REPORT RESUMEED 020 917 SE 004 920

PRODUCTION AND USE OF SINGLE CONCEPT FILMS IN PHYSICSTEACHING.BY- FOWLER, JOHN M.

PUB DATE SEP 67

EDRS PRICE MF.-90.50 HC -$4.72 116P.

DESCRIPTORS- *AUDIOVISUAL AIDS, BIBLIOGRAPHIES, *COLLEGESCIENCE, *INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS, *INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS,PHOTOGRAPHY, *PHYSICS, PROJECTION EQUIPMENT, SINGLE CONCEPTFILMS, CONFERENCES, FILMS, SCIENCE EQUIPMENT, COMMISSION ONCOLLEGE PHYSICS,

BASED UPON THE CONFERENCE ON SINGLE CONCEPT FILMS IN

COLLEGE PHYSICS TEACHING HELD AT RENSSELAER POLYTECHNICINSTITUTE IN DECEMBER OF 1966, THIS REPORT ATTEMPTS TO (1)PRESENT CURRENTLY AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGICAL INFORMATION ON THEPRODUCTION, DISTRIBUTION, AND DISPLAY OF SINGLE CONCEPT FILMSIN PHYSICS, (2) TO ENCOURAGE INCREASED AND BROADER USE OFTHESE SHORT FILMS IN COLLEGE PHYSICS TEACHING, AND (3) TOSTIMULATE THEIR PRODUCTION IN COLLEGE PHYSICS DEPARTMENTS.THE REPORT IS ESSENTIALLY AN EXPANSION OF THE RESULTS OF THEWORKING SESSIONS OF THE CONFERENCE, AND DEALS WITH (1) THEUSE OF SINGLE CONCEPT FILMS IN PHYSICS INSTRUCTION, COVERINGTHE AREAS OF CLASSROOM USE, LABORATORY INSTRUCTION, ANDSELF - INSTRUCTIONAL USE, (2) FILM MAKING TECHNIQUES, INCLUDINGLOCAL PRODUCTION OF PHYSICS FILMS, FILMING IN A PROFESSIONALSTUDIO, AND COMPUTER-ANIMATED FILM MAKING, AND (3) CAMERASAND ACCESSORIES FOR AMATEUR SCIENTIFIC FILM MAKERS, INCLUDINGFILMS, PROJECTORS, AND UTILIZATION OF PROJECT MATERIALS. THE..APPENDIXES INCLUDE SECTIONS ON (1) CONFERENCE AGENDA, (2)

PILMANIMATED BY COMPUTER, (3) PRODUCING A FILM, (4)

EQUIPMENT, (5) AUDIOVISUAL INSTRUCTION AT PURDUE, (6) LIST OF

CONFERENCE PARTICIPANTS, AND (7) A BIBLIOGRAPHY. (OH)

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE

OFFICE OF EDUCATION

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(COMMISSION ON COLLEGE PHYSICS)

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Front and rear cover illustrationsStill photographs from Vibrations of a Drum praduced for ProjectPhysics by the National Film Board of Canada. The pictures are madepossible by a new high speed camera in which the camera speed canbe varied while shooting to equal the vibrating frequency of the rubberskin. Designer of the demonstration: Alfred Leitner of RensselaerPnlvtPrknir Inctitlita fre,..r+acw esc + hcb ki,..cfs.,,-.1 r;fr., 11,,,-...,1 ,..4 re....-A-N

Production and Use of Single Concept Filmsin Physics Teaching

Commission on College Physics

Part of the report of the Conference on Single Con-cept Films in College Physics Teaching sponsored bythe Commission on College Physics and held at Rens-selaer Polytechnic Institute December 15-17, 1966.

The Commission on College Physics

The Commission on College Physics is a national organization established by thephysics profession in 1960 to coordinate efforts to improve undergraduate physics instruc-tion. The Commission's full-time professional staff consists of a Director and StaffPhysicists who are typically academic physicists on leave for one- or two-year terms. Com-mission programs are guided and reviewed by the Commissioners, seventeen physicistselected from the physics profession or appointed by the Commission.

The Commission is engaged in the development of broad programs to identify andunderstand the problems of undergraduate physics teaching, to stimulate the search forsolutions, to encourage innovation and experimentation, and to design mechanisms whichwill assure continued involvement of physicists in these tasks. The Commission offices arelocated in the Department of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Maryland.The activities of the Commission on College Physics are financed by a grant from theNational Science Foundation.

PROFESSIONAL STAFF

Director John M. Fowler

Staff Physicists Philip DiLavore

Ben A. Green, Jr.

John W. Robson

COMMISSIONERS (1966-1968)

Arnold B. Arons, Amherst CollegeStanley S. Ballard, University of FloridaHerman Branson, Howard UniversityH. R. Crane, University of MichiganAnthony P. French, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyRonald Geballe, University of WashingtonE. Leonard Jossem (Chairman), Ohio State UniversityH. William Koch, American Institute of PhysicsEdward D. Lambe (Secretary) ), State University of New York Stony BrookRobert Leighton, California Institute of TechnologyWalter C. Michels, Bryn Mawr CollegePhilip Morrison (Vice Chairman ), Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyMelba Phillips, University of ChicagoRobert V. Pound, Harvard UniversityRobert Resnick, Rensselaer Polytechnic InstituteAllan M. Sachs, Columbia UniversityRobert L. Sells, State University College of New York Geneseo

2,1..ratrasrak.

Acknowledgments

This report is based on the Conference on Single Concept Filmsin College Physics Teaching, held at Rensselaer PolytechnicInstitute on December 15-17, 1966. First acknowledgment mustgo to the participants at that Conference (see Appendix F)physicists, film makers, producers, etc., who braved a Decembersnowstorm to contribute their knowledge, imagination and criti-cism to the Conference proceedingsas well as to the workinggroup chairmen E. Leonard Jossem, Alan Holden, W. ThomasJoyner, and Kevin Smith, who so effectively mustered thesetalents and reported the results of their deliberations.

The first day of the Conference was made most useful by theinvited speakers and panelists; among these, we must give specialthanks to Shirley Clarke and Wheaton Galentine for bringingto us their stimulating glimpse of the film maker's art.

We must also thank those who were involved throughout inthe planning of the Conference: Walter Eppenstein who firstsuggested it and who so ably handled local arrangements, andthe Steering Committee of Walter Eppenstein, W. Thomas Joyner,Elwood Miller, Kevin Smith, and John M. Fowler who gaveadvice before, during and after the gathering.

