Research Methods for Social Science

7/31/2019 Research Methods for Social Science

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGYFOR SOCIAL SCIENCES

MERLYN B. EMBAJADOR


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What is Science?

According to Manheim, science is objective,

accurate, systematic analysis of adeterminate body of empirical data, in order

to discover recurring relationships among

phenomena.Objective means unbiased, unprejudiced,

detached, impersonal. Objectivity carries with it a

clear understanding that you do not become ego-involved in your research activities; that you are not

going o modify or even abandon your ideas right

away when initial evidence indicating otherwise

becomes available.


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Accurate means that you strive to bedefinite, precise and exact.

Systematic carries with the implication thatscience is methodical, thorough and regular

in its procedures ; that it involves many kindsof classificatory schemes.

Analysis means that you are concernedwith the identification and study of the

component parts or elements which make up

things which you study.


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Determinate Means that there are relatively agreed

upon defined traits or boundaries whichspecify what kind of things or boundaries

you study.


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AIMS OF SCIENCE

According to Manheim (1977), there seems to be

considerable agreement that there are three aims of

science: description, explanation and prediction

DESCRIPTION must come first before you can makeintelligent statements about anything . You must first

know what you are talking about.

The first thing that science does it to answer question such as:

1. What are the facts?

2. What is the case?

3. What is out there?


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EXPLANATIONanswers the question WHY?It tells you how things and events come about,

what causes them, what are the laws whichdetermine their occurrence.

It brings meaning to the description.

PREDICTIONMeans that you can make inferences from facts

or laws. When you predict, you say that such

and such will happen or if these conditionsprevail, then so and so will occur.


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Naturalism and Determinism

NATURALISM refers to the view that phenomenaare aspects of nature and therefore are ordered

according to the order of nature.

DETERMINISM refers to the condition thatphenomena can be determined, and all orders can

be accounted for.


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THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Manheim (1977) suggests that the procedure may

be viewed simply as the methods of science.

This can be taken to mean that a method that is

characterized by objectivity, accuracy,

systematization, and so on, according to the

definition ofscience may be considered a scientificmethod


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Five Logical Steps:

IDENTIFYING THE PROBLEM

DEFINING THE PROBLEM

FORMULATING THE HYPOTHESIS

DEDUCTIVE REASONING

TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS


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DEFINITION OF RESEARCH

The term research is taken from the word re whichmeans again and search, meaning to investigate.

Literally, research means to investigate again.

Research is defined as the careful, diligent, andexhaustive investigation of a specific matter , having

as its aim the advancement of mankinds knowledge

(Manheim, 1977).

Research is an investigation undertaken in order to

discover new facts and get additional information

(Webster, 1980).


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Research is a systematic investigation of something for

the purpose of answering questions (Treece, et al. 1977 ).

Scientific research is systematic, controlled, empirical andcritical investigation of hypothetical proposition about the

presumed relations among natural phenomena (Kerlinger,

1973).

When you say that scientific research is systematic and

controlled, you mean, in effect, that scientific

investigations can have critical confidence in research

outcomes. This means that research observations arehighly disciplined.

Scientific investigation is empirical. If you believe that

something is so, you must somehow put your belief to a

test outside of yourself. You must always subject yournotions to empirical inquiry and test.


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PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

The primary purpose of research is to seek newknowledge and explore possible solutions to a

problem.

It provides very useful information in the form ofvariable data.

Research could offer solutions to our numerous

biological, physical, educational, social, political andbehavioral problems.

Improvement in our health, economy, and security

depends largely on research.


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Research could contribute towards the nations

development and progress.

The rate of scientific and technological progress is

determined in a large extent by research.


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TYPES OF RESEARCH

Purposive Nomenclature

Is based on the basic aim of research

There are three Categories:

Fundamental Or Pure Research employs careful sampling procedures in order

to extend the findings beyond the group or

situation studied.

It has little concern for application of findings to

actual problems in areas considered to be the

concern of people rather than the investigator.


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Action Research focused on the immediate

application, not on the development theory, notupon general application. Its findings are to be

evaluated in terms of universal validity. Its purpose

is to improve practices and, at the same time, to

improve those who try to improve the practices.

Applied Research

It has most of the characteristics of

fundamental research, however, its purpose is

to improve a product or a process testingtheoretical concepts in actual problem situation.

is usually carried out in the laboratory, often

with animals as subjects. In the social sciences,

this type of research has been primarily the

activity of clinical psychologists.


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Descriptive NomenclatureThis categorization refers to specific procedures in

conducting the research.

There are three categories:

Historical Research describes what was. The process involves investigating, recording,

analyzing and interpreting events of the past for

the purpose of discovering generalizations that

are helpful in understanding the present, and to

a limited extent, in anticipating the future.


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Descriptive Research describes what is. It involves describing, analyzing and interpreting

the conditions that now exist.

It involves some kind of comparison and

contrast, and may attempt to discover

relationship between existing non-manipulated

variables.

