3 increased the fruit size. The results were again confirmed by Patil (1981). Bal

et al (1981) reported that 2,4,5-T and NAA 10, 25 and 50 ppm increased the fruit length of

Sanaur-5 ber significantly over the control. However, the 25 ppm dose gave the best results. In

1982, Bal et al reported that fruit size of Sanaur-2 cultivar of ber was not affected by growth

regulators. But in another experiment on ber cv. Sanaur-5, Bal et al (1984) reported that fruit size

was increased significantly with 2,4,5-T and NAA 25 ppm. Bal et al (1986 and 1988) again

reported that NAA 10 ppm applied at slow growth phase of fruit development of cv. Umran

increased fruit size significantly.

Kumar and Babu (1987) evaluated seven ber cultivars at Hyderabad under semi-arid

tropical conditions and reported that ber cv. Mundia had the largest fruit while those of Umran

were medium sized. Sandhu and Thind (1988) found that the application of NAA 5 and 10 ppm

improved the fruit size significantly in ber cv. Umran. Pandey et al (1990) studied growth pattern

of ber cv. Banarasi Karaka. The fruits were sampled at 15-day intervals between fruit set and 135

days after fruit set (DAFS). They reported that the fruit size increased markedly during 2 phases

(0-30 and 60-105 DAFS).

Fourteen-year-old ber (Zizyphus mauritiana) trees of cv. Umran, were sprayed with

NAA (0, 5, 10 and 20 ppm) by Sandhu et al (1990) during the lag growth phase. NAA 20 ppm

treatment resulted in the fastest fruit growth and greatest fruit length and breadth. Banker and

15

Prasad (1990) sprayed eight year old trees of ber cv. Gola with GA3 and NAA at 10, 20 or 30

ppm, alone or in combination, at flowering and again 15 days later. Fruit length was significantly

increased by GA3 and NAA 30 ppm.

Bal et al (1992) applied ethephon (300, 400 or 500 ppm), daminozide (1000, 2000 or

3000 ppm), morphactin (10, 25 or 50 ppm) or TIBA (10, 25 or 50 ppm) in ber cv. Umran at the

colour-break stage of fruit development and obtained maximum fruit size with morphactin 10

ppm.

Grewal et al (1993) showed that application of NOXA on Ber cvs. ZG-4 and Sandhura

Narnaul increased fruit length and breadth. Shukla and Singh (1998) reported that application of

nitrogen in form of foliar sprays of 0.75 per cent urea improved the fruit size of ber cv. Banarasi

Karaka. Pandey (1999) reported that the application of NAA 20 ppm and GA3 15 ppm resulted in

increased fruit size (length x breadth) in ber cv. Banarasi Karaka. Kale et al (2000) studied the

effect of plant growth regulators on fruit characters of ber and reported that the fruit size

increased appreciably with GA3 20 ppm. Singh et al (2001a) revealed that maximum fruit size

(length and breadth) in ber cv. Umran could be obtained with NAA 10 ppm, which was at par

with NAA 20 ppm and borax 1.0 per cent.

Aulakh et al (2005) compared the performance of 8 ber cultivars in Abohar, Punjab and

reported that the greatest fruit size was recorded for cv. Umran. Singh and Bal (2006) reported

that the spraying of ber cv. Umran with 20 and 40 ppm NAA resulted in the longest (4.51 cm)

and widest fruits (3.09 cm), respectively. Saran et al (2006) compared 35 genotypes of ber and

reported that the cv. Ponda recorded the biggest fruits (13.65 cm) and stone size (3.72 cm).

Forlani and Cirillo (1999) reported that fruit size in apricot, avocado and cherry fruits

were improved with the application of 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridoxil-oxyacetic acid (3,5,6-TPA)

10ppm. Gibberellic acid (Pro-Gibb 4%L) applied 3 weeks before harvest delayed maturity from

3 to 7 days in cherries (Willemsen, 2000) and gave larger fruit with storage life. They further

reported that the lightly cropped trees required lower doses of GA3. Gupta and Brahmachari

(2004) reported that foliar application of urea 4 per cent produced fruits with maximum size in

'Bombai' mango. Singh et al (2005) reported that the application of NAA 100 ppm considerably

increased the fruit size in mango cv. Dashehari. Patil et al (2005) reported that spraying mango

16

cv. Parbhani Bhushan with Triacontanol 700 ppm resulted in highest fruit length (10.91 cm) and

breadth (8.91 cm) followed by triacontanol at 500 ppm and NAA at 40 ppm.

For peach cv. July red, Fallahi and Fallahi (2006) found that the application of Tergitol 5

ml per liter at 75-80 per cent bloom reduced the fruit set without russeting peach fruit and

increased the fruit size. In apricot cv. El-Amar in Egypt, Mohamed et al (2006) reported that

spraying of paclobutrazol 1000 ppm increased the fruit size. Stern et al (2007) applied 25-50

ppm 2,4-D, 15 ppm 3,5,6-TPA or 25-40 ppm 2,4-D coupled with 30-50 ppm NAA at the

beginning of pit-hardening stage of apricot, when the widest diameter of the fruit was 25 mm.

They reported that there was appreciable and significant increase in fruit size.

2.2.2 Fruit Weight

The fruit weight in ber was increased significantly with application of GA3 50 and 70 ppm

and 2,4,5-T 15 ppm (Dhillon and Singh, 1968). Bal et al (1981) reported that average fruit

weight in ber cv. Sanaur-5 was enhanced with application of NAA 25 ppm followed by 2,4,5-T

25 ppm. Bal and Chohan (1981) reported that ethephon 150 ppm increased the fruit weight

significantly as compared to control in ber.

Bal et al (1982) reported that average fruit weight in Sanaur-2 cv. of ber was increased

significantly with NAA and 2,4,5-T 50 ppm. Bal et al (1984) concluded that the average fruit

weight in Sanaur-5 ber was increased significantly with 2,4,5-T 25 ppm coupled with 25 ppm

NAA. For Umran cv. of Ber, Bal et al (1986) sprayed varying concentrations of NAA and

reported that all the doses increased fruit weight, however, the increase was more pronounced

when NAA 10 ppm was applied at slow growth phase. In another study, Bal et al (1988) again

confirmed these findings.

Sandhu et al (1990) sprayed fourteen-year-old ber cv. Umran, with NAA 0, 5, 10 and 20

ppm during the lag growth phase. The NAA 10 ppm resulted in greatest fruit weight. Banker and

Prasad (1990) reported that fruit weight in ber cv. Gola was significantly increased by

application of GA3 (30 ppm) and NAA (30 ppm). Pandey (1999) reported that GA3 15 ppm and

NAA 10, 15 or 20 ppm increased the fruit weight in Banarasi Karaka cultivar of ber.

17

Foliar applications of ferrous, zinc, manganese and boron to 12-year-old ber cv. Banarasi

Karaka trees increased the fruit weight. Zinc sulphate 0.4 per cent, ferrous sulphate 0.4 per cent

and boric acid 0.2 per cent gave the best results when sprayed in August-September, the

application in July or October did not increase fruit weight (Kamble et al, 1994).

Seven year old Umran ber trees were sprayed with gibberellic acid (GA3) and NAA (10

and 20 ppm) alone and in combination up to 60 days after full bloom by Kale et al (2000). The

fruit weight was found significantly improved by higher concentration of GA3 and NAA.

However, the combination of GA3 and NAA were not much effective. Singh (2000) concluded

that paclobutrazol 150 ppm increased fruit weight of Gola, Seb and Umran cultivars of ber.

Singh et al (2001a) applied varying doses of urea (1.0, 2.0, and 3.0%), zinc sulphate (0.25,

0.50, and 1.00%), potassium sulphate (0.5, 1.00, and 1.5%), borax (0.25, 0.50, and 1.00%), NAA

(10.0, 20.0, and 40.0 ppm) and ascorbic acid (10.0, 25.0, and 50.0 ppm) on 16-year-old ber cv.

Umran trees. They reported that NAA (10 ppm) resulted in maximum fruit weight, which was on

a par with NAA (20 ppm), borax (1.0%), and NAA (40 ppm).

Foliar application of urea (1.5 and 3%) and potassium sulphate (0.75 and 1.5%)

independently and in combination at the pea stage of 8-year-old ber (cv. Umran) trees, improved

the fruit weight. However, maximum improvement was recorded by spray of urea (3.0%) and

potassium sulphate (1.5%) in combination (Yadav, 2001).

Singh and Randhwa (2001) concluded that NAA 60 ppm was the most effective treatment

for enhancing the fruit weight of ber cv. Umran. Bhati and Yadav (2003) found that the

application of urea 2 per cent and NAA 20 ppm resulted in increased fruit weight by 18.87g and

17.52g, respectively, in ber cv. Gola. Bhati and Yadav (2004) recorded the maximum fruit

weight of 18.868g with application of urea 2 per cent in ber cv. Gola. The highest fruit weight

(12.14 g) in ber cv. Gola was obtained with application of thiourea (0.1 %) coupled with ferrous

sulphate (0.2 %) in the studies of Yadav and Rathore (2004).

Singh and Bal (2008) compared the effects of foliar sprays of varying concentrations of

potassium sulphate, potassium nitrate, paclobutrazol and naphthalene acetic acid on ber cv.

Umran, they concluded that the highest fruit weight (26.50 g) was recorded with 60 ppm NAA

spray. However, Gill and Bal (2008) reported that application of potassium nitrate 1.5 per cent

was the best treatment for increasing the fruit weight in ber cv. Umran.

18

Wangbin et al (2008) implicated that in jujube “Dongzao” (Z. jujuba Mill.), the

application of Mo100mg/kg + GA15mg/kg during flowering period increased the fruit average

weight by 17.76g.

Leonard et al (1988) tested the plant growth regulator paclobutrazol on a range of stone

fruit crops using soil application and reported that on young cherry trees paclobutrazol increased

fruit weights. On apricots paclobutrazol gave up 9 per cent increase in fruit weight. The results

on peaches and nectarines also showed enhancement in fruit weight. Vuillaume (1991) reported

that in mango, application of paclobutrazol 15 g per tree increased the fruit number and weight

significantly as compared to control. The application of NAA 20 ppm resulted in maximum fruit

weight in mango cv. Langra (Haidry et al, 1997).

Plum (Prunus salicina cv. Red Rosa) trees were treated by Lurie et al (1997) with soil

applications of paclobutrazol or uniconazole. Growth regulator treatments increased the fruit

weight significantly. Forlani and Cirillo (1999) reported that fruit weight in avocado cv.

Hayward could be improved with application of 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridoxil-oxyacetic acid

(3,5,6-TPA). The increase was more pronounced with increasing rates of 3,5,6-TPA treatments.