The report itself elaborates and extends the working groupreports; we were greatly assisted in this phase by several con-tributors who merit special thanks: Kevin Smith who gavegenerously of his time and know-how to provide the section onlocal film making techniques (including the production of a filmand accompanying storyboard); Franklin Miller who was unableto attend the Conference but who contributed of his physicist'sexpertise in film making to produce the section on cameras andaccessories and who read sections of the report; Jacques Parentwho cheerfully advised us on problems of equipment and whowrote up the description of the professional's view of film pro-duction and read sections of the report.

We also wish to acknowledge the cooperation of E. E. Zajac,S. N. Postlethwait and David G. Husband, and John Vergiswho allowed us to reprint materials on computer-animated filmmaking, the Purdue botany course, and testing cameras andshooting sequences, respectively. We appreciate also the help

iii

of Gordon H. Tubbs of Kodak who read the equipment report.

The final choice of materials, design, editing, compilation of ap-pendices, etc., is however our responsibility and we look forwardto comments, additions, and criticism from the report's readers.

John M. Fowler, DirectorCommission on College Physics

Barbara Z. BluestoneReports Editor

September 1967

I

Introduction

II

Uses of Single Concept Films in Physics Instruction

Use of single concept films in class 7

Use of single concept films in laboratory instruction 13

Self-instructional uses of film 17

III

Film Making Techniques

Local production of physics films 26

Filming in a professional studio 30

Computer-animated film making 34

IV

Equipment

Cameras and accessories for amateur scientific film makers 39

Film 41

Projectors 46

Utilization of projected materials 51

V

Conclusions

VI

Appendices

Appendix A: Conference agenda 61

Appendix B: Film animation by computer 65

Appendix C: Producing a film 75

Appendix D: Equipment 87

Appendix E: Audio-visual instruction at Purdue University 113

Appendix F: List of participants 119

Appendix G: Bibliography 125

Table of contents

IIntroductionPart

The introduction of the 16mm film format andthe rapid evolution of the theory of quantummechanics both took place in the mid-1920's. Theirimpact on the teaching of physics at the introductorylevel was negligible, however, until the 1960's.

One cannot, of course, push the parallel muchfarther. The development and application of quantummechanics provides an excellent example of whatphysicists do wellthe determined effort to under-stand the fundamental properties of the universe.Film, on the other hand, is a little exploited techniquewhose application is in an area in which physicistsdo not do so wellexplaining their understandingto others.

It is surely true that film has not been thoroughlyor imaginatively exploited in the teaching of physics.One can measure the importance which physicistsattach to the film medium in teaching by the absenceof records as to how and how often films have beenused in physics classes. No checklist of films forundergraduate instruction has ever been compiled toparallel the AIP's Check List of Books anti Periodicalsfor an Undergraduate Physics Library. Thanks toRobert L. Weber's series of survey articles in theAmerican Journal of Physics,' however, we do havesome information on how many films had been pro-duced in physics as of 1961. The graph in Figure 1shows the steady increase in the number of filmsavailable to physics teachers between 1935 and 1961.

One has the feeling that such a representation ofthe use of film in physics teaching would not showthe same upward slope. It is, for instance, difficult tothink of a teaching film available in the 40's and 50'swhich would be universally known. A strong candi-

lAm. J. Phys., 29, 222-233 (1961); 22, 54-59 (1953); 17,408-412 (1948).

1

Introduction

date might be Bubble Model of a Crystal,.2 its creden-tials are impressive. Made by Sir Lawrence Bragg, ituses a clever demonstration technique to capture someof the orderly beauty physicists see in crystal structureand at the same time provides a model useful inunderstanding the physical features of this structure.One can only guess at the fraction of physicists whohave used this film in class and the guessed fractionwould be small.

Many reasons can be found for the relative unim-portance of the film medium in the teaching ofphysics. A study by the British Universities FilmCouncil in 1960 gave as the reasons for non-useof films:

(1) lack of suitable films; (2) difficulty oflocating suitable films; (3) lack of projectionfacilities; (4) difficulty of having to pre-plan

2Bubble Model of a Crystal by Sir Lawrence Bragg, distrib-uted by Ealing Corporation.

160

140

'n 120

T. 100

O80

60

40

20

0PRE 1935 1935 1945 1955 1965

FILMS PRODUCED (IN INDICATED INTERVALS)

Graph illustrates the steady growth of the numberof physics films available since 1935 (based onWeber's film lists).

the speed of progression of a course becauseof the necessity of booking films well inadvance. . .

Robert Weber in his first AJP article4 makes asset-daily the same analysis:

Despite these advantages, instructors whohave used films in the teaching of collegephysics have noted chiefly their shortcomings.The inadequacy stems in part from the natureof the medium. A film presentation is usuallyinflexible, but need not be so. The realism ofactual demonstrations is missing, the studentis allowed little opportunity for reflection,questions, or the taking of notes. There is alack of repetition and no opportunity forindividual students to review and study thefilm.

Other and more remediable inadequacies inthe present use of instructional films in collegeate: (1) tht diffuseness and theatrical packingof films edited to catch the widest possibleaudience; (2) the limited effort of colleges andprofessional organizations to sponsor and editfilms for specific teaching needs; (3) the diffi-culty of finding reliable critical appraisals offilms; and (4) the inconvenience to the in-structor of screening films in advance andfitting them effectively in the class room work.

Neither author has mentioned directly the cost ofthe film; this factor also finds its way into the de-cision to use or not to use. But whatever the reasons,the chief use of film in lecture has been as a fillerfor lecture time left vacant by traveling physicists.

There seem now to be two technological advanceswhich are likely to change the pedagogical role offilm. One of these, the cartridged film, is already uponus; the other, the new technology of 8mm film, iscresting to break. Together they should make filmedmaterial as easily accessible as is supplementary read-ing material.

5From "Film as a Teaching Aid," in Films in HigherVoce:los, edited by Peter D. Groves (London: PergamonPress, 1966), p. 98. The paraphrase is of a report byBUFC entitled "The Use of Film in Teaching and Researchin British Universities, 1959," University Film Journal,19, (1960).

4Am. J. Phys., 17, 408-409 (1948).

2

The movement to cartridged films and projectorsto handle them comes in two steps: the idea of acontinuous film loop which needs no rewinding andis ready for =showing; and the cartridge which pro-teas it (fairly well) from dust and grubby fingers.

John Hanemann of Minus College has been sug-gesting the usefulness of film loops in physics teach-ing for some time° and has provided examples oftheir applicability to the demonstration of wavemotion.

The first examples of cartridges appeared in 1962.They are now available both in longer (20- to 30-minute) sound film° and the short (four-minute)silent fihns.7 Their advantages as supplementary ma-terial stem from the simplicity of their use they canbe picked up from a library collection, slipped intothe projector, looked at, and returned to the library.With self-contained screens, the cartridge-loadingprojectors provide access to information in a mannerstill more complicated than that offered by a book,but less complicated than, say, a microfilm reader.