Experimental Research describes what will bewhen certain variables are carefully controlled or

manipulated. The focus is on the relationship of variables.

Deliberate manipulation is always a part of the

experimental method.


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PARTS OF THE THESIS

A.Title Page

B. Approval Sheet

C. Biographical Sketch

D. Acknowledgment

E. Table of Contents

F. List of Tables
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G. List of Figures

H. List of Appendix Tables

I. Abstract

J. Body of the Thesis


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K. Literature Cited or Bibliography

L. Appendix


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RESEARCH FORMAT OR OUTLINE

I. TITLE OF THE STUDY The title of the research study should be specific

and clearly stated.

It should include the main concept, the variablesand places involved in the research.

This title should serve as a frame of reference for

the entire study.

In cases where there are several variables used in

the paper, a word or group of words should be

used to summarize these variables.


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Example Title of the Study:

Adaptation to Climate Change of Lowland Rice Farmersin Bukidnon, Philippines: A Micro-level Analysis

(Adopted from J.N Prantilla, 2012)

The use of unnecessary words should be deleted in

the title like A Study of or A Comparative

Study or A Comparison of . Theses are not

needed anymore because these researches are

considered already as forms of study or

investigation.


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II. INTRODUCTION

A.Background of the Study

It normally contains basic background

information and assumptions that show the state

of the art of a particular field of endeavor.

This provides the setting of the identified

research problem.

It may include synopses of related studies and

literature which can strengthen the reason for

the investigation or research.


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B. Statement of the Problem

A problem is a statement that asks what relationexists between two or more variables?

(Kerlinger.,1973)

The problem should be stated clearly both ingeneral terms and specific terms.

The general statement of the problem is usuallya reiteration of the title of the study


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Basic Questions About a Research Problem

Is the problem interesting?

It is better to work on something that interest

you

Is the problem new?Choose a problem that is relatively new and

has not been fully studied.

Will the study add to knowledge?

You must be convinced that by doing the

study, you will contribute new knowledge.


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Is the problem feasible?

Choose problems that you can manage,

those that can be feasibly undertaken.

Has anyone else had a prior claim to it?

You may not able to claim problem that has

already been studied previously by otherresearchers, but you may able to arrive at

other findings.


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Example of the Statement of the Problem:

(Taken from J.N Prantilla, 2012 Master thesis entitled:Adaptation to Climate

Change of Lowland Rice Farmers in Bukidnon, Philippines: A Micro-level

Analysis )


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C. Objectives of the StudyMust be specific and achievable

It is always wise to list them in approximate

order of their importance or potential

contributions.

Objectives set the stage for showing how one

intends to solve or contribute to the solution of a

problem.

Must neatly fit into the problem statement.

Th t i iti bj ti


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There are two common errors in writing objectives:

1.They are vaguely stated generalities rather than

clearcut criteria.

2.They are not presented according to priority.

In Prantillas (2012) study, he formulated his

objectives as follows:


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D Significance of the Study


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D. Significance of the Study

this is a set of statements about the possible

contributions of the study

such contributions may be viewed from the point of

the target beneficiaries like the researcher himself,

the service providers, the planners, decision-makers, the community leaders, and others.

this portion mal also include their possible

contribution to the accumulation of knowledge,solution to a problem which may improve certain

conditions, improvement of research instruments

and methods, and meeting the priorities of

institutions.


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Here is how Prantilla (2012) clarified the importance of

his study:


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E. Scope and Limitations of the Study

Scope : Involves the boundaries or coverage of the

study in terms of objectives, time, samples, location,

subjects or people involved and other issues to

which the research is focused.

Limitations: Include the constraints or weaknesses

of the study which are beyond the control of the

researcher, therefore they are not expected to be

covered by the study.

G Definition of Terms and Variables


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G. Definition of Terms and Variables

Before launching an investigation and when

writing up a research proposal or report, youmust define rigorously the meaning of the terms

used in the statement of the problem and in the

hypotheses.

Some terms used in the research study are

given either lexical or operational definition or

both.

The variables being defined are arranged in

alphabetical order.


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A.Review of Related Literature

Includes a synthesis of each selected literature ordocumented study to summarize and emphasize its

relevance to the current research study.

Presented in topical form, irrespective of whether itis local or foreign; and not necessarily arranged in

chronological or alphabetical order.

II. Theoretical Framework


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Purpose of the Review of Related Literature

The literature review expands the introductorychapter of the thesis. A very fundamental

consideration is the question : What is at issue?

The literature helps to further define theresearch problem. Frequently, you may realize

that the literature review has partially answered

your research problem.The literature provides the theoretical basis for

the research question.

Th lit t i h l th h i th


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The literature review helps the researcher in the

interpretation of results or findings.

The literature helps the researcher outline theimplications of his study.

B. Conceptual Framework

Drawn from the review of related literature andstudies

Clarifies the relationships between and among the

major variables of the study ;

Illustrates the research study further in conceptual

paradigm.

