Research Methodology

ByReaz Uddin, Ph. D.

Dr. Panjwani Center for Molecular Medicine and Drug Research, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences,University of KarachiResearch Methodology ASR7021Course ContentsPublic Safety (Dr. Raza Shah) (2 classes)Lab Safety (Dr. Raza Shah) (2 classes)Environment conservations (Dr. Raza Shah) (2 classes)Scientific Record Keeping (Dr. Hina Siddiqui) (2 classes)Handling of Research Material (Dr. Hina Siddiqui) (2 classes)Research Misconduct (Dr. Hina Siddiqui) (2 classes)Critical Evaluation of Research (Dr. Hina Siddiqui) (2 classes)Ownership of Data (Dr. Hina Siddiqui) (2 classes)Research Ethics (Dr. Reaz Uddin) (2 classes)Scientific Integrity (Dr. Reaz Uddin) (2 classes)Effective use of computers and internet (Dr. Reaz Uddin) (2 classes)Publication (Dr. Reaz Uddin) (2 classes)Communication of Science (Dr. Reaz Uddin) (2 classes)Students Presentations (Dr. Hina Siddiqui and Dr. Reaz) (10 classes)Biostatistics (Mr. Yaseen Menai) (9 classes)

23A question for you to consider.

What principles underpin ethical behaviour? What does it mean to be ethical?4Principles of ethical behavior.Justice.Beneficence/Non-maleficence.Respect for others.

5Principles of ethical behavior

But what has ethics got to do with research?

Is pure research above ethics and morality? Is ethics and morality to do with technology and politics (the appliance of research) not research itself?6Science as a black boxRESEARCHTECHNOLOGYSOCIETYOne view of research might be that it is isolated from society although it influences society it is isolated from it with its own SociologyNormsEthics MANAGEMENTPOLITICS7Research is defined by its special methodsExperimentation, observation, analysis, ObjectiveTheorizing

As if it transcends ethical and political considerations

Scientific research8Research is a system of organized knowledge above mundane considerationsArchival aspectInformation about natural phenomenaAcquired by researchOrganized in coherent theoretical schemesPublished in books and journalsHistorical process

9Mundane= lacking interest or excitement; dull.But facts are not completely objective they are not isolated from the society that gave rise to themFacts can only be recorded in the framework of a theory. The history, the environment, the culture, the politics, the religion, the personality of the scientist all influence the theory and therefore the facts recorded.Research cannot be isolated from society and an ethical system

Which is brighter, a snowball seen indoors or a lump of coal outside?A bright, sunlit day is about one hundred times brighter than a room lit by electric light. If we use a light meter to measure the absolute number of photons being reflected, the outdoor coal registers a higher value than the indoor snowball. The coal is brighter, and more photons are hitting your retina, sending a stronger signal to your brain. 10Get your facts first, and then you can distort them as much as you please. Mark Twain (1835 - 1910)If the facts don't fit the theory, change the fact. Albert Einstein (1879 - 1955)The important thing in science is not so much to obtain new facts as to discover new ways of thinking about them. Sir William Bragg (1862 - 1942)

Science is facts; just as houses are made of stones, so is science made of facts; but a pile of stones is not a house and a collection of facts is not necessarily science. Henri Poincare (1854 - 1912)

There are no facts, only interpretations.Friedrich Nietzsche (1844 - 1900)We want the facts to fit the preconceptions. When they don't, it is easier to ignore the facts than to change the preconceptions.Jassamyn West (19071984) It is a capital mistake to theorize before one has data. Insensibly one begins to twist facts to suit theories, instead of theories to suit facts. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859 - 1930)

11The separation of academic and industry/technology/society is illusoryResearch transforms societyANDThe inner workings of science are changed by the social forces acting on it even down to the philosophical and psychological levelEthical decisions have to be made at all levels in the scientific chain of discovery

12RESEARCHTECHNOLOGYSOCIETYDiscoveryInventionBecause research has a profound influence on society scientists cannot ignore the consequences of their discoveries

13Research is often a means of solving problemsIt is intimately connected with politics, technology and societyResearch should be used wisely but this is not for researchers to decide alone

14The Impact of Research on Values and Values on ResearchEthical considerations are to therefore with the development of new technologies and new social systemsSociety is inherently conservative and seeks to set the limits of research activity

Im damned if they are going to make me redundant15Ethics ReviewMorals: Rules that define what is right and wrongEthics-process of examining moral standards and looking at how we should interpret and apply such standards in real world situationsEthics ReviewEthical PrinciplesAutonomyBeneficenceNon-maleficenceJusticeFidelityThink for a moment how might these principles relate to research?