Cartridge-loading projectors are relatively inexpen-sive.° The fihns range in price from $7.00 to $20.00for a four-minute silent loop and from $18100 to$160.00 for up to 30 minutes of sound loop. Theireasy accessibility and low cost remove several of theobjections noted above.

The cost should go down. The major industriesconnected with photography have finally recognized8mm film as an item with big market potential andare turning their great resources toward its improve-ment. And the improvements are appearing. Eightmillimeter sound film, both optical and magnetic, isalready several years old. The new 8mm formats (seePart IV) produce brighter, sharper pictures whenprojected. New projectors, sound and silent, usingcartridges or with simple automatically rewindingreel packages, are appearing. Equally exciting andnecessary, laboratory facilities are being improved andfast printing systems, one of them producing 200ft/min of printed film, are now being developed.

5Am. J. Phys., 20, 465 (1952); 23, 555 (1955); 26, 50(1958).Fairchild MoviePak cartridges with magnetic sound track;Technicolor Magicartridges with optical sound track

rrechnkolor silent Magicartridges.8See Part W.

Eight millimeter film can now be economically pre-sented to an audience as small as one or as largeas 500.

What is lacking still is quantity and qualitytheother part of the set of difficulties referred to in theBritish list (1) and Weber's list (1) and (2). It wastoward lessening these inadequacies that the CCPset up the Conference on Single Concept Films inCollege Physics Teaching,

The first formal suggestion of the need for such aconference was made in February of 1966 by WalterEppenstein of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, thena member of the AAPT Visual Aids Committee. Inhis letter to the Commission he said:

I would like to make a suggestion for a pos-sible conference I have not seen mentionedpreviously. I would like to see the use of Sin-gle Concept Teaching Films in Physics dis-cussed in some detail with a report to bewidely distributed. I believe that this type offilmusually in 8mm cartridgesis relativelynew and has many possibilities not yet fullyexplored.

W. Thomas Joyner, CCP Staff Physicist, beganwith Eppenstein the long planning that goes into asuccessful conference. A Steering Committee consist-ing of Kevin Smith (Education Development Cen-ter), Elwood Miller (Michigan State University),Walter Eppenstein, and Thomas Joyner and John M.Fowler of the CCP, met on September 30, 1966, toproduce a complete Conference design.

The Conference had unique features. First of all,it was held in Troy, New York, in mid-December(clearly it was a working conference). In order tosample widely among the experience and opinionsof the many types of professionals whose interestsmeet in film production, we invited physicists, photo-graphers, film makers, producers, photographic tech-nicians, representatives of film distributors and of filmequipment companies and others. The presentationsto the Conference on the first day thus varied in styleand content from John Vergis' illustrations of howto use magic markers in title making to presentationsof Shirley Clarke's impressionistic film Bridges GoRound and Wheaton Galentine's time-lapse studies ofgrowing plants; from Jacques Parent's precision high-

.

3

Shirley Clarke gives the Conference a look at theprofessional film maker's art.

speed photography of a recoiling cannon to WendellSlabaugh's garage-studio chemistry films. The mixwas potent and each of us carried away more thanwe brought.

But after the shock of Sleep° had worn off, whatdid the Conference accomplish? The pre-Conferencestatement of purpose was:

The goals of this conference are: (1) Togather in one report the presently availabletechnological information on the production,distribution, and display of single conceptfilms in physics; (2) To encourage increasedand broader use of these short films in collegephysics teaching; and (3) To stimulate theirproduction in college physics departments.

To this end the conference will be a workingconference, and the report will carry a sum-mary of present uses and suggestions for futureexperimentation, a survey of different filmmaking techniques and of the equipment forfilming and projection; it should also suggesta mechanism or mechanisms for distributionsuitable to the increased use which is foreseen.

The Conference agenda forms Appendix A. Theinput of the first day concentrated on what had beenand what could be done with film. The second day'sworking sessions considered what should be done inphysics. The Report which follows is an expansionof the results of these working sessions.

9S/eep by Andy Warhol, perhaps the ultimate in a singleconcept film, several minutes of which was shown byShirley Clarke.

Part II Use of Single Concept Films in Physics Instruction

In keeping with the theme of the Conferencetoencourage the production and use of "single concept"films in physicsthis working group chose to con-centrate its attention on how films could be used inphysics classrooms rather than how they are beingused. They accepted as a working hypothesis thatcartridge or other automatic projectors suitable evenfor large lecture halls are available and that theyimpose no arbitrary restriction on film length.

The report of the Working Group on Self-Instruc-tional Uses of Single Concept Films (see pp. 17-21)establishes that the availability of inexpensive, access-ible film will be an important part of the advance ofeducational technology and will make possible radicalexperimentation in the nature of instruction and thedevelopment of alternatives to the lecture-dominatedmode which has endured so long. It is also evident,however, that changes, if they occur at al.l, will belong in coming and that, in the expectation of ahealthy future for the classroom lecture, the considera-tion of the role of films in this setting is no idleexercise.

TYPES OF USES

DemonstrationThe most obvious use of film in the classroom is

to demonstrate phenomena. While most of the longerfilms (for example, those produced by EDC for highschool and college) are of demonstrations, theirlength, and the inflexibility of presentation caused

1W. T. Joyner (Chairman). George Carr, Thomas Norton,Jacques Parent, N. MacGregor Rugheimer, Joseph Straley,F. W. Van Name, Jr., Frederick W. Zurheide (members).Forrest I. Bo ley, John Fitch, Ross Gortner, Jr., RobertResnick, John Fowler (visitors).

7

Use of single concept filmsin class'

by their accompanying sound track, have made themcompete to disadvantage for lecture time. The short,silent film is a much more attractive modular unitand more obviously an aid to the lecturer than hisreplacement.

Because physics is a subject in which abstractionand the concreteness of experimentation and obser-vation are strongly linked, some see the use of filmeddemonstration as a regrettable retreat from the realworld.. It is a fact of academic life, however, that theuse of live demonstrations is not always possible;their construction competes with higher priorityresearch time and shop time, and their arrangementfor other valuable time. A filmed demonstration,once in the can or cartridge, is always ready andquickly available. And even the most dedicateddemonstrator will agree that there are demonstrationswhich are better handled on film than live. Proceed-ing from the question "Is a film necessary for thisdemonstration" rather than "Can this demonstrationbe filmed," Franklin Miller2 supports the filming ofdemonstrations in the following cases (the examplesare from his film series):

1. The action is too slow or too fast for con-venient study (Radioactive Decay);

2. The experiment is dangerous (Critical Tem-perature);

3. The, experiment is uncertain or requires adifficult or critical adjustment (CoupledOscillators);

4. The experiment requires apparatus or sup-plies which are expensive or not readilyavailable (Paramagnetism of Liquid Oxy-gen);

2Am. . Phys., 33, 806 (1965).