EXAMPLE

C H th A ti
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C. Hypotheses or Assumptions

Tentative formulations or explanations about the

expected outcomes of the research study.

Hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation

between two or more variables.

It is always in declarative sentence form and itrelates variables.

Criteria for good hypotheses:Hypotheses are statements about the relation

between variables.

Hypotheses carry clear implications for testing

the stated relationships.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESES


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TYPES OF HYPOTHESES

Null hypothesis (Ho)Which is a denial of an attribute, an existence, a

difference or an effect or relationship expressed in a

negative statement.

Example (from Prantilla, 2012):

There is no relationship between perception ofclimate change and

a. Household and farm characteristics

b. Institutional factors and information sources

Alternative hypothesis (H1)Which affirms the existence of a phenomenon,

acceptance of the attribute of relationship, effects

and differences.


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III. METHODOLOGY

A.Locale of the Study

Brief description of the place or places where theparticipants or respondents are located or to be

obtained

B. Research DesignBrief description of the research method or methodsto be used.

Is the plan, structure and strategy of theinvestigation

Includes a brief justification on why it is best method

for the present study


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C. Samples and Sampling Technique UsedBrief description or profile of the population or

respondents involved in the research study.

Bradfield et al (1980) define sampling as the

process of measuring a small proportion of

something followed by a general statement

about the whole thing.

A sample is a small group taken from a largerpopulation composed of members being

studied.


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Stratified Sampling


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Stratified SamplingThis is the selection of samples from the different

classes or strata of the population involved in the

research. Each class is treated as a differentpopulation.

A simple random sampling is then used in each

class with proportionate and equal percentage ofrepresentation from each stratum.

Systematic Sampling

This technique involves the selection of the desirednumber size in a list by arranging them

systematically or logically in either alphabetical

arrangement or any acceptable organization.

Cl S li


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Cluster SamplingThis sampling technique involves the selection

of the samples in a group and is usually applied

on a geographical basis in a heterogeneous

population.

II. Non Probability SamplingThis is a type of sampling wherein no system of

selection is employed and the samples may not

be a proportion of the population and may

depend upon the situation, as presented in thisportion of the sampling design.

D Research Instruments


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D. Research InstrumentsInstrumentation is the process of constructing

research instruments that could be used

appropriately in gathering data on the study.

The questionnaire, interview and observation are

the most commonly used tools in gathering data.

A.The Questionnaire Is a set of orderly arranged questions carefully

prepared to answer the specific problems of the

study.

It is a list of written questions related to a particular

topic, provided with space for respondents to fill

up (Good, 1959).

Types of Question


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Types of Question

a.Open ended QuestionAre listed in a way that it allows the

respondents to freely express himself or

herself on the subject or issue.

b. Fixed Alternative QuestionThis is otherwise called the closed type of

question which provides a list of choicesamong enumerated alternatives. Hence, the

subject responses are limited to a specific

alternative.


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E Statistical Analysis


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E. Statistical AnalysisIs the process of numerical presentation and

analysis of the data gathered in consonance with

the specific problems or hypotheses of the study.

Data results should support and be in consonance

with the objectives and hypotheses of the study.

IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION


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IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Results

Presented according to the objectives of the study;preferably in topical presentation style.

The results of the study may be presented using the

data gathered in the form of statistical tables calledTabular Presentation, or in the form of graphscalled Graphical Presentation, or in the form ofsentences or statements called TextualPresentation.

Di i


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DiscussionTopical presentation according to the results

earlier presented.

Includes analysis and interprets data in a

unified or holistic manner.

V Summary Conclusion and Recommendations


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V. Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations

Summary

Includes brief and concise statement of the general

objective or main purpose as well as the specific

problems of the study, the significance of the study,

the methods of research used including the

respondents involved in the study; as well as theresearch instruments and sampling design

techniques utilized in the whole process of

research.

It also includes textual and numerical summary of

important data and significant results or findings of

the study especially upon which the conclusion is

based.

C l i


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ConclusionIncludes the general statements, inferences,

generalization/s and implications based onthe findings or results of the study

It is usually derived from the hypotheses or

assumptions of the study.

Concluding statement should be expressed in

objective, concise, clear and straightforwardmanner.


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RecommendationsIncludes a detailed description of the

suggestions for future action based onthe significance of the findings.

Includes also some recommendationsfor future research

Additional Components of Research Report


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Additional Components of Research Report

BIBLIOGRAPHY OR REFERENCES Is the listing of all references and other materials cited in the

research study, arranged in alphabetical order with proper

punctuation marks.

APPENDICES

A compilation of selected excerpts or entire documents ormaterials related to the study.

ABSTRACTComposed of one or two page synopsis of the study, usually

placed at the beginning of the paper.

Restate the problem and/or the hypothesis, significance of

the study, the research design, number of subjects and how

they were selected, the instruments used, the procedures

and major findings and conclusions.


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Research Methods for Social Science