Tripathi (2002) obtained the highest fruit weight with the spray of 2 per cent potassium

nitrate and 3 per cent urea in mango cv. Dashehari. Gupta and Brahmachari (2004) reported that

foliar application of urea 4 per cent produced fruits with maximum weight in 'Bombai' mango.

Singh et al (2005) reported the the soil application of NAA 100 ppm considerably increased the

fruit weight in mango cv. Dashehari. In apricot cv. El-Amar in Egypt, Mohamed et al (2006)

reported that there was significant increase in fruit weight with application of paclobutrazol 1000

ppm. In Peach cvs. Springtime and Early Red, Engin et al (2007) reported that application of

GA3 coupled with irrigation at final swell of the fruits resulted in increase in fruit weight as

compared to control.

2.2.3 Fruit Volume

Joseph and Shanmugavelu (1987) evaluated Zizyphus mauritiana cultivars Banarasi,

Umran, Gola and Kaithli and Z. rotundifolia. They collected fruit samples at 15-day intervals

19

from fruit set until complete ripening (15-195 days after fruit set). They reported that fruit

growth with regard to fruit volume showed a double sigmoid pattern.

Singh et al (2001b) compared 24 ber (Zizyphus mauritiana) cultivars. Among the

cultivars compared, the maximum fruit volume was showed by Umran. Yadav et al (2005)

evaluated physiological fruit characters in 10 ber cultivars (Banarsi Karaka, Chuhhara, Kakrola

Gola, Mundia Murehra, Pathan, Safed Rohtak, Seb, Sanaur No.3, Tikadi and Tikari). The

cultivars Tikadi, Mundia Murehra and Pathan registered the greatest fruit volume (14.5, 24.0 and

14.0 ml) and had round, oblong or oval fruits.

Singh (1966) reported that application of plant growth regulators had no significant

effects on fruit volume in ber. Bal et al (1981) and Bal et al (1982) also recorded non-significant

changes in fruit volume of ber fruits while studying the effect of growth regulators on Sanaur-2

and Sanaur-5 cultivars of ber. Bal and Chohan (1981) reported that the fruit volume was

increased significantly by all the treatments of ethephon in ber. However, the maximum increase

was recorded with application 150 ppm.

Sandhu et al (1990) sprayed fourteen-year-old ber trees of cv. Umran, with NAA 0, 5, 10

and 20 ppm during the lag growth phase. The control trees were sprayed with water. The NAA

10 ppm resulted in greatest fruit volume. Masalkar and Wavhal (1991) studied the influence of

GA3, NAA, chlormequat and ethephon, alone and in various combinations on fruit volume in

ber. The highest fruit volume was obtained with GA3 10 and 20 ppm. Pandey (1999) conducted

trials on ber cv. Banarasi Karaka, by spraying with NAA 5, 10, 15 and 20 ppm and GA3 5, 10

and 15 ppm at the pea-stage. The GA3 15 ppm and NAA 10, 15 and 20 ppm increased the fruit

volume significantly as compared to control.

Eliwa and Ashour (2004) investigated the influence of paclobutrazol (0, 250, 500, 750,

1000, 1500 ppm) sprayed after three weeks from full bloom, on peach cv. Meit Ghamer.

Spraying paclobutrazol 750 ppm achieved the highest values (123.33) of fruit volume. Rani and

Brahmachari (2004) reported that mango cv. Amarpalli when sprayed with GA3 200 ppm

produced fruits with the greatest volume. Kumari et al (2005) reported that application of

growth regulators like urea (2%), NAA (50 and 100 ppm), ethrel (100 and 200 ppm) and

20

paclobutrazol (5, 7.5 and 10 g ai), alone or in combination significantly improved the fruit

volume as compared to control in mango cv. Langra.

Patil et al (2005) sprayed mango cv. Parbhani Bhushan with potassium nitrate (2.0, 4.0

and 6.0%) and urea (1.0, 1.5 and 2.0%), NAA (40, 60 and 80 ppm) and triacontanol (300, 500

and 700 ppm) at flowering stage and when the fruits were of pea and marble sizes. Triacontanol

700 ppm recorded the highest value for fruit volume (336.58 cc) followed by triacontanol 500

ppm and NAA 40 ppm. Ranjan et al (2005) reported that the postharvest application of calcium

salts and GA3 during storage resulted in the gradual reduction in specific gravity of Langra

mango although the effect of treatments was marginal.

2.2.4 Specific Gravity

Bal (1981) reported that there was decrease in specific gravity as the fruit of ber reaches

maturity. The specific gravity was much less at fruit maturity as compared to fruit set. Similar

findings were reported by Godge and Kale (1991).

Siddiqui and Gupta (1989) evaluated fruits of ber cultivars Umran, Gola and Kaithli,

harvested at the green mature, greenish yellow and yellowish ripening stages. They reported that

specific gravity fell in Umran and rose in Gola during the ripening process, but was unaffected in

Kaithli. Umran had a somewhat lower specific gravity than the other varieties. Pandey et al

(1990) reported that fruit specific gravity markedly decreased up to 45 days after fruit set and

then stabilized until harvest Meel et al (1991) reported that specific gravity of ber towards

maturity was less than unity.

Bal and Chohan (1981) reported that specific gravity was significantly reduced by the

ethephon treatments in ber cv. Umran. Bal et al (1982) concluded that there was no significant

decrease in specific gravity with the application of NAA and 2,4,5-T in ber cv. Sanaur-2. In

another study, Bal et al (1984) again reported similar findings for ber cv. Sanaur-5. The

application of ethephon 400 or 500 ppm in ber cv. Umran, resulted in decrease in specific

gravity.

21

Bal et al (1993) applied ethephon to 13-year-old ber cv. Umran trees as a foliar spray @

0, 100, 200, 300, 400 or 500 ppm when fruits were just changing colour. Treatment with 400 or

500 ppm ethephon produced fruits with the lowest specific gravity. Kishan and Godara (1994)

dipped mature fruits of ber cv. Gola in solutions of potassium permanganate 1000 ppm, kinetin

25 ppm, GA3 100 ppm, captan 0.1 per cent, kinetin 25 ppm + captan 0.1 per cent and GA3 100

ppm + captan 0.1 per cent. Fruits were then packed in paper in perforated wooden boxes and

kept at room temperature. After over 14 days of storage, specific gravity was not significantly

affected by treatments. Bal et al (1996) reported that the specific gravity in ber cv. Umran was

less than one when treated with ethephon.

Kannan and Thirumaran (2003) evaluated the specific gravity during pre-harvest ripening

and postharvest storage of mature ber fruits at ambient conditions. They concluded that fruit

ripening had significant effects on the physicochemical characteristics of ber fruits. The specific

gravity decreased during ripening and appeared to be the most promising index for harvest of ber

fruits for improved storage life and suitability for processing.

Yadav and Rathore (2004) conducted an experiment to determine the effect of thiourea

(0.1%) and ferrous sulphate (0.2%), alone or in combinations. The combination of thiourea +

ferrous sulphate treatment significantly decreased specific gravity (0.81%) in ber. Kumari et al

(2005) reported that application of growth regulators like urea (2%), NAA (50 and 100 ppm),

etherel (100 and 200 ppm) and paclobutrazol (5, 7.5 and 10 g ai), alone or in combination

significantly improved the fruit specific gravity of mango cv. Langra.

2.2.5 Fruit Colour

Godge and Kale (1991) studied developmental physiology of ber cv. Mehrun and

concluded that fruits were green in colour at the early stage changing to yellowish red at

maturity. Sharma et al (2000) studied pigmentation changes during ripening of ber fruits of cv.

Umran harvested at 5 different stages: green (Stage I, mature), yellowish green (Stage II, colour

turning), yellowish (Stage III, half life), brownish yellow (Stage IV, full ripe) and dark brown

(Stage V, overripe). They reported that there was a progressive decrease in total chlorophyll and

22

chlorophyll a and b contents in the peel with increase in the ripening of fruit. However, there was

no significant change in the content of carotenoids during ripening.

Singh et al (1981) reported that ethephon 400 ppm and 500 ppm was the most effective

treatment for producing attractive, uniform and deep golden yellow and chocolate colour of

Umran ber. Similar results in ber fruit were obtained with 100 and 150 ppm ethephon (Bal and

Chohan, 1981).

Masalkar and Wavhal (1991) sprayed ber trees with GA3 (10 and 20 ppm), NAA (10 and

20 ppm), chlormequat (250 ppm) and ethephon (400 ppm), alone and in various combinations.

They reported that ethephon application improved the fruit colour from green to attractive golden

yellow. Bal et al (1992) applied ethephon (300, 400 or 500 ppm), daminozide (1000, 2000 or

3000 ppm), morphactin (10, 25 or 50 ppm) or TIBA (10, 25 or 50 ppm) to ber cv. Umran at the

colour-break stage of fruit development. They found that the maximum percentage of fully ripe

fruits and the greatest colour development were observed with the higher concentrations of each

of the treatments. The reason behind colour development could be the increase in starch

degradation and carotenoid content with the application of chemicals.

Bal et al (1993) applied ethephon to 13-year-old ber cv. Umran as a foliar spray at 0, 100,

200, 300, 400 or 500 ppm when fruits were just changing colour. The treatment with 400 or 500

ppm ethephon produced the fruits of a deep golden-yellow colour. Kamble and Desai (1995)

applied foliar sprays of micronutrients like ferrous, zinc, manganese and boron to 12-year-old

ber cv. Karaka trees. As compared to control trees, which were greenish yellow, fruit colour was

improved by boron (golden yellow) and zinc (light golden yellow).

Chahal and Bal (2004) treated the fruits harvested from ber cv. Umran at the peak

maturity period with GA3 25, 50, 100 ppm, NAA 50, 100 and 200 ppm and wax MP 1:2, 1:4 and

1:6, then packed in Netlon, CFB cartons and wooden boxes. The fruits were kept at cold storage

at 0-3.3.0 oC and 85-90 per cent RH, removed after 10, 20 and 30 days, kept for three days at

ambient temperature and then analyzed. Colour changes in fruits treated with GA3 and packed in

CFB cartons were slower than those in other treatments. Fruits treated with NAA and wax under

Netlon and wooden boxes could not maintain the colour up to acceptance limits and turned dark

brown after 30 days of cold storage and three days of ambient temperature. In Netlon and

wooden boxes, 25 ppm GA3 recorded fewer changes in colour development. Browning

23

percentage was lowest (5%) in fruits treated with GA3 and kept in CFB cartons after 10 days of

cold storage and 3 days at ambient temperature. In CFB cartons, 200 ppm NAA and wax

treatments accounted for maximum colour change (dark brown).