S. it is an optical demonstration which cannot be projected because of weak light(Resolving Power);

6. The experiment is too small to demonstratein a classroom (Ferromagnetic DomainWall Motion);

7. The experiment is too large to demonstratein a classroom (inertial Forces);

8. The presentation is clarified by superposi-tion of graphics or legends over live-actionphotography (Michelson interferometer);

9. The film records a rare or one-time event(Tacoma Narrows Bridge Collapse).

The number of short demonstration films meetingthese criteria is growing steadily (as is the numberof films which fall to meet them) and their increas-ing use seems assured. More films are needed, how-ever, in order to bring to as many students as possiblethe most compelling demonstrations of physics thatinventive physics teachers have produced.

There is, of course, a deep reservoir of short film

materials in the film libraries of industry and govern-ment. NASA, for example, has 8x10° feet of film.While the problem of searching these large amountsof film for short sequences which can be excerpted

is a formidable one, the introduction into classesof some of the applications and illustrations of physicsin space exploration may make it worth while. NASA,in particular, is eager to see its films used, and isengaged in the massive task of producing microfilmdescriptions of their films, which will carry repre-sentative frames as well as written abstracts. Surely

a summer spent by some physics teacher in thesearchives could have fruitful results for physics

instruction.

Even with a great variety of films in hand, how-ever, there are many questions which must be an-swered before film can be used to full advantage.

Serious studies should be made of the importance ofthe length of films (how long a segment can the

student hold in memory and discuss fruitfully after-

ward?) and of their effectiveness as teaching aids

compared with live demonstrations; and teachers will

have to be encouraged to experiment further with

instructor-applied sound tracks, etc.

8

Definitionsin physics, words, accompanied by limited, im-

perfect artistry in the static, two-dimensional repre-sentation of the blackboard, are often inadequate todear definition of physical concepts. Film has obviousadvantages; it is dynamic and the necessary art canbe supplied in uniform high quality.

Suggestions for useful "definition films" are easy tocome by. The concept of reference frames, the center-of-mass frame of colliding objects, or the rotatingreference frame so useful in describing many wavephenomena, lend themselves to dynamic illustration.One can envisage films "explaining" phase space,symmetry operations, and so on.

There is also a need for films which link abstractconcepts to real phenomena. It would be valuable tohave, for example, a collision photographed in slowmotion and compared on film with the representationof that collision in momentum space, or actual motioncompared with its space-time representation, or tosuperimpose a probability distribution on a time-lapse photograph of the growth of an electron dif-fraction pattern. The techniques of superposition ofimages, of combined live and animated action, etc.,are all available to enhance the visual presentationof ideas.

The superposition on sinusoids of different phaseand amplitudes is shown in the computer-animatedfilm Harmonic Phasors.

Model BuildingRelated to the definition film is the film displaying

mathematical models which are useful approximationsof the real situation. Again, where possible one shoulduse a real model, for example, the two-dimensionalgas model of Harold Daw's frictionless puck tableor the one-dimensional wave medium constructed byJohn Stull on a linear air track" or by Fowler, et al.5However, for the case where the actual building ofsuch models is tuied out by expense or time, filmscould serve as useful intermediaries, connecting wordsand actions.

Examinations and ProblemsAs film becomes increasingly inexpensive and acces-

sible (and since imagination is always in goodsupply), the examination might also be liberatedfrom the printed sheet. Film can be used to set bothqualitative and quantitative problems before a class,in the same way that the "situation film" is gaininguse in the social sciences.

3"Kinetic Theory on an Air Table," a series of six filmsproduced by Ealing Corporation.

4"Linear Air Track" series, nine films on Newtonian mechan-ics produced by Ealing Corporation.J. M. Fowler, E. D. Lambe, J. T. Brooks, "One-DimensionalWave Medium," to be published in the American Journalof Physics (November 1967).

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The random motion of molecules is simulated inthis two-dimensional model of a gas developed byHarold Daw. The flat plastic cylinders are sup-ported by air jets in the table top and put intomotion by a vibrating mechanism. (Courtesy of TheEaling Corporation)

Such films take advantage both of the ability toshow motion and of the inherent high informationcontent of the visual medium. One would no longerface the danger of leaving out some vital element inthe description of a situation on which the student isto be questioned; film can present the entire situation,in slow motion or time-lapse, in dose up and fromall angles, in color or black and white. The studentcould then be left to gather and organize his obser-vations in a way which is meaningful to him.

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In this film of a pole vaulter made for Project Physics, students can use frame counts to obtain the vaulter'sspeed on approach; the height he clears (a) provides a check on the conversion of kinetic to potential energy.In an earlier sequence, the energy stored in the bent pole (b) is found to be the difference between the totalenergy and the vaulter's gravitational potential energy. (Courtesy of the National Film Board of Canada)

One could pose qualitative problems in which astudent is shown the initial state (of a collision, forexample) and is asked to predict, and to justify hisprediction of, the final state. Quantitative problemsfrom which data could be taken or for which datawere available would also be possible and could beused for either in examining or for outsideassignment. Project Physics,° in cooperation with theNational Film Board of Canada, is producing excel-lent films for this latter use. We should point out here,however, that for examination, problem assignments,etc., particularly those of a qualitative nature, theinexpensive local production being emphasized inthis report has the natural advantages of individual-ization.

An example of film used to study fast action, inthis case, the vibration of a drum head. (Courtesyof the National Film Board of Canada)

BackgroundMany lecturers would like to enrich the background

against which physics is presented to their students.Film allows a compression of time and space and anorganization of presentation which could bring tothe classroom glimpses of the applications of physicsto the other sciences and to industry; it could also

°A project for the development of a new physics course forhigh schools and junior colleges, co-directed by GeraldHolton, F. James Rutherford, and Fletcher G. Watsonof Harvard University.

10

R=0.05 R=10 1 I IIIComparing the penetrations of the first three jetsdemonstrates the relative importance of inertial andviscous forces for increasing Reynolds number (R)in fluid mechanics. Fourth jet is turbulent. (FromLow Reynolds Number Flows courtesy of the Na-tional Committee for Fluid Mechanics Films)

provide a guided tour through inaccessible researchfacilities and allow students to look over the shouldersof the research practitioner.