Respect for PersonsTreat individuals as autonomous agentsDo not use people as a means to an endAllow people to make choices for themselvesProvide extra protection to those with limited autonomyVoluntary ParticipationInformed ConsentProtection of Privacy & ConfidentialityRight to Withdraw without PenaltyBeneficenceActs of kindness or charity that go beyond dutyObligations derived from beneficenceDo no harmPrevent harmPrevent evilPromote good

Risks are justified by the benefitsRisks are minimizedConflicts of interest are managed to avoid biasJusticeTreat people fairlyFair sharing of burdens and benefits of researchDistinguish procedural justice from distributive justice

Vulnerable subjects are not targeted for conveniencePeople are not selected as subjects because of their ease of availability or compromised positionPeople who are likely to benefit are not excludedResearch Ethics: Areas of FocusHarm Informed ConsentConfidentialityDeceptionReporting Results and Plagiarism

HarmAs mentioned before, researchers should take every precaution to ensure that participants are not subjected to undue harm or stressInformed Consent Voluntary Informed Consent is essential for research involving human subjectsInformed Consent should include:Description of the nature of the researchStatement that the research is voluntary and participants can withdraw at any timeIdentification of Risks and BenefitsDescription of how confidentiality will be protectedDescription of compensationDescription of what info researchers will share with participantsIdentification of who is responsible for research with contact informationConfidentialityAll information collected in a research project should remain confidentialData should be locked away in a secure settingElectronic Databases should also be protectedWhat do you do if you bump into a research participant in Wal-Mart?

DeceptionAt times, researchers may choose to hide from participants the true nature of the studyDeception by OmissionWithholding important facts from the participantsDeception by CommissionLie to or purposely mislead research participants

DeceptionStaged ManipulationsAlso called Event ManipulationsUsed for 2 reasonsThe researcher may need to create some sort of psychological state (anxiety)The researcher may need to stage a manipulation to recreate a real-world scenarioHaving a participant do one task and then having them do more tasks at the same time Staged manipulations usually employ a confederate Also called an accompliceA confederate is someone who appears to be another participant in an experiment but is really a part of the experimentExample: Someone who purposely insults a participant in a study in order to provoke anger or frustration

DeceptionAnother example of the use of confederates:Asch (1956) study on conformityWhich line is bigger?1)---------------------2)-----------------------------3)-------------------Right before a participant had to choose which line was the longest, a confederate announced an incorrect answer Repeatedly, Asch found that people confirmed to the confederates incorrect response

DeceptionAccording to the APA, researchers can use deception under certain conditions:Participants must be provided with enough information to consent voluntarilyResearchers must convince that deception is necessary to collect data and that it will cause little or no harmResearchers must arrange to fully inform the patients of the true nature of the study in a timely mannerAmerican Psychological AssociationReporting Research ResultsResults of research studies should be reported in a honest, accurate mannerResearchers cannot massage data to fit their hypothesesResearchers cannot make up or report false resultsResearcher must report what they find, even if the data does not support their initial hypothesesResearchers should ensure that data is being collected consistently (do checks of research assistants) Researchers should give the proper credit (authorship) to those who have earned itPlagiarismComes from the Latin word meaning to kidnapExamples of plagiarism:Copying someone elses words without proper citationStealing someone elses ideasStealing someone elses intellectual propertyBottom Line: Cite sources properly and minimize quotations in research reportsEthics Among ResearchersAuthorshipOwnership of dataConsultants

Justice. Is this morally right?

Beneficence/non-maleficence. Respectively, these mean doing good and avoiding harm. We should maximize benefits and minimize physical, emotional, economic and environmental harms and discomfort. Am I doing harm?

Respect for others. Individuals must be regarded as autonomous agents and anyone of diminished autonomy (e.g. intellectually disabled) should be protected. It is important to have consideration for the welfare, beliefs, rights, heritage and customs of people involved. Am I showing respect for others?