An experiment was conducted to study the efficacy of foliar sprays of NAA (20, 30 and

40 ppm), potassium nitrate (0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 %) and zinc sulphate (0.3, 0.4 and 0.5 %) on quality

of Indian jujube by Gill and Bal (2008). These sprays were made in last week of October and

again superimposed in last week of November. The plants sprayed with potassium nitrate (1.5 %)

resulted in most attractive coloured fruit and rated excellent in taste.

Jawanda and Randhawa (2008) dipped ber fruits for 5 minutes in calcium chloride

(0.5%, 1.0% and 2.0%), calcium nitrate (0.5%, 1.0% and 2.0%) and GA3 (20, 40 and 60 ppm)

after harvesting at golden yellow colour stage. Results showed that fruit retained the original

colour up to 10 days of storage in all the treatments except control. But, after 20 days of storage

deep golden yellow colour of fruit was noted in all the treatments. They concluded that better

colour of ber fruit can be retained by GA3 (60ppm) and calcium chloride (2.0%) treatments.

Mishra and Krška (2008) studied the effect of borax (0.3 %), urea (0.5 %), GA3 (5-15

ppm) and girdling on pomological description of Zizyphus jujuba and implicated that all these

treatments did not have any significant effect on changing fruit colour.

Dubravec et al (1987) reported that application of etheral at the rate 5 l/ha/1000 l of water

was effective in improving fruit colour in cherry. Rai and Tewari (1989) evaluated twenty-five-

year-old trees of apricot cv. New Large Early after spraying with daminozide (250, 500, 1000 or

1500 ppm), ethephon (250 or 500 ppm), or a combination of daminozide and ethephon (500 ppm

daminozide + 250 ppm ethephon or 1000 ppm daminozide + 500 ppm ethephon). Water spray

was used as a control. They reported that application of ethephon improved the fruit colour at the

time of harvest whereas daminozide application improved the colour development after harvest.

Balasubramaniam and Agnew (1990) investigated the effect of gibberellic acid sprays on

quality of cherry and reported that GA3 reduced average skin colour. Therefore, GA3 treated fruit

could be harvested at a grade lower than that specified in the colour grade standards. The cv.

Rainier of cherry did not develop the pink blush, but turned a medium straw colour. Kift et al

24

(2002) reported that the application of synthetic auxins like Tipimon, Maxim and Bonus

improved fruit colour in litchi.

Eliwa and Ashour (2004) investigated the influence of paclobutrazol (0, 250, 500, 750,

1000, 1500 ppm) sprayed after three weeks from full bloom, on peach cv. Meit Ghamer. They

reported that spraying paclobutrazol 750 ppm resulted in the maximum uniformity in fruit colour

(76 %). In peach cv. Rubiduox, the effects of pre-harvest spraying of gibberellic acid (GA3) and

aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG) were investigated by Amarante et al (2005). They found that

the treatment with GA3 (100 mg/l) and AVG (75 and 150 mg/l) resulted in better retention of

skin background colour. In addition, GA3 reduced the number of fruits with skin splitting and

decay and reduced the incidence of flesh browning after cold storage.

Shinde et al (2005) studied the effect of different rates and sources of potassium fertilizer

on mango cv. Alphonso. Results revealed that a soil application of 50 kg farmyard manure, 1.5

kg N, 0.5 kg P2O5 and 1.0 kg K2O in the form of sulphate of potassium per tree and application

of 0.75 g paclobutrazol per meter of canopy diameter coupled with 3 foliar sprays of 1 per cent

potassium nitrate increased the fruit colour development. The post harvest application of 1-

Methylcyclopropene on 'Ooishiwase' plums delayed the change in rind colour of fruits (Young et

al, 2007).

2.2.6 Fruit Surface

Singh and Jindal (1980) reported that among various ber cv. Gola Gurgaon, Muria,

Kaithli, Chhuara and Umran. The cultivar Umran, had the most attractive fruits with very glossy

surface texture. Ripening fruits of Zizyphus mauritiana cv. Umran, were investigated by

Anuradha et al (1997). They reported that fruit firmness and chlorophyll content decreased with

ripening, whereas carotenoid content and surface gloss increased with ripening.

The ripening process of ber fruits on tree and in storage was studied by Siddiqui and

Sharma (2003). They harvested fruits of cv. Umran at 5 ripening stages based on fruit colour:

green (stage I; mature), yellowish-green (stage II; colour turning), yellowish (stage III; half-ripe),

brownish yellow (stage IV; fully ripe) and dark brown (stage V; overripe). Fruits were also

25

harvested at stage I and allowed to ripen during storage at room temperature. They reported the

surface gloss of fully ripe fruits was more than others.

Kishan and Godara (1994) found that there was no effect of potassium permanganate,

kinetin, GA3, captan, or their combinations in influencing the fruit surface of fruits of ber cv.

Gola. The effects of the preparation Vital Giant on ber cv. Kou-Lan’s fruit growth and quality

were investigated by LihShang and WeiDer (1996). The fruits sprayed with Vital Giant had

brighter surface and shearing strength as compared with controls. Sharma et al (2002) harvested

the fruits of ber at 5 different stages of ripening and classified as: mature, stage I; colour turning,

stage II; half ripe, stage III; full ripe, stage IV; and over ripe, stage V. There was a gradual

decrease in surface firmness during ripening.

Yadav et al (2003) evaluated the effects of pre-harvest sprays of calcium chloride (1.0,

1.5 or 2.0%) on fruit peel pigmentation of ber cv. Umran and reported that the surface gloss

increased with increasing calcium chloride rate up to 1.5 per cent and then decreased at 2.0 per

cent. Saran et al (2004) determined the efficacy of bavistin (500 ppm), dithane M-45 (500 ppm),

topsin M (500 ppm), captan (500 ppm), cuman L (500 ppm), ridomil MZ, GA3 (200 ppm),

cycocel (500 ppm), maleic hydrazide (500 ppm), calcium nitrate (1.0%) and calcium chloride

(1.0%), applied at pre-harvest, on the quality of ber (Zizyphus mauritiana) cv. Gola. They

reported that after 8 days of harvesting, calcium nitrate gave the most attractive fruits with glossy

surface.

ShiJie et al (2004) treated the fruits of jujube cv. Lizao with solutions of indoleacetic acid

25 mg/litre, abscisic acid 25 mg/litre and Ethrel 500 mg/litre, for 40 minutes and stored at 0 oC.

In the control fruits, after harvest, the fruit firmness decreased. But after treatment with IAA,

ABA and Ethrel, the fruit surface softening quickened and proportion of sound fruits decreased.

ABA showed the most significant effects among the three growth regulators. Yadav et al (2005)

evaluated physiological characters of 10 ber cultivars (Banarsi Karaka, Chuhhara, Kakrola Gola,

Mundia Murehra, Pathan, Safed Rohtak, Seb, Sanaur No.3, Tikadi and Tikari). They reported

that the cv. Seb was superior in terms of general appearance and surface texture.

Sankhla et al (2006a) reported that pre-treatment with 1- methylcyclopropene

considerably delayed chlorophyll degradation in ber fruit and prevented the decrease of surface

26

firmness. The treated fruits were greener and had glossy surface because of much lower levels of

lipid per oxidation. Sankhla et al (2006b) conducted a study to gain an insight into the effect of

CEPA, 1-MCP and gibberellic acid (GA3) on post harvest ripening, quality and shelf life of ber

fruits. They implicated that application of GA3 delayed decrease in fruit firmness towards

ripening. In combination, GA3 and 1-MCP exhibited additive effects on fruit firmness.

JunQi et al (2006) reported that hypobaric and ozone treatment of ber fruits inhibited

amylase activities, slowed the degradation rate of starch and kept the firmness of fruit. PengXia

et al (2006) reported that hot water treatment remarkably increased fruit firmness and surface

gloss of 'Dongzao' jujube. The addition of 1 per cent calcium chloride in the hot water enhanced

the beneficial effects. Saran et al (2007) assessed thirty cultivars of ber for fruit physical traits

and found that on the basis of surface texture, ber cv. Umran followed by Ponda, performed the

best.

Clayton et al (2003) reported that treatment of 'Bing' sweet cherry during dormancy with

GA3 at straw colour development increased the surface firmness of fruits. The spray applications

(0, 125 or 250 ppm) of Prohexadione-Ca (P-Ca, Apogee), a gibberellin biosynthesis inhibitor, to

sweet cherry trees improved the surface texture (Guak et al, 2005). Webster et al (2006) gave

similar implications in sweet cheery cultivars 'Stella' and 'Colney'. Lenahan et al (2006)

corroborated these findings with the reports that gibberellic acid when applied to sweet cherry 50

and 100 ppm resulted in better surface texture. However, Ozkaya et al (2006) opined that the

application of GA3 10 ppm decreased the loss of fruit firmness and maintained the surface

brightness in sweet cherry.

Mencarelli et al (2006) found that application of 1-methylcyclopropene to apricot was

helpful in maintaining the penetrometer firmness of fruit surface. In apricot cv. El-Amar in

Egypt, Mohamed et al (2006) reported that spraying of paclobutrazol 1000 ppm along with fruit

thinning and branch shortening increased the fruit surface firmness. Kappel and MacDonald

(2007) reported that a single spray of 20 ppm GA3 at the straw-yellow stage of fruit development

of 'Sweetheart' sweet cherry increased the fruit firmness by 15 per cent. The attractiveness of

fruit surface responded linearly to the GA3 applications.

27

Singh et al (2007) reported that surface texture of mango could be maintained by

delaying the respiration process with chemical treatments. The application of 1-

methylcyclopropene, silver nitrate, gibberelic acid, sodium metabisulphite and ascorbic acid led

to reduction in activity of cell wall degrading enzyme, pectate lyase. Pandey and Singh (2007)

implicated that the application of 1-MCP 100 ppm to mango fruits resulted in bright coloured

fruits with improved surface texture.

Lu et al (2007) evaluated the effect of the ethylene production inhibitor

aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG) sprayed 150 ppm on 'premier' peach trees 10 days prior to

harvest. They reported that within 10 days of AVG treatment, fruits were much firmer (4.0

kg/cm2) than control. The treatment of peach cv. Baifeng with 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP)

could produce fruits with better and attractive surface (HuQing et al, 2008). Meland (2007)

reported that the application of bloom thinners like 1 per cent Armothin Reg. or 1.5 per cent

ammonium thiosulphate on mature European plum cv. 'Victoria' resulted in reduced crop load

and enhanced fruit quality in terms of improved fruit surface.

Singh and Pathak (2008) found the inhibition of polygalacturonase (PG) activity with 1-

MCP treatment in Chausa cv. of mango, the effect was less in cvs. Langra and Dashehari. This

chemical was therefore effective in checking the loss in firmness of mango fruits along with

suppression in respiration. BaoGang et al (2008) reported that in mango fruit, the application of

2,4-D 150 ppm strongly improved the fruit peel.