One would also hope that film would be used tohumanize physics by presenting physics in connec-tion with the men who have made and are makingthe contributions: Dirac talking about "The Evolu-tion of Physical Ideas,"7 Feynman8 or Morrison°on BBC. A careful historical treatment of a giant inphysics, such as Project Physics plans to do onFermi," would also be much desired for in-class show-ing by many lecturers.

These "background films" would in most casessurely be longer films and the justification of theiruse in the classroom would come harder than that ofthe short loops, but their auxiliary usefulness is soobvious that it deserves to be mentioned.

7Available from Robert Carlisle, Director, SUNY EducationTelevision Office, 60 East 42nd Street, New York, NewYork 10017.

8"The Character of Physical Law," a series of seven filmedlectures by Richard Feynman, available from EDC.

8"The Nature of the Atom," a series of filmed lectures byPhilip Morrison, available from the BBC.

10 "The World of Enrico Fermi."

GENERAL AND SPECIFIC PLEAS

Unifying ConceptsThe working group recognized a possible weakness

in single concept film making, particularly in theproduction of short demonstration films. One of themost promising trends in physics instruction today istoward emphasis on such major unifying concepts assymmetry, fields, and conservation laws which under-lie all of physics. The phenomenon-by-phenomenonapproach to film making runs counter to this trend

and could in the long run serve to weaken it. Filmmakers are urged, therefore, rather than to see theirfilms only as filling in a vertical checklist of subject-matter items, to consider a two-dimensional matrixin which the second axis is labelled by these unifyingconcepts. We prepared as a sample the matrix ofTable H-1 to demonstrate how phenomena chosenfrom one subject-matter area can serve to illustratethese concepts.

It would be instructive to fit existing films intosuch a matrix in order to identify areas which havenot yet been treated on film. There are no plans to

UNIFYING CONCEPTS

Symmetry Conservation Wave Motion Fields Etc.

MechanicsTranslations,rotations, spaceand timeinversions

Energy,momentum . . .

Springs,gravitationalwaves . ..

Celestialmechanics . . .

Sound

Heat

Light

Electricityand

Magnetism

Fields aboutsymmetricalobjects, circuittheory . . .

Charge,momentum inradiation . . . Radiation . . .

Electrostatic,magnetic . . .

AtomicSolutions ofwave equations

.

Quantization andenergy conserva-tion . . .

Effect of boundaryconditions . . .

Interactionwith E and Mfields . . .

Nuclear

Etc.

A

Table II-1The working group prepared a sample matrix, far from complete, which would hopefully direct the atten-tion of physicist-film makers undertaking new films on physics phenomena to the possibility of tying thesephenomena to one or several unifying concepts in physics rather than presenting them as isolated occurences.The table has been sketchily filled in for the purpose of example; a complete matrix would require manymore divisions and entries.

attempt such a major cross-listing in the film catalogwhich is being prepared as a part of this report. Theworking group does, however, make a plea to pros-pective film makers to consider both axes of thematrix when deciding on film topics.

Advanced TopicsIt is a predominant pattern of the physics major's

progression through the undergraduate years thatalthough he may see some demonstrations in hisintroductory classes, he sees them in almost none ofhis advanced courses. This is in spite of the obviousfact that the physical examples he considers in hisupperclass and graduate courses are farther removedfrom his experience than those demonstrated to himin the beginning courses.

Some of the flavor of abstraction is removed inthe laboratories which usually form a part of theupperclass curriculum, but there seems to us to bea great need for more demonstrations to support thestudy of advanced topics, particularly in the modernphysics course; some of these could be on film.Examples from quantum mechanics, from atomic,

nuclear, high energy, and solid state physics, as well asfrom electricity and magnetism, advanced mechanics,and thermodynamics, should immediately suggestthemselves to the experienced lecturer.

Examples of such films do exist Miller's Ferro-magnetic Domain Wall Motion and Critical Tem-perature, for example; or Goldberg, Shey, andSchwartz's Scattering of Quantum Mechanical WavePackets from Potential Well and Barrier." The utilityof the techniques of computer animation have alreadybeen demonstrated and will surely be important foradvanced topics films in which time-dependent solu-tions or other difficult-to-present graphics are in-volved." The list of computer-animated films whichnow are available shows what can be done and shouldprovide stimulus for further production."

We look forward to the early addition of this visualdimension to our advanced classes which would allowstudents to "see" wave packets expanding in timeor phonons resonating in a solid; the gain in efficiencyof teaching and quickness of understanding shouldbe significant.

"See "New Animation for Physics," CCP Newsletter *11(October 1966).

12Part III of the report on film making techniques givesa detailed description of computer-animated film making.

"See Appendix III of Short Films for Physics Teaching,available from the Commission office.

12

This working group agreed that a discussion limited

to one day could be incisive only if it were boundedat its outset by a few limiting propositions. The mostimportant of these was that since physics is about

the external world, and since the laboratory is theonly part of the physics course in which a studentmakes direct formal contact with that world, film

should be used in a laboratory only when and where

direct student involvement with phenomena and

apparatus is not feasible. The group also agreed thatit would be profitable to discuss only traditionallystructured courses, not such radically restructuredcourses as Joseph Novak described in his presenta-tion to the Conference of the Purdue Universitybotany course?

FILM AS LABORATORY AID

Within these limitations, two major uses for single

concept films seemed clear. The first use is in display-

ing to a student the apparatus that he is about to usehow its parts are related, what sequence of opera-tions is appropriate to it, and what precautions thestudent should observe. An example for an elementary

laboratory is Wendell Slabaugh's film on the proper

use of a chemical balance,3 which he says has reduced

damage to the balances in his laboratory. Films show-

ing the use of the slide rule, and the micrometer and

the vernier in general are already available. It is easy

lAlan Holden (Chairman). Phillip Alley, David G. Barry,Ronald Blum, A. W. Burger, James L. Burkhardt, James

E. Henderson, Guenter Schwarz, James Strickland, John L.

Stull, Elizabeth A. Wood (members).2See Appendix E, "Audio Visual Instruction at Purdue

University."3Operation of the Mettler Balance, available from the Ad-

visory Council on College Chemistry.

13

Use of single concept filmsin laboratory instruction'

to see the extension to more sophisticated ideas. In

a more advanced laboratory films on the use of theoscilloscope, the lining up of a spectroscope, etc.,would find much use.

One way to think of such films is as filmed in-

struction booklets, supplementary to written instruc-tions. Pursuing this way of thinking, it seems clear

that apparatus manufacturers might be encouraged

to produce such films as adjuncts to their instructionmanuals. The CCP could bring this possibility to theattention of apparatus manufacturers.

When the apparatus is "home-made" it is cor-respondingly appropriate that the film be made locallyvia a "shoe-string" operation. Such films would serveas valuable aids, and would in some cases even replacethe work of graduate assistants in the laboratory.