2.2.7 Palatability Rating

The fruits of Umran cultivar were best harvested at the mature golden yellow stage when

fruits had good organoleptic qualities (Singh et al, 1981 a). Kundi et al (1989) evaluated the

fruits of 7 ber cultivars, viz. LR-9, LR-11, LR-13, Haq Nawaz, Cantonment, Golan and Lal-

Wali. They reported maximum palatability rating for Haq Nawaz cultivar.

Singh et al (1981) recorded the highest palatability in ber cv. Umran with 400 ppm

ethephon treatment. Siddiqui and Gupta (1989) studied the effect of calcium sprays on ber cv.

Kaithali. Ten days before harvesting of the fruit, they applied calcium nitrate 10.3 g/litre or

calcium chloride 6.4 g/litre, to give 1.7 g Calcium from each compound. The fruits were

28

harvested at the colour-turning stage, packed in 4-kg wooden boxes and held at room

temperature for up to 9 days. They reported that the organoleptic rating was similar for calcium

nitrate-treated and control fruits and low for calcium chloride-treated fruits.

Ethephon (300, 400 or 500 ppm), daminozide (1000, 2000 or 3000 ppm), morphactin (10,

25 or 50 ppm) and TIBA (10, 25 or 50 ppm) were applied to ber cv. Umran at the colour-break

stage of fruit development by Bal et al (1992). Ethephon was applied to ber cv. Umran trees as a

foliar spray @ 0, 100, 200, 300, 400 or 500 ppm when fruits were just changing colour. The

treatment with 400 or 500 ppm ethephon produced more palatable fruits (Bal et al, 1993).

Fruits of ber cv. Gola were harvested when they were turning colour, sorted, then dipped

in solutions of 1000 ppm potassium permanganate, kinetin 25 ppm, GA3 100 ppm, captan 0.1 per

cent, kinetin 25 ppm + captan 0.1 per cent or GA3 100 ppm + captan 0.1 per cent by Kishan and

Godara (1994). Fruits were then packed in paper in perforated wooden boxes and kept at room

temperature. After 14 days of storage, the highest organoleptic ratings were obtained with kinetin

+ captan and GA3 + captan treatments. The highest organoleptic ratings were found with the

higher concentrations of ethephon, daminozide and TIBA. These results were again confirmed

by Bal et al (1996).

Naik and Rokhade (1994) evaluated the effects of 16 different postharvest treatments on

taste, flavour, texture and overall acceptability of fruits of ber cv. Umran after 0, 4, 8 and 12 days

in storage at ambient temperatures. Dipping in a commercial wax emulsion (Waxol-0-12) at 3 or

6 per cent followed by storage in perforated polyethylene bags maintained the organoleptic

ratings of fruits better than any of the other treatments for up to 12 days in storage. Untreated

fruits packed in perforated polyethylene bags ranked second, followed by wax-treated fruits

packed in perforated paper bags.

Singh and Randhawa (2001) evaluated the effects of chemicals like NAA, 2,4-D, and

GA3 (each at 15, 30 and 60 ppm) and the fungicide treatments of Blitox (2000, 3000, and 4000

ppm) and Bavistin (500, 1000 and 1500 ppm) on ber cv. Umran. The NAA treatments were best

in improving the quality of Umran fruits. The highest palatability rating was obtained with NAA

60 ppm.

29

Chahal and Bal (2004) reported that the treatment of harvested ber fruits of cv. Umran

with GA3, NAA and wax under Netlon, CFB cartons and wooden boxes decreased the

organoleptic ratings at room temperature. Higher average organoleptic ratings were obtained in

fruits treated with GA3 and packed in CFB cartons followed by those in Netlon and wooden

boxes. Saran et al (2004) conducted an experiment to determine the efficacy of bavistin (500

ppm), dithane (500 ppm), topsin (500 ppm), captan (500 ppm), cuman (500 ppm), ridomil (500

ppm), GA3 (200 ppm), cycocel (500 ppm), maleic hydrazide (500 ppm), calcium nitrate (1.0 %)

and calcium chloride (1.0 %), applied at pre-harvest, on the shelf life and quality of ber cv. Gola.

At 8 days of storage, calcium nitrate sprays gave the highest organoleptic score.

Bal (2006) reported that the pre-harvest spray of 10 ppm TIBA and 400 ppm ethephon

resulted in the highest organoleptic rating after 10 days of room storage in ber. Singh and Bal

(2008) investigated the effects of different chemicals viz., potassium sulphate (0.5, 1.0 and

1.5%), potassium nitrate (0.5, 1.0 and 1.5%), paclobutrazol (100, 200, 300 ppm) and naphthalene

acetic acid (20, 40 and 60 ppm) on nineteen years old trees of ber cv. Umran. The highest

palatability rating (7.76) was noted with 100 ppm paclobutrazol and the fruits obtained with this

treatment were rated as ‘Very much desirable’. The plants of ber cv. Umran sprayed with

potassium nitrate 1.5 per cent produced most palatable fruits in the studies of Gill and Bal

(2008).

Shinde et al (2005) studied the effect of different rates and sources of potassium fertilizer

on mango cv. Alphonso. Results revealed that a soil application of 50 kg farmyard manure, 1.5

kg nitrogen, 0.5 kg potassium and 1.0 kg potash in the form of sulphate of potassium per tree and

application of 0.75 g paclobutrazol per meter of canopy diameter coupled with 3 foliar sprays of

1 per cent potassium nitrate increased organoleptic score of mango fruits.

The comparative response of 1-methylcyclopropene and potassium permaganate on post-

harvest behaviour of mango cv. Lucknow Safeda was studied by Pandey and Singh (2007). They

reported that among the various treatments, 100 ppm 1-MCP was found to be the most effective

treatment for improving the palatability rating of the fruits.

Mahajan et al (2008) treated the fruits of plum cv. Satluj Purple with GA3 (20, 30 or 40

ppm) or calcium nitrate (0.5, 1.0 or 2.0%) for 5 minutes and then stored for 4 weeks in

30

corrugated fibre board cartons. They reported that the treatment with 2 per cent calcium nitrate

resulted in the highest organoleptic score (8.47 out of 10).

2.2.8 Fruit Yield

The foliar application of urea 2, 4 and 6 per cent just before blooming in ber resulted in

61 per cent higher yields over control in the trials of Rajput (1976). Similarly, Yamdagini et al

(1980) reported 42 per cent more yield over control in ber when fertilized with 500 g nitrogen

per tree.

Foliar applications of ferrous, zinc, manganese and boron to 12-year-old ber cv. Karaka

increased the number of flowers per shoot and fruit yield. Zinc sulphate (0.4%), ferrous sulphate

(0.4%) and boric acid (0.2%) gave the best results when sprayed in August-September.

Application in July or October did not increase the yield (Kamble and Desai, 1995). Pandey

(1999) reported that GA3 15 ppm followed by NAA 20 ppm resulted in the highest fruit yield in

ber cv. Banarasi Karaka.

Singh (2000) reported that higher dose of paclobutrazol (200 ppm) increased the fruit

yield in Gola, Seb and Umran cultivars of ber. Singh et al (2001a) concluded that foliar spray of

NAA 10 ppm at full bloom stage, 40 and 120 days after first spray followed by urea 2 per cent

increased the fruit yield in ber cv. Umran. Singh and Randhawa (2001) recorded the highest fruit

yield in Umran cultivar of ber with NAA 60 ppm.

Rathore and Chandra (2002) studied the effects of soil and foliar application of nitrogen

alone and in combination with zinc sulphate on fruit yield of ber cv. Gola and reported that the

maximum fruit yield per tree was obtained with application of 500 g urea applied in two split

doses (in month of July and December) and foliar application of 1.5 per cent urea and 0.5 per

cent zinc sulphate in the month of December.

Bhati and Yadav (2003) found that fruit yield was higher with application of NAA 20

ppm followed by 2 per cent urea in ber cv. Gola. Kumar and Reddy (2004) obtained the highest

fruit yield with foliar spray of 3 per cent thiourea followed by 3 per cent potassium nitrate in ber

cv. Umran.

Yadav and Rathore (2004) conducted an experiment to evaluate the effect of thiourea

(0.1 %) and ferrous sulphate (0.2 %), alone or in combinations, foliar sprays on the yield of ber

31

cv. Gola. The maximum fruit yield of 34.476 Kg per tree was obtained with thiourea + ferrous

sulphate treatment. Foliar sprays of urea 2 per cent coupled with NAA 20 ppm, applied at pea

stage followed by second spray one month after, resulted in maximum fruit yield of 66.10 Kg per

tree in ber cv. Gola in the studies of Bhati and Yadav (2004).

Singh and Bal (2008) applied foliar sprays of various chemicals viz., potassium sulphate

(0.5, 1.0 and 1.5%), potassium nitrate (0.5, 1.0 and 1.5%), paclobutrazol (100, 200, 300 ppm)

and naphthalene acetic acid (20, 40 and 60 ppm) along with control at active growth phase of the

fruit on nineteen years old trees of Indian jujube cv. Umran. The maximum fruit yield (81.30

kg/tree) was recorded with 60 ppm NAA spray.

Ghosh et al (2008) applied seven treatments with two growth regulators viz., NAA 25,

50 and 100 ppm; GA3 10, 20 and 40 ppm and control (water spray) on 6 years old Banarasi

Karaka cultivar of ber. These chemicals were thoroughly sprayed three times just after fruit set at

21 days interval. Results of two years of investigation revealed that application of NAA at 25

ppm gave significantly highest fruit yield of 120.5 quintals as against 64.7 quintals per hectare in

control. No beneficial effect of GA3 on improving fruit yield was observed.

In the experiments of Wangbin et al (2008) with jujube “Dongzao” (Z. jujuba Mill.) the

application of Mo 50 ppm + girdling + GA3 15 ppm

and Mo 100 ppm + girdling + GA3 15 ppm

during flowering period increased the fruit yield per tree by 7.11Kg and 5.95 Kg, respectively.

They reported that Molybdenum deficiency could be a major factor affecting the fruit yield in

“Dongzao” jujube.

Ram and Tiwari (1989) compared the effect of daminozide and ethephon application in

improving fruit yield of apricot cv. New Large Early and found increased yield with increasing

dose of daminozide with maximum by application @ 1500 ppm. George and Nissen (1993)

observed that the application of potassium nitrate, in low chill peach cultivar Flordaprince,

advanced the fruit maturity by about 10 days, but there was yield reduction of about 29 per cent.

In peach cv. Redhaven, Monge et al (1994) reported that the application of paclobutrazol 1 or 2

g/tree, as Cultar, increased the mean fruit yield as compared to GA3 1000 ppm and control.

Haidry et al (1997) reported that the application of NAA to mango cv. Langra in any

concentration significantly increased the fruit yield as compared to control. However, the

maximum increase was reported with NAA 20 ppm.

32

GeCheng and JiXiang (1999) sprayed 6-year-old peach (cv. Gangshanzaosheng) and

Japanese pear (cv. Huanghua) trees with Guodaduo (a plant growth regulator produced in China

which consists of brassinolide, gibberellic acid and many mineral elements) about 1-5 days after

flower drop, 10-15 days later and 25-30 days after the second spray resulted in increased peach

yields by 199.76 per cent and Japanese pear yields by 61.57 per cent.

Spraying the trees with NAA, paclobutrazol and Fe+Zn+Mn increased the fruit yield per

tree of mango cv. Mesk (Ebed et al, 2001). Gupta and Brahmachari (2004) studied the effects of

foliar application of urea (2, 4 and 6%), potassium nitrate (2, 4 and 6%) and NAA (20, 40 and 60

ppm) on fruit yield of 'Bombai' mango. The maximum fruit yield was obtained with urea 4 per

cent. In mango cv. Langra, maximum fruit yield was recorded with the soil application of cultar

5g a.i./tree during off year (Hoda et al, 2001). Kumari et al (2005) reported that application of

growth regulators like urea (2%), NAA (50 and 100 ppm), ethrel (100 and 200 ppm) and

paclobutrazol (5, 7.5 and 10 g a.i.), alone or in combination significantly improved the fruit yield

of mango cv. Langra.

Singh et al (2005) treated twenty five year old Dashehari mango trees with different plant

growth regulators, i.e. NAA (100 and 200 ppm), TIBA (100 and 200 ppm) and chlormequat (500

and 1000 ppm) as spray and paclobutrazol (PBZ, 5 and 10 g a.i./tree) as soil drench, prior to

flower bud differentiation. The soil application of PBZ at 5 and 10 g a.i./tree considerably

increased the fruit yield. Hassan et al (2005) applied boron, GA3 and active dry yeast at different

concentrations alone or in their combinations on 'Canino' apricot trees. The results showed that

combined application of boric acid 400 ppm, GA3 40 ppm and active dry yeast 2 per cent at full

bloom stage caused a remarked promotion of fruit yield.

Racsko et al (2006) reported that the yield in sour cherry and European plum could be

increased by 22 and 15 per cent respectively, with application of Nevirol. Webster et al (2006)

reported that the yield of sweet cherry could be improved by foliar sprays of gibberellic acid

(GA3) or aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG) applied post blossoming stage. In apricot cv. El-Amar

in Egypt, Mohamed et al (2006) evaluated the effect of some summer pruning treatments on old

(2 years old or above) branches (thinning branches by removing 1/3 branch number and

shortening by topping 1/3 branch length) and/or spraying paclobutrazol (PP333) at 1000 ppm,

and their combinations, on 15 July and 15 August. The untreated trees served as the control. The

33

triple-combined treatment (thinning+shortening+PP333) recorded the highest significant values

for number of spurs formed on branches (10.17 and 11.64). Yield per tree increased in all the

treatments, but the highest yields were obtained from the triple combined treatment on 15 July

(7.375 and 8.631 in the two seasons, respectively).

Stern et al (2007) applied 25-50 ppm 2,4-D, 15 ppm 3,5,6-TPA or 25-40 ppm 2,4-D

coupled with 30-50 ppm NAA at the beginning of pit-hardening stage of apricot, when the

widest diameter of the fruit was 25 mm. They reported that there was appreciable and significant

increase in total yield with application of growth regulators.

2.3 Effect of PGRs and Nutrients on Bio-chemical Fruit Traits

Likewise the physical fruit traits, the ideotypic requirements for bio-chemical

characteristics of ber are that a model ber fruit should have total soluble solids more than 15º

Brix and acidity of fruit should be less than 0.3 per cent, 7 to 10 per cent total sugars and 70 mg

of ascorbic acid per 100 g of fruit pulp. Similarly as for physical fruit traits, the application of

PGRs and nutrients has profound influence on the bio-chemical traits. The research done by

various workers on this aspect is briefly reviewed as under:

2.3.1 Total Soluble Solids

Total soluble solids in various ber cultivars varied between 12 to 18.7 per cent (Ullah and

Khan, 1954), whereas Chadha et al (1972) observed 19 per cent TSS in ber cv. Umran.

Singh and Singh (1976) recorded the highest TSS in the fruits of ber cv. Banarasi Karaka

with application of NAA 10 ppm followed by 2, 4, 5-TP 10 ppm and MENA 10 ppm. An

increase in TSS contents of ber fruits was reported in cv. Banarasi Karaka after application of 2,

4, and 6 per cent sprays of urea (Rajput and Singh, 1977). Tung (1979) and Bajwa (1980) also

reported increase in TSS of ber cv. Umran with foliar sprays of urea.

Bal et al (1981) reported that application of plant growth regulators had significant

positive effect on TSS contents of ber fruits. Bal et al (1982) concluded that the plant growth

34

regulators like NAA and 2,4,5-T increased the percentage of TSS significantly in ber cv. Sanaur-

2. In another study, Bal et al (1984) revealed that treatment of NAA and 2, 4, 5-T 10, 25 and 50

ppm increased the percentage of TSS in ber cv. Sanaur-5. The significant increase in TSS was

recorded by Bal et al (1986) when NAA was sprayed at fruit set and slow growth phase in ber

cv. Umran.

Singh et al (1989) recorded the maximum TSS in ber cv. Banarasi Pewandi when boron

0.03 per cent and zinc sulphate 0.5 per cent were sprayed along with NAA 50 ppm. In Gola cv.

of ber, Bankar and Parsad (1990) found that TSS was appreciably influenced by application of

GA3 but not by NAA. Sandhu et al (1990) studied the effect of NAA on growth and development

of fruits of ber cv. Umran. NAA 0, 5, 10 and 20 ppm was sprayed at lag phase. They revealed

that there was no change in TSS of fruits with NAA treatments. Bal and Chohan (1991) reported

that maximum TSS content in ber was obtained with 100 ppm ethephon. Grewal et al (1993)

recorded the higher TSS in fruits of ber cvs. ZG-4 and Sandhura Narnaul with foliar sprays of

NOXA 10 ppm.

Kale et al (2000) studied the effect of plant growth regulators on quality of ber and

reported the application of GA3 20 ppm was the most effective in inducing highest increase in

total soluble solids as compared with other treatments. Singh (2000) reported that the application

of paclobutrazol 150 ppm increased the TSS contents in fruits of ber cvs. Gola, Seb and Umran.

Application of NAA 60 ppm resulted in the highest TSS in ber cv. Umran (Singh and Randhawa,

2001).

The application of ethephon increased the TSS of ber fruits as compared to control in the

investigations of Singh et al (2001a). This increase was highest when ethephon 500 ppm was

applied. An increase in TSS was observed by Yadav (2001) with foliar application of urea (1.5 %

and 3%) and potassium sulphate (0.75 % and 1.5%) independently and in combination at the pea

stage on 8-year-old Umran ber trees. However, the maximum improvement was recorded by

spray of urea (3.0%) and potassium sulphate (1.5%) in combination.

Singh et al (2002) recorded the maximum TSS in ber fruits with 1.5 per cent sprays of

potassium sulphate. Bhati and Yadav (2003) found that in ber fruits, the total soluble solids were

maximum with application of 2 per cent urea and 20 ppm NAA in ber cv. Gola. However,

35

Kumar and Reddy (2004) implicated that there was no significant change in TSS of fruits of

Umran ber with application of potassium nitrate and thiourea. Yadav and Chaturvedi (2005)

investigated the effects of growth regulator gibberellic acid (15, 30 and 45 ppm) and

micronutrients zinc sulphate and ferrous sulphate (each at 0.2, 0.4 and 0.6%) along with a control

on the quality of ber fruits of cv. Banarsi Karaka. GA3 30 ppm increased the total soluble solids

content (18.93 degrees brix).

The highest total soluble solids content (10.83%) was recorded with100 ppm

paclobutrazol treatment by Singh and Bal (2008) when sprayed at active growth phase of the

fruit on nineteen years old trees of Indian jujube cv. Umran. Gill and Bal (2008) studied the

efficacy of foliar sprays of NAA (20, 30 and 40 ppm), potassium nitrate (0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 %) and

zinc sulphate (0.3, 0.4 and 0.5 %) on quality of Indian jujube. These sprays were made in last

week of October and again superimposed in last week of November. They reported that the total

soluble solids were not affected significantly with any of these treatments.

Wangbin et al (2008) examined the effects of molybdenum (Mo) foliar sprays on fruit

quality of jujube “Dongzao” (Z. jujuba Mill.). The application of Mo 20, 50 and 100 ppm

increased the TSS content by 23.15 per cent, 23.46 per cent and 22.95 per cent, respectively as

compared with other treatments. Balasubramaniam and Agnew (1990) investigated the effect of

gibberellic acid sprays on quality of cherry and concluded that the application of GA3 at the

beginning of stage three of fruit growth (approximately three weeks before harvest) significantly

improved the total soluble solids of cherries. The response was the greatest in cultivar Bing,

followed by cultivars Rainier, Stella and Dawson. GA3 10 ppm was as effective as GA3 20 ppm

in improving overall cherry quality.

In phalsa cv. Sharbati, Singh et al (1993) recorded the highest TSS: acid ratio with

combined spray of 2 per cent each of urea and potassium sulphate. Kumar and Singh (1993)

found that the pre-harvest sprays of GA3 (50 or 75 ppm) or ethephon 500 ppm on mango cv.

Amarpalli significantly improved fruit total soluble solids content. In the studies of Haidry et al

(1997), the use of 20-30 ppm NAA as foliar spray resulted in increase of total soluble solids

(21.73 - 22.22%) in mango cv. Langra. In plum (Prunus salicina cv. Red Rosa), the trees were

treated by Lurie et al (1997) with soil applications of paclobutrazol or uniconazole. There was

increase in TSS content of the fruits with growth regulator treatments.

36

Zinc or Managanese sprays proved to be effective in increasing the total soluble solids

(TSS) in mango cv. Mesk (Ebed et al, 2001). Gupta and Brahmachari (2004) reported that

application of NAA 40 ppm recorded maximum total soluble solids in mango cv. Bombai. Sarkar

and Ghosh (2005) studied the effect of growth regulators (2,4-D, NAA, GA3 and Planofix) on the

biochemical composition of mango cv. Amrapalli. They reported that GA3 20 ppm gave the

highest total soluble solids content (21.22 degrees Brix). Singh et al (2005) reported that the soil

application of NAA 100 ppm considerably increased the total soluble solids in mango cv.

Dashehari.