FILMED EXPERIMENTS

The second major use for film in the laboratory is

to provide filmed experiments from which data canbe taken. An elementary example is provided by aswinging pendulum, whose instantaneous displace-

ment, velocity, and acceleration are difficult to measuredirectly, but easy to measure on a filmed record.4Harold Daw's pucks on an air table with agitated

walls furnish a more advanced example.5

Daw has made extensive use of his filmed demon-strations of the random motions of many colliding

4See the "Coupled Oscillator" series (Alan Holden, collabo-

rator) and the "Behavior of Pendula" series (Alan Holdenand Judith Bregman, collaborators) produced by EducationDevelopment Center, Inc.

5"K; netic Theory on an Air Table," a series of six filmsproduced by the Ealing Corporation.

Stroboscopic photograph (at 2,000 fps) of a fast-moving projectile (marked X) scattering a cluster of six ballsfrom Scattering of a Cluster of Objects (1). Students first view the film, then set up graphed screen (2) andrerun film marking positions of the balls (3) and establishing their trajectories (4). In the third running, stu-dents time the balls between two predetermined marks. Their finished product is then compared with the strobo-scopic photograph of the collision (5). (Courtesy of the National Film Board of Canada)

AP

Ag

i4

frictionless pucks in his laboratory classes. The filmis projected frame by frame through a microfilmreader; students can plot the position of the pucks andobtain velocity distributions, mean free paths, etc.

Project Physics is also producing a large numberof film loops which are designed to be used assources of data for student analysis .° These range froma variety of collision experiments to the retrogrademotion of a planet.

va rA motorboat heads across a river and is photo-graphed in such a way that students can measure allthree velocitiesboat relative to the ground, waterrelative to the ground, and boat relative to the water( floats are placed alongside boat) and confirm thevector addition law. (Courtesy of the National FilmBoard of Canada )

In most cases requiring use of film for quantitativepurposes, the film must be stopped at several framesto allow reading of data, and should be projected ona screen that carries a coordinate frame or otherfiduciary marks. Thus such a potential use suggests theimportance of developing film-projecting equipmentwith stop-frame and reversing facilities, as well asspecial screens for data taking.

Clearly these uses can be expanded and generalizedin several directions. They can be made the basis ofa self-instruction laboratory, and can even be used foran entire "laboratory" experience in institutions with-out the funds to provide space or staff for the moreusual laboratories. Retreating from that extreme, film,printed instructions, and tape-recorded remarks canbe provided along with laboratory apparatus to enable

°See Short Films for Physics Teaching, available from theCommission office, for detailed descriptions.

15

a student to do laboratory work at his own conven-ience, or at times when the laboratory is unstaffed,and in general to move the laboratory more towardits proper mode as an aid to learning rather than asa vehicle for teaching. Such laboratories are in exist-ence in several sciences` and experimentation withthem should be encouraged in physics.

OTHER ]LABORATORY- ASSOCIATED USES

Apart from these two primary uses of film in thelaboratory, many subsidiary uses can be imagined.A film can; -for instance, display a more sophisticatedform of an experiment than is being performed: asimple scattering experiment could be followed bya film tour of the scattering experiment at a BeVaccelerator or the half-life of silver experiment couldbe compared with a film of the measurement of veryshort half-lives in a "hot-chemistry" laboratory.

A scene from the National Film Board of Canada'sfilm for Project Physics, Acceleration Due to GravityMethod I. Care is taken to present the experimentin a manner which facilitates student data taking.

Film can exhibit examples which parallel experi-ments performed in the laboratory. It can show occur-rences in which the principle examined in the labora-tory is embodied in the external worldfor example,the Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapse, in connection

TSee Appendix E on the Purdue botany course; experimentsare also underway in geology (Principia College), agronomy(Ohio State University and Iowa State University), biology(Orange Coast Community College, La Cross College,Merrimac Junior College, Kansas State Teachers Collegeand others), geography (Carroll College) and in otherareas.. See Advisory Council on College Chemistry News-letter #10 for information on experiments in chemistry.

with an apartment on resonance. it can stimulate the

construction of embodiments of a principle-4or ex-

ample, the construction of other systems of coupled

mechanical oscillators after showing several such sys-

tems. it can provide a review of an experiment just

performed, especially useful if the student makes a

mistake which nullifies the experiment, laving him

with no useful observations or data.

Film might also provide a useful tool in laboratory

examinations, even when film is not otherwise a part

of the laboratory. For instance, a film can be used as

the central basis for such questions as; (1) what is

being done wrong in this procedure; (2) why is this

particular thing being done; (3) what must have

happened net (when the filming of an experiment

is not completed).

There was some belief that viewing a film may not

be too seriously defective a substitute for actually

handling equipment, especially in an advanced lab-

oratory, in light of the fact that in modern physical

experiments the data characteristically appears as

meter readings and traces on oscilloscopes. But there

was also some agreement that a danger in the usual

design of a single concept film lurks in the removal

of all evidence that a parson is associated with an

experiment, thus contributing still further to the

growing impression that science is a humanly dis-

embodied pursuit.

In s uary, film should be used in the laboratory

only to the end of assisting and enriching that direct

contact between the student and the physical world

which is the heart of the laboratory experience.

ANL

Close-up view of an experiment on the electrolysis

of sodium. (Courtesy of the National Film Board of

Canada)

A standing was on a line of coupled pendula

(viewed from below) from the "Behavior of Pen-

dula" series.

The cartridged film is by its nature self-instruc-tional. The ease with which it can be handled and itsinexpensiveness allow it to be made available to astudent when he wants to see it rather than when alecturer wants him to. This single factor should initself make a large difference in the motivation tolearn and the efficiency of learning.

From this point of view any film which is cartridgedis potentially usable as a self-instructional film. Thenthere is a 100 percent overlap in theory between theclass of films being considered by this working groupand those considered by the group studying "in class"and "laboratory" uses. We will, however, confine ourattention to two classes of films: (1) those which areto accompany a course of standard formatthreelectures and one laboratory per weekand which aredeliberately designed to supplement the main presen-tation of ideas; and (2) films which are to be partof a course structured around individual study (anexample in a sister discipline is provided by thePurdue botany course, described in Appendix E).

ANCILLARY USE WITH STANDARD COURSES

DemonstrationJust as the most obvious in-class use of short films

will be to demonstrate phenomena, their use as stu-dent-accessed material will also be, at least for thepresent, predominantly of this nature. It is also ob-vious that the physicist-film maker will not in mostcases have to decide in advance for which of these

1E. Leonard Jossem (Chairman). Ludwig Braun, JudithBregman, Louis Forsdale, R. E. Grove, Richard Hartzell,Robert Stearns, Walter E. Whitaker, William Whitesell(members). John M. Fowler, Ross Gonner, Jr., RobertKreiman, David Lutyens, Frank Sinden (visitors).