Patil et al (2005) sprayed mango cv. Parbhani Bhushan with potassium nitrate (2.0, 4.0

and 6.0%), urea (1.0, 1.5 and 2.0%), NAA (40, 60 and 80 ppm) and triacontanol (300, 500 and

700 ppm) at flowering stage and when the fruits were of pea and marble sizes. The highest

percentage of total soluble solids was recorded in trees treated with triacontanol 700 ppm

(18.91%), followed by those treated with triacontanol 500 ppm and NAA 40 ppm. In apricot cv.

El-Amar in Egypt, Mohamed et al (2006) reported that the riple treatment of summer pruning by

branch thinning, shortening by topping 1/3rd of the branch length and spraying paclobutrazol

1000 ppm recorded the highest significant values increased the total soluble solids percentage

significantly.

Racsko et al (2006) reported that the soluble solids in sour cherry and European plum

could be increased with application of Nevirol at 50 per cent flowering stage. Ping and Huang

(2006) applied 1500x solution of 0.136 per cent Kangkai wettable powder (a kind of plant

growth regulator produced in Germany, which consists of several plant endogenous hormones)

on cherry cv. Hongdeng, Summit, Lapins and Burlat. The GA3 spray was used as control. The

results showed that both Kangkai and GA3 could increase the fruit soluble solids content but

Kangkai was much better than that of GA3. For Hongdeng cultivar, the fruit soluble solids

content was increased by 0.54 per cent and for Lapins, the increase was by 4.28 per cent. Kappel

and MacDonald (2007) reported that TSS content of 'Sweetheart' sweet cherry fruit could be

increased by repeated application of 20 ppm GA3. AnZhi et al (2008) reported that exogenous

application of ABA on apricot during blossom period increased the soluble sugar of fruits by 6.5

to 15.2 percent.

37

2.3.2 Acidity

The fruits of Umran cultivar of ber generally contain acidity up to 0.32 per cent

(Randhawa and Biswas, 1966). However, the studies of Chadha et al (1972) revealed that the

acidity of Umran fruits was as low as 0.22 per cent. The range of acidity for other cultivars of ber

as reported by Teotia et al (1974) was 0.226 per cent to 0.521 per cent.

Dhillon and Singh (1968) reported that there was no significant change in acidity of

fruits of ber cvs. Dandan and Umran with GA3, 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T treatment. However, there was

slight increase in acidity with GA3 75 ppm and 2,4,-D 15 and 20 ppm application. The

application of 2,4,5,-T did not increase the acidity in both cultivars. In kaithali cv. of ber, there

was a slight increase in acidity with GA3 75 ppm and 2,4-D 20 ppm.

Rajput (1976) implicated that the foliar application of chemicals could reduce the acidity

of ber fruits. He found that in ber cv. Banarasi Karaka, the spray of urea 2, 4 and 6 per cent

resulted in decrease in acidity. Bal and Chohan (1981) and Singh et al (1981) reported that the

acidity of ber fruits decreased with foliar application of ethephon. The decrease in acidity was

more pronounced with higher doses of ethephon.

Bal et al (1981) reported that acidity of ber fruits decreased appreciably with foliar

sprays of NAA and 2,4,5-T. Bal et al (1982) observed the decrease in acid content in fruits of ber

cv. Sanaur-2 with both NAA and 2,4,5-T 10, 25 and 50 ppm each. Both chemicals decreased the

acidity in ber cv. Sanaur-5 (Bal et al , 1984). The application of NAA 25 ppm resulted in more

decrease in acidity of Umran cultivar of ber (Bal et al, 1988). Bankar and Prasad (1990) found

the lowest acid content with 20 ppm NAA in fruits of Gola ber. Sandhu et al (1990) reported that

the acidity decreased significantly with 5, 10 and 20 ppm NAA over control in ber cv. Umran.

Masalkar and Wavhal (1991) recorded the highest percentage of acidity with foliar

application of GA3 coupled with NAA treatments in fruits of ber cv. Umran. The application of

NOXA 10 ppm resulted in the lower acidity in fruits of ber cv. ZG-4 and Sandhura Narnaul

(Grewal et al, 1993). Singh and Vashishta (1997) recorded the significantly lower percentage of

acidity with 1 per cent potassium sulphate and 0.5 per cent borax treatment in ber cv. Seb. Kale

et al (2000) sprayed seven year old Ber cv. Umran with gibberellic acid and NAA (10 and 20

ppm) alone and in combination up to 60 days after full bloom. There was significant decrease in

acidity of fruits with higher concentration of GA3 and NAA. The combination of 3 per cent urea

and 0.5 per cent potassium sulphate reduced the acidity of Umran ber according to the

38

investigations of Yadav (2001). Singh and Randhawa (2001) reported that the application of

NAA at 30 ppm resulted in the lowest acidity (0.24%) in ber cv. Umran.

Singh et al (2002) recorded the minimum acidity in fruits of Umran ber with the

application of 1.5 per cent potassium sulphate. Bhati and Yadav (2003) observed the minimum

acid content with treatment of 2 per cent urea and 20 ppm NAA in ber cv. Gola. The effects of

calcium chloride (1.0, 1.5 and 2.0%), sprayed thrice before harvest at 10-day intervals, on the

fruit quality of Z. mauritiana cv. Umran were studied by Yadav et al (2003). They revealed that

acidity of the fruits was not significantly affected by calcium chloride at any dose.

An experiment was conducted by Yadav and Rathore (2004) to determine the effect of

thiourea (0.1%) and ferrous sulphate (0.2%), alone or in combinations, on the quality of ber cv.

Gola. The lowest acidity of 0.12 per cent was recorded with thiourea + ferrous sulphate in

combination.

The significant decrease in fruit acidity (0.31 %) was reported by Haidry et al (1997)

with application of NAA 20-30 ppm in mango cv. Langra. Gupta and Brahmachari (2004)

compared effects of different doses of urea, potassium nitrate and NAA on fruit quality of

'Bombai' mango. They reported that NAA 40 ppm recorded minimum acidity in the fruits. Kaur

et al (2004) reported that application of GA3 20 and 50 ppm, NAA 10 and 20 ppm, 2,4-D 4 and 8

ppm and 2,4,5-T 10 and 20 ppm decreased acid content of fruits of plum cv. Satluj Purple. Eliwa

and Ashour (2004) investigated the influence of paclobutrazol (0, 250, 500, 750, 1000, 1500

ppm) sprayed after three weeks from full bloom, on peach cv. Meit Ghamer. They implicated

that spraying paclobutrazol 750 ppm resulted in decreasing the acidity of fruit juice significantly

as compared to control. Kim et al (2004) found that the acidity of 'Mibaekdo' peaches decreased

with AVG sprays. The effect appeared to be associated with the suppression of the fruit

respiration rate and ethylene production.

Sarkar and Ghosh (2005) studied the effect of growth regulators (2,4-D, NAA, GA3 and

Planofix) on the biochemical composition of mango cv. Amrapalli. They reported that NAA 30

ppm produced the fruits with the highest acidity (0.256%). Amarante et al (2005) reported that in

peach cv. Rubiduox, the treatments with GA3 (100 mg/l) and AVG (75 and 150 mg/l) resulted in

the least increase of acidity. Aroosa et al (2005) evaluated the effect of ethephon (50, 100 and

150 ppm) and hand thinning (10, 20 and 30%) on quality of plum cv. Santa Rosa. The treatment

39

combination of ethephon 150 ppm and 30 per cent hand thinning resulted in significant

improvement of fruit acidity.

Benjawan et al (2006) reported that application of GA3 increased the acidity of the fruits

of Kaew mango cv. Srisaket. Shrivastava and Jain (2006) reported that the acidity in mango cv.

Langra decreased with foliar applications of urea and GA3. The minimum acidity was observed

with urea 2 per cent and GA3 100 ppm (0.229%) whereas, the unsprayed control trees had

maximum acidity (0.289%).

2.3.3 Sugars

A ripe fruit of Chinese ber generally contained 20-28 per cent total sugars (Tasmatov,

1963). In Umran cultivar of ber, the percentage of total sugars was 7.2, out of which 2.05 per

cent were the reducing sugars (Randhawa and Biswas, 1966). Teotia et al (1974) recorded total

sugars and reducing sugars content of various ber cultivars and reported that the range for total

sugars was 3.452 to 9.673 per cent and that for reducing sugars was 3.274 to 9.77 per cent. Singh

and Jindal (1980) reported that among various ber cvs. (Gola Gurgaon, Muria, Kaithli, Chhuara

and Umran), Gola Gurgaon showed the highest contents of total sugar (10.7%). Kundi et al

(1989) evaluated seven ber cultivars, viz. LR-9, LR-11, LR-13, Haq Nawaz, Cantonment, Golan

and Lal-Wali. The content of total sugars (7.98-11.52%) was highest in Haq Nawaz.

Dhillon and Singh (1968) reported that there was no appreciable difference in sugar

content of ber fruit in cultivars Dandan, Kaithali and Umran with GA3, 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T

treatments. Rajput (1976) opined that 2, 4 and 6 per cent urea spray just before blooming in ber

cultivar Banarasi Karaka increased both reducing and non-reducing sugars. A similar increase

was reported by Rajput and Singh (1977) in the same cultivar.

Sood et al (1980) evaluated seven commercial varieties of ber and reported range of

sugar content was 5.7 to 13.4 per cent. Bal et al (1981) concluded that sugar content in ber was

not affected significantly with NAA and 2,4,5-T treatments. However, the higher concentration

of 2,4,5-T brought about more increase in non-reducing sugars. Kumar and Babu (1987) reported

that fruits of Umran ber contained the highest percentage of total sugars followed by Gola and

Mundia.

40

Bal et al (1988) reported that sugar content of Umran ber increased appreciably with

application of 25 ppm NAA. Sankhla et al (1989) studied the effects of paclobutrazole on quality

of ber cv. Seb and implicated that the application of paclobutrazol 8 mg a.i. per tree increased the

sugar content of ber fruits significantly. Singh et al (1989) obtained no significant difference in

total sugars of ber cv. Pewandi among the different treatments with boron, zinc and NAA.

However, the maximum sugar content was obtained with application of boron 0.03 per cent and

zinc 0.5 per cent coupled with NAA 50 ppm.

Sandhu et al (1990) reported that NAA when sprayed during the lag phase, increased the

total sugars in Umran fruits. Masalkar and Wavhal (1991) sprayed ber trees with GA3 (10 and 20

ppm), NAA (10 and 20 ppm), chlormequat (250 ppm) and ethephon (400 ppm), alone and in

various combinations. The maximum increase in non-reducing sugars was obtained with

application of GA3 alone. Grewal et al (1993) found that 10 ppm NOXA treatment reduced the

total sugars content in ZG-4 and Sandhura Narnaul cultivars of ber. Bal et al (1993) applied

ethephon 0, 100, 200, 300, 400 or 500 ppm to 13-year-old Umran ber trees as a foliar spray when

fruits were just changing colour and found that treatment with 400 or 500 ppm ethephon

produced fruits with the highest sugar contents.

Kamble and Desai (1995) reported the that foliar application of micronutrients like

ferrous sulphate (0.2 or 0.4%), zinc sulphate (0.2 or 0.4%), manganese sulphate (0.2 or 0.4%) or

boric acid (0.1 or 0.2%) increased the sugar levels of ber fruits as compared with untreated

controls. Kale et al (1999 and 2000) reported that reducing sugar and total sugars of Umran ber

increased with GA3 and NAA 10 and 20 ppm alone. The combination of GA3 and NAA were not

much effective.

The effect of foliar sprays of NAA, 2,4-D, and GA3 (each 15, 30 and 60 ppm) on fruit

quality of ber cv. Umran was studied by Singh and Randhawa (2001). They implicated that the

NAA treatments were the best in improving the yield and quality of Umran fruits. However,

there was no significant difference in total sugars content with NAA and GA3 treatments. Yadav

(2001) reported that application of 3 per cent urea coupled with 1.5 per cent potassium sulphate

resulted in higher total sugars content in Umran cv. of ber.

41

Singh et al (2002) observed the maximum total sugars content in Umran ber with 1.5 per

cent potassium sulphate. Bhati and Yadav (2002) evaluated the effects of urea (0, 1 or 2%) and

NAA (0, 10, 20 or 30 ppm) on the fruit quality of ber cv. Gola. The application of urea 2 per cent

increased the total sugars and reducing sugars by 27.88 and 13.15 per cent, respectively and

NAA 20 ppm increased reducing sugars by 4.69 per cent than in the control. NAA was more

effective in enhancing the total sugar content when applied at 20 ppm than at 10 ppm. Yadav et

al (2003) studied the effects of calcium chloride (1.0, 1.5 or 2.0%), sprayed thrice before harvest

at 10-day intervals, on the fruit quality of ber cv. Umran. The total sugars and reducing sugars

were not significantly affected by calcium chroride. In the experiments of Bhati and Yadav

(2003), the foliar spray of 2 per cent urea and 20 ppm NAA gave the maximum total sugars in

ber cv. Gola.

Yadav and Chaturvedi (2005) investigated the effect of growth regulator GA3 (15, 30 and

45 ppm) and micronutrients zinc sulphate and ferrous sulphate (each 0.2, 0.4 and 0.6%) along

with a control on the quality of fruits of ber cv. Banarsi Karaka. The application of GA3 30 ppm

increased the total sugars by 9.84 per cent, whereas zinc sulphate 0.6 per cent increased the total

sugars by 9.93 per cent. Wangbin et al (2008) reported that the application of Molybednum (Mo)

20, 50 and 100 ppm increased the fruit sugar contents of jujube “Dongzao” (Z. jujuba Mill.) by

24.15 per cent, 24.58 per cent and 23.79 per cent, respectively. In ber cv. Umran, Singh and Bal

(2008) reported that highest total sugars content (8.20%) was recorded with100 ppm

paclobutrazol treatment.

The use of NAA 20-30 ppm as foliar spray resulted in increase of sugar contents (16.81 -

16.86%) in mango cv. Langra (Haidry et al, 1997). Kumar and Singh (1993) found that the

preharvest sprays of GA3 (50 or 75 ppm) or ethephon 500 ppm on mango cv. Amarpalli

significantly improved the total sugar content of the fruits. Forlani et al (2000) implicated in

apricot cv. Tirynthos that the plants treated with 3,5,6-TPA had the fruits with higher sugar

content than the untreated plants. Kuramae et al (2003) reported that application of Ethrel 50,

100, 200 and 400 ppm at different post-flowering times had no beneficial effect in improving

reducing sugars of mango cv. Tommy Atkins. Zinc or Managanese sprays proved to be effective

in increasing total sugar contents of mango cv. Mesk (Ebed et al, 2001).

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In Flordasun cv. of peach, Babu and Yadav (2004) compared efficacy of various thinning

agents and found that the application of GA3 100 ppm as thinning agent resulted in maximum

total sugars (6.15%). The application of GA3 20 ppm produced Amrapalli mango fruits with

maximum total sugars (16.77%) and reducing sugars (7.00%) in the studies of Sarkar and Ghosh

(2005). Singh et al (2005) reported the soil application of PBZ at 5 and 10 g ai/tree considerably

increased the total sugars in mango cv. Dashehari. They further found that the higher doses were

detrimental for sugar content of fruits. Kumari et al (2005) reported that treatment of mango

plants with paclobutrazol and ethrel treatments increased the total sugar content of fruits

appreciably. Noppakoonwong et al (2005) found that foliar spray of ReTain (AVG) coupled with

organo-silicone surfactant approximately 7 days prior to first harvest, was highly effective in

increasing the fruit sugar concentration of low-chill peach cv. Tropic Beauty.

Shrivastava and Jain (2006) found that application of GA3 100 ppm to mango cv.Langra

produced the maximum reducing (12.24%) and total sugars (17.90%). Urea 2 per cent and GA3

100 ppm recorded the maximum reducing sugars (6.20%), non reducing sugars (13.00%) and

total sugar (19.20%). Racsko et al (2006) reported that the total sugars in sour cherry and

European plum can be increased with the application of Nevirol at 50 per cent flowering stage.

AnZhi et al (2008) reported that the exogenous application of ABA on apricot during blossom

period increased the soluble sugar of fruits by 6.5 to 15.2 percent. BaoGang et al (2008) reported

that the total sugar content of mango fruits was strongly improved by 2,4-D treatment.

2.3.4 Ascorbic Acid

Tasmatov (1963) reported 3.5 per cent ascorbic acid content in Chinese ber. Randhawa

and Biswas (1966) found that 100g pulp of Umran ber contains 103.4 mg ascorbic acid. Dhingra

et al (1973) evaluated the vitamin C content of various ber cultivars and reported that the range

was between 38 to 119.7mg per 100 g of fruit weight. Bal and Mann (1978) recorded the

ascorbic acid content of ber fruits at 15-day intervals up to 180 days after fruit set and reported

that the ascorbic acid content rose with advancing maturity with ripe fruits containing 116.3

mg/100 g of pulp.

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Singh and Jindal (1980) reported that among various ber cv. Gola Gurgaon, Muria,

Kaithli, Chhuara and Umran, the cultivar Kaithali had the highest (113.5 mg/100 g fruit weight)

ascorbic acid content. Singh et al (2001b) investigated the fruit quality of 24 ber cultivars under

tarai conditions and found that among the cultivars, Kala Gola, followed by ZG-3 showed the

highest ascorbic acid content, while the lowest was observed in Rohtaki Gola, followed by

Nazuk. Gupta et al (2004) reported that the ber cv. Illaichi had highest ascorbic acid content

(170.07 mg/100 g pulp) and cv. Dandan Gola had the lowest (93.54 mg/100 g pulp). They

concluded that the ascorbic acid content was high in late-ripening cultivars, and low in early- and

mid-ripening ones.

Dhillon and Singh (1968) found that GA3 (25 and 75 ppm) and 2,4,5-T (5 and 15 ppm)

increased the ascorbic acid content in Dandan cultivar of ber. In Kaithali cultivar both GA3 and

2,4,5-T were equally effective. However, the application of 2,4-D was completely ineffective.

For Umran ber, GA3 (75 ppm) and 2,4,5-T (10 and 15 ppm) brought about a marked increase in

ascorbic acid content. Rajput (1976) observed significant increase in ascorbic acid content of

fruits of ber cv. Banarasi Karaka with 2, 4, and 6 per cent urea spray.

Singh et al (1981) reported that there was increase in vitamin C content of ber with the

application of ethephon. The dose of 500 ppm ethephon was the most effective as it recorded

maximum vitamin C content. Bal and Chohan (1981) found that in ber the application of 100

ppm ethephon significantly affected the vitamin C. There was more increase in vitamin C if

second spray of ethephon 150 ppm is coupled with the first spray.

There was no significant difference in the vitamin C content of fruits of ber cv. Sanaur-2

with NAA and 2,4,5-T treatments as reported by Bal et al (1981 and 1982). The application of

NAA at fruit set stage had non-significant influence on vitamin C content of fruits of Umran ber.

However, NAA 10 and 25 ppm when applied at slow growth phase exhibited the significant

increase in ascorbic acid content of fruits (Bal et al, 1986).

Sankhla et al (1989) observed that soil application of paclobutrazol 8mg a.i. per tree

maintained the higher content of ascorbic acid in fruits of Seb cv. of ber. Singh et al (1989)

recorded the maximum vitamin C in ber cv. Banarasi Pewandi when boron 0.03 per cent and zinc

sulphate 0.5 per cent were sprayed along with NAA 50 ppm. Sandhu et al (1990) reported that

44

the ascorbic acid content of the Umran fruits was not affected by NAA treatments. Masalkar and

Wavhal (1991) applied chemicals like GA3 (10 and 20 ppm), NAA (10 and 20 ppm),

Chlormequat (250 ppm) and ethephon (400 ppm) alone and in various combinations. The highest

ascorbic acid content was obtained with GA3 alone.

Bal et al (1992) reported that the application of ethephon and daminozide (SADH)

increased the vitamin C contents greatly in ber. Kamble and Desai (1995) applied foliar sprays

of ferrous sulphate (0.2 or 0.4%), zinc sulphate (0.2 or 0.4%), manganese sulphate (0.2 or 0.4%)

and boric acid (0.1 or 0.2%). They reported that all the micronutrient treatments increased the

vitamin C contents compared with untreated controls. Pandey (1999) concluded that the

application of NAA 20 ppm and GA3 15 ppm resulted in enhancing the ascorbic acid content of

ber cv. Banarasi Karaka. Singh and Randhawa (2001) concluded that the foliar sprays of NAA

30 ppm resulted in increase in ascorbic acid content of ber cv. Umran.

The effects of urea (0, 1 or 2%) and NAA (0, 10, 20 or 30 ppm) on the fruit quality of ber

cv. Gola were studied by Bhati and Yadav (2002). They reported that the application of 2 per

cent urea gave the highest ascorbic acid content (181.54 mg/100 g of fruit weight). The

application of NAA 20 ppm increased the ascorbic acid content by 3.88 per cent over NAA 10

ppm and by 7.52 per cent over the control (148.18 mg/100 g of fruit weight). Bhati and Yadav

(2003) again reported that the application of urea 2.0 per cent urea and NAA 20 ppm resulted in

the highest ascorbic acid (181.5 and 168.7 mg/100 g fruit weight) contents. Yadav et al (2003)

reported that the ascorbic acid content of Umran ber was increased with application of calcium

chloride. The ascorbic acid content was tripled with calcium chloride sprays 1.5 per cent and

thereafter decreased at 2.0 per cent dose.