17

Self-instructional uses of film'

uses he is designing. This latter assertion carries thebuilt-in assumption that the filming of phenomenawill always aim at completeness of visual descriptionand that these films will not be deliberately designedto depend upon an accompanying lecture.

If, however, the film maker keeps before him thewider audience by considering each student individ-ually rather than students as groups, the classes ofdemonstration films become much broader. We willconsider more of these differing uses below:

1. RepetitionThe availability of demonstrations on film hasnatural application to the numerically significantgroup of students who miss or want to see againa lecture demonstration. When the demonstra-tion itself is on film, there is no problem. In thecase of important live demonstrations repeatedeach year, local filming (perhaps by students)makes an attractive project and would providea growing source of study films.

2. EnrichmentThe number of demonstration films available isalready larger than will be accommodated in anygiven lecture. If the projected goals of accessi-bility and inexpensiveness are reached, physicslibraries can be expected to house large collec-tions of films which can be assigned in themanner of outside reading.2 One would want to

2For example, the Physics Department of Cornell Univer-sity has instituted a film loop collection in its library. Aprojector is available for student use during library hoursand loops are signed out in the same manner as reservebooks. In six months, the 37 loops in the collection wereused more than 350 times. The program has been sosuccessful that the library has taken it over as a responsi-bility; new loops are acquired with library funds uponrequest by any faculty member.

provide many different demonstrations of similarphenomena. Franklin Miller's Tacoma NarrowsBridge Collapse would supplement a more tra-ditional in-class demonstration of resonance orhis Nonrecurrent Wavefronts would provide aninteresting parallel to waves as is commonlydemonstrated with rubber tubing.

Phenomena from outside of physics which illu-strate the application of physical principleswould serve to make those multiple connectionswhich are desirable between physics and thestudent's special interest. The Fluid Mechanicsfilm series,3 and the growing number of goodfilms in astronomy, geology, etc., are pertinentexamples.

3 a

A tidal wavefront is one of the examples used inFranklin Miller's film, Nonrecurrent Wave! routs.(Courtesy of the Ealing Corporation)

The MIT Education Research Center has useda somewhat different approach with its corridordisplays, one of which is pictured below.The modification of rear screen makes viewing ina lighted room possible.

We would hope that a film library would serveto blur the distinction between film as ancillarycourse material and film as intellectual enter-tainment, a way for students to see some of thethings of delight and wonder which are so mucha part of the joy of science. The film Symmetry4

3Produced by the National Committee on Fluid Mechanics

Films and Education Development Center, Inc.; availablefrom Encyclopedia Britannica Films.

4An Animated Film on Symmetry by Alan Holden, JudithBregman, and Richard Davisson (physicists); and PhilipStapp (film maker); available from Contemporary Films.See CCP Newsletter #14 for discussion of the film.

18

Large amplitude wave overtaking small amplitudewave in a water channel. (From Waves in Fluids,courtesy of the National Committee for Fluid Me-chanics Films)

Students at Massachusetts Institute of Technologycan view selected film loops at installations such asthe one shown above in the corridors.

which will surely become available in soundcartridge, is a prime example of one such film,as are the Japanese-made film on ice crystals5and Alan Holden's Lissajous figures with a sand

50n the Variation of Ice Crystal Habit with Temperature byT. Kobayashi of the Institute of Low Temperature Science,Hakkaido University, Sapporo, Japan. The film is availablefor $280.00 (including shipping charges) from GinzaSakuraya Co., Ltd., No. 5, 2-chrome, Ginza Nishi, Chuo-ku,Tokyo, Japan. Efforts are now being made to make sec-tions of the film into cartridged loops.

Two superimposed patterns from the film SandPendulum IISaddle Suspension. Many differentfigures can be obtained by varying the startingconditions and the suspension.

pendulum in the film Sand Pendulum IISaddleSuspension.°

3. Remedial-tutorialSome of the demonstration films can have aremedial use; that is, they can introduce studentswith weak or non-existent backgrounds to phe-nomena already familiar to other students. Thisis particularly true of the films which accompanythe various high school courses.

Mathematics films can help students to reviewrusty concepts. Specific examples of such filmsare: Cosine Function, Sine Function, and Pytha-goras, produced by the National Film Board ofCanada, as well as some of the British film loopssuch as The Ellipse, The Hyperbole, Vectors,etc. produced by Ha las and Batchelor? Otherexamples are to be found in CCP film catalog.Short Films for Physics Teaching.

The films described in the section of this reporton "In Class Uses" as "definition films" also have

immediate and obvious self-instructional andremedial applications.

°One of four sand pendulum films begun during summer1965 at the Conference on New Instructional Materialsin Physics co-sponsored by the CCP and the University ofWashington. See CCP film catalog for descriptions and

information.

?See CCP film catalog for further information.

There is increasing experimentation with com-

puter-assisted instruction in the tutorial-remedialmodes. Whereas in the present experimentationdialog is, for the most part, in printed form sup-plemented by slides, it is easy to see how themachine-presented material could be made muchricher by incorporating short filmed segmentswhere students' responses indicate that theywould be useful. For instance, a student having

trouble understanding momentum conservation

could be shown a slow-motion collision sequence.This technique will require a projector providingquick and random access to any sequence on thereel. There is evidence that projector manufac-

turers are working toward this goal.

We also look forward to experimentation withcartridged films on illustrated problem solving.Much of the routine work now being done bygraduate students in "help sessions" could bereproduced on sound cartridges and available tostudents on request. Such films could be enrichedby cuts to the actual physical situation beingstudied, by animation, and by other techniques,to make them even more valuable.

Techniques

There are many things a physicist, particularly anexperimentalist, needs to know how to do, from op-erating an oscilloscope to glass blowing. The highinformation content, the accessibility, and the repeat-ability of film recommend it for a class of usage asyet unexploited in physics. We here rather arbitrarilydistinguish between general experimental techniquesand shop techniques. It is clear that a professor work-ing directly with a student will instruct by exampleand demonstration, and there is no suggestion herethat this vital part of teaching be replaced by film.One can, however, without overworking the imagina-tion, think of many experimental tasks which aresufficiently complex that a film reference would proveworthwhile.