Jiang et al (2004) studied the role of 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) and GA3 in fruit

ripening of Chinese jujube during storage in relation to quality. The treatment with 1-MCP or

GA3 delayed the decrease in vitamin C content of fruits. Saran et al (2004) tested efficacy of

various chemicals on the shelf life and quality of ber cv. Gola. At 8 days of storage, calcium

nitrate gave the highest ascorbic acid content.

Singh and Bal (2008) observed that the Vitamin C (98.77 mg/100 g pulp) was maximum

with 200 ppm paclobutrazol which was found at par with 100 ppm paclobutrazol (91.91 mg 100

45

g-1 pulp) in Umran cultivar of ber. Gill and Bal (2008) conducted an experiment to study the

efficacy of foliar sprays of NAA (20, 30 and 40 ppm), potassium nitrate (0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 %) and

zinc sulphate (0.3, 0.4 and 0.5 %) on quality of Indian jujube. These sprays were made in last

week of October and again superimposed in last week of November. Maximum vitamin C

content was observed in NAA 30 ppm treatment followed by potassium nitrate 1.5 per cent

treatment.

Kumar and Singh (1993) found that the pre-harvest sprays of GA3 (50 or 75 ppm) or

ethephon 500 ppm on mango cv. Amarpalli significantly improved the ascorbic acid content of

fruits. Kuramae et al (2003) reported that application of Ethrel 50, 100, 200 and 400 ppm at

different post-flowering times had no beneficial effect in improving ascorbic acid content of

mango cv. Tommy Atkins. Babu and Yadav (2004) implicated that in Flordasun cv. of peach, the

application of GA3 100 ppm as thinning agent resulted in maximum vitamin C content in fruits

(212.30 mg/100 g). Sarkar and Ghosh (2005) studied the effect of growth regulators (2,4-D,

NAA, GA3 and Planofix) on the biochemical composition of mango cv. Amrapalli. They

reported that 2,4-D 10 ppm gave the highest ascorbic acid content (46.2 mg 100 g-1 of fruit pulp).

The application of Triacontanol 700 ppm to mango cv. Parbhani Bhushan resulted in

fruits with maximum ascorbic acid content (39.75 mg 100 g-1) followed by triacontanol 500 ppm

and NAA 40 ppm in the investigations of Patil et al (2005). Shinde et al (2005) revealed that a

soil application of 50 kg farmyard manure, 1.5 kg nitrogen, 0.5 kg phosphoras and 1.0 kg

potassium in the form of sulphate of potassium per tree and application of 0.75 g paclobutrazol

per meter of canopy diameter coupled with 3 foliar sprays of 1 per cent potassium nitrate

increased the ascorbic acid content of mango cv. Alphonso by 26.99 per cent over control.

2.4 Benefit: Cost (B: C) Ratio

A benefit: cost ratio is an indicator, used in the formal discipline of cost-benefit analysis,

that attempts to summarize the overall value for money of a project or proposal. It is the ratio of

the benefits of a project or proposal, expressed in monetary terms, relative to its costs, also

expressed in monetary terms. All benefits and costs should be expressed in discounted present

values. B: C ratio is a weighing scale approach for decision making. All the positive elements

46

(cash flows and other intangible benefits) are put on one side of the balance and all the negative

elements (the costs and the disadvantages) are put on the other. Whichever weighs the heavier is

the winner.

Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) estimates and totals up the equivalent money value of the

benefits and costs to the community of projects to establish whether they are worthwhile. These

projects may be dams and highways or can be training programs and health care systems.

The idea of this economic accounting originated with Jules Dupuit, a French engineer.

The British economist, Alfred Marshall, formulated some of the formal concepts that are at the

foundation of CBA. But the practical development of CBA came as a result of the impetus

provided by the Federal Navigation Act of 1936. This act required that the U.S. Corps of

Engineers carry out projects for the improvement of the waterway system when the total benefits

of a project to whomsoever they accrue exceed the costs of that project. Thus, the Corps of

Engineers had created systematic methods for measuring such benefits and costs. The engineers

of the Corps did this without much, if any, assistance from the economics profession. It wasn't

until about twenty years later in the 1950's that economists tried to provide a rigorous, consistent

set of methods for measuring benefits and costs and deciding whether a project is worthwhile.

Some technical issues of CBA have not been wholly resolved even now but the fundamental

presented in the following are well established.

Marshall (1998) stated that cost-benefit analysis is a method of setting out the factors

which need to be taken into account in making choices about major investments in public-sector

projects. The objective is to assign monetary values to and weight all costs and all benefits,

social and economic, so that one can see clearly whether the benefits exceed the costs of a

venture. The method is normally applied to major public projects such as a new dam, airport,

urban motorway, university, or a scheme for the unemployed, but the approach could in principle

be applied to other private-sector investments or personal choices, as an aid to decision-making.

The appraisal differs from commercial project appraisal because costs and benefits to all

members of society are included—not only the monetary expenditures and receipts of the

investor—so that, for example, environmental costs and the costs of social severance are

included with other diffuse social costs and benefits.

47

The economics of various crop enterprises has been estimated at different point of time

by various organizations (APCom) and individuals (Ahmad et al., 1992, 1994, 2003b).

Unfortunately, little research work has been conducted on finding out economics of growing ber

in Punjab conditions. Efforts have been made by various individuals to determine economics of

orchards (Hanif, 2003). Ahmad, et al (1993) determined various financial techniques to find out

profitability of mango cultivation after having discussions with experts. Every producer would

like to know the results of his economic activity by working out a detailed cost benfit analysis of

the investment in the project (Akcay & Uzunoz, 2005). Unfortunately, the farmers and other

concerned individuals know very little about economics of growing ber. The farmers need

information regarding investment and returns from fruit gardening business.

The results of an economic analysis of cost and returns of ber cultivation was carried out

by Reddy et al (1998) to determine the most profitable cultivars. They monitored the

performance of 11 ber cultivars and reported that the cvs. Dandan, Sanaur-2 and Chhuhara, with

mean fruit yields of 6.78, 6.36 and 6.08 t ha-1, and benefit:cost ratios of 5.64, 5.32 and 5.09,

respectively, were the most promising.

Bheemaiah and Subrahmanyam (2001) conducted field experiment to find out effect of

fertilizer application on the productivity of legumes intercropped with ber (Zizyphus mauritiana).

The study revealed that both net returns and cost benefit ratio were found significantly higher

under intercropping with ber over sole cropping.

Khushk et al (2003) calculated the economics of ber cv. Gola cultivation in Sindh

province of Pakistan and reported that most of the growers do not know the advantages of the

timely and adequate use of inputs. The gross returns from ber cultivation were calculated to be

Rs. 1,52,000 per ha with net returns of Rs. 71,335 per ha and benefit cost ratio of 1.88 over the

gross returns and 0.88 over the net returns.

Bhati and Yadav (2003) evaluated the effects of the foliar application of urea (0, 1 or 2%)

and NAA (0, 10, 20 or 30 ppm) on the yield and yield components of Z. mauritiana cv. Gola.

Urea and NAA were applied on the first week of October (pea stage) and at one month

thereafter. Urea at 2 per cent resulted in the greatest benefit cost ratio (2.72).

48

Bhati and Yadav (2004) investigated the effect of urea (0, 1.0 and 2.0%) and NAA (0, 10,

20 and 30 ppm) on the yield and yield parameters of ber (Z. mauritiana). Foliar applications of

urea and NAA were done in the first week of October at the pea stage, and second spraying was

done after one month. They reported that the maximum benefit: cost ratio (3.28) was obtained

with urea 2.0 per cent coupled with NAA 20 ppm.

Thind and Kaur (2006) applied three fungicides, i.e. bayleton 25 WP [triadimefon]

(0.05%), karathane 48 EC [dinocap] (0.01%) and sulfex 80 WP [sulfur] (0.25%), during

flowering, after fruit set and during the first week of November to 20-year-old ber (Zizyphus

mauritiana) plants cv. Umran for the control of powdery mildew. Studies conducted for 6

consecutive cropping seasons showed the superiority of bayleton in management of powdery

mildew of ber. Bayleton sprays were more economical and gave higher cost-benefit ratio

compared to karathane and sulfex.

Bakhsh et al (2006) estimated the cost of production, and returns per acre over the life

time of mango trees. They reported net present worth of Rs. 155607.16 per acre which indicated

that mango cultivation fetches higher returns whereas benefit cost ratio is reasonably high and it

came to be 2.61 implying that investing one rupee in mango cultivation would return Rs. 2.61.

These results indicate that investing in mango orchard would bring huge returns to the farmers

on one hand and for the country in the form of foreign earnings on the other hand.

Dutta and Banik (2007) determined the effect of foliar feeding of nutrients and plant

growth regulators on physico-chemical quality of guava cv. Sardar. The experimental results

revealed that foliar feeding of nutrients and plant growth regulators significantly increased the

fruit yield and quality. The application of urea in combination with potassium sulphate, zinc and

GA3 resulted in the highest cost: benefit ratio of 1 : 34.9 followed by 1 : 34.06 with urea

application. Therefore, they suggested applying urea in combination with potassium sulphate,

zinc and GA3 to offer better return to the growers.

The economics of peach (Prunus persica (L) Batsch.) cultivation in Punjab and

Uttarakhand was worked out by Gangwar et al (2008). They stated that the investment in peach

orchards has been found a profitable business. The internal rate of return (IRR) has been found to

vary from 20.98 per cent to 23.80 per cent, depending on the size of peach orchards. The net

49

present value, benefit-cost ratio and IRR at 12 per cent discount rate have been reported as Rs

44,807, 1.681 and 22.20, respectively for the overall category of orchards. The economic

productive life of peach orchards in Punjab and Uttarakhand has been calculated up to 24 years.

The optimum size of peach orchards is above 2.0 ha. It has been revealed that the peach orchards

are worth retaining as long as they give the income of Rs 5,713 over the annual maintenance

cost.

Burondkar et al (2009) evaluated the influence of plant growth regulators (NAA 20 ppm,

CPPU 10 ppm, paclobutrazole 10 and 25 ppm), putrescine 50 ppm, nutrients (potassium nitrate

1%, potassium sulphate 1% and EDTA 0.1%) and soil application of paclobutrazole (750 mg

m.c.d-1) on 32 years old Alphonso mango. They reported that the maximum cost: benefit ratio

was obtained with foliar application of paclobutrazol at 25 ppm (1:6.11) followed by

paclobutrazol soil application (1:4.48), potassium nitrate (1:4.32) and potassium sulphate

(1:4.25). Although, the fruit yield was maximum with putrescine, but due to high cost of

chemical, the cost: benefit ratio was lower compared to other treatments.