1. General experimental

The series of film loops on solder glass or thelonger 16mm film with sound and color on the

Mee The Computer in Physics Instruction, available fromthe CCP.

the same subject° are perhaps the best examplesat present in this area, From these films we canbe instructed through sharp close-up photographyon preparing the getters, preparing and bakinga solder glass seal, etc. Written instructions canaccomplish the same purpose, but few will arguewith the greater depth and flexibility of visualpresentation,

A scene from the film Preparing the Getter Headershowing the details of wiring the header. (Courtesyof Education Development Center)

The physicist who is not afraid to take camera inhand can provide filmed instruction of, for in-stance, the sequence of tinning on complicatedequipment, the preparation of experimental ma .terials, the lining up of equipment which willsave him time and perhaps expense, and savehis students embarrassment.

2. Shop techniquesMany of us have had the experience of having akindly machinist from the physics shop check usout on proper use of, for instance, a millingmachine, only to discover on the next use sixmonths later that faulty memory has lost somevital details. A student shop equipped with acartridge projector and several instructional loopswould be a more useful shop, a more used shop,

°The "Solder Glass Demonstration" series, a series of seven8mm film loops made from the longer 16mm film, SolderGlass Techniques, by Jan Orsula, produced by EducationDevelopment Center, Inc. See CCP film catalog for moredetailed information.

20

and one in which the damage to equipmentmight be significantly lowered.

There are, for instance, series of British filmson shop techniques (see Table 11-2 below) whichshould be evaluated. The CCP would be inter-ested in working with a physics department totry out this kind of shop instruction film, eitherwith some of these British films or with a set ofloops put together by a knowledgeable technicianfrom the departmental shop.

Title Producer

Surface Finishes Produced by LatheTools

Off -Hand GrindingBasic PrinciplesShaper and Lathe ToolsBasics of

Off -Hand GrindingDrillsBasic Features and Off -Hand

GrindingBasic Movements of Knee Type

Milling MachineProcedure in Mounting the ArborPrinciple of the Backlash EliminatorUp-Cut Versus Down-Cut MillingBasic Operations of the Horizontal

Milling MachinePrinciple of the Milling CutterCutting a ThreadTappingSoft SolderingDrilling

EothenEothen

Eothen

Eothen

MarishMarishMarishMarish

MarishMarishSt. Paul'sSt. Paul'sSt. Paul'sSt. Paul's

Table 11-2Eothen Films, Marish Films, and St. Paul's Films,three British film producers, have produced seriesof cartridged shop films designed to instruct second-ary level and technical college students on the useof equipment or to teach them a special skill. Thelist above is a sample of such loops (see OECDpublication, Catalogue of Technical and ScientificFilms, for more complete list).

The extension to soldering, glass blowing, printedcircuitry, key punching, input-output computery,and other exotic but necessary skills would beexpected to provide proof of its usefulness.

UNCONVENTIONAL COURSE STRUCTURES

The many relatively recent improvements in com-munications technology combined with the pressureswhich increasingly large student bodies are bringingto bear on the traditional lecture, recitation, andlaboratory course structure have led to interestinginnovations. One of the most radical of these is thebotany course which S. N. Postlethwait has been de-veloping at PTIrdue University since 1961. A fulldescription of this course forms Appendix E, but wewill comment on some of its features here.

In this course the student's activities are paced byhis responses to a pre-recorded audio tape whichcarries lecture material as well as directions to thestudent to carry out various laboratory experiments.Extensive use is made of film loops as a means ofillustrating laboratory procedures and for presentingauxiliary visual materials, particularly those in whichmotion plays an important role.

S

atQaw--

w

Students in Purdue botany course watch a film whilestudying in a carrel equipped with 16mm and 8mmprojectors, tape recorder and laboratory specimens.(Courtesy of S. N. Postlethwait)

Any advantage which this or similar courses haveover the traditional formatand Postlethwait reportsconsiderable gains in the amount of material coveredand in student performanceis associated with twomajor differences: first, the real integration of learn-ing with lecture, text, demonstration, and experimentwhich is achieved; and second, the shifting to thestudent of the decision to choose the time when hewill learn.

While it seems clear that it will not be possible tomake a one-to-one correspondence between Postleth-

wait's design of a course in a descriptive science suchas botany and an introductory physics course, it seemsequally clear that there is much to learn from similarexperiments in physics instruction. In any such ex-perimentation, short and long films, some of whichnow exist and perhaps some of which will be madeunder the inspiration of this Report, will surely be im-portant elements. The CCP should work to stimulatesuch experimentation which will itself suggest addi-tional topics for films.

OTHER SELF-INSTRUCTIONAL USES

The working group noted other advantages for

film outside of the regular classroom. The actualproduction of film loops by students may be an in-teresting pedagogical tactic. For a student or group ofstudents to produce a good film loop, they have hadnecessarily to consider carefully what the essentialpoints of the experiment are and how to present themeffectively in three or four minutes. They have alsoto be able to make the apparatus work reliably andwell. Such production has the additional advantage ofinvolving students in physics in a manner more ana-logous to the research environment.

Finally, the prospective teacher will surely profitby learning about film (and other products of educa-tional technology) for it will undoubtedly be an im-portant instructional tool for his future use.

CONCLUSION

Cartridged films appear to have a very largepotential as self-instructional devices and their use inthis connection should be actively explored in bothconventional and unconventional courses.

Films intended for self-instruction should, whereverpossible, be designed to involve the student activelywith what is going on in the film. One should try toavoid making the student merely a passive viewer.

The extensive use of film as a self-instructionaldevice will require the development of projectionequipment of very high reliability. Stop-frame andrandom access features would also be highly desirable.Two other needs in the equipment area are inexpen-sive "personal" viewers and inexpensive "paperbackfilms" which will permit and encourage the collectionof personal student libraries of visual materials.

I

Part III Film Making Techniques

This section deals with the second of the twogoals of the Conference: the production physics films.

We have chosen to describe three different ways in

which film can be made: by the physicist in his own

environment; by the physicist in collaboration with aprofessional film making team at a well-equipped

studio; and, for a smaller but extremely importantclass of films, by the physicist on a computer. Which

of these techniques is used depends on many things,

but most decisive is the nature of the material to be

filmed.

Local film production by a physicist with inexpen-

sive equipment is limited to the straight-forward re-cording of a demonstration, a set of visual instruc-

tions, a problem solution, etc. One can look for little

in the way of artistry. Techniques will be relativelyunsophisticated: many esoteric possibilities of the

film mediumthe combination of animation withlive action, very fast or very slow motion, etc.willnot be called into use. If technical excellence were the

primary goal of instructional films, one would argue

that all films should be made at professional studios.

1Kevin Smith (Chairman). Alfred Leitner, Harry Meiners,

Donald Perrin, David Ridgway, Judah Schwartz, WendellSlabaugh, Malcolm Smith, John P. Vergis, Edward E. Zajac

(members).

Film making techniques'

There are, however, overriding arguments for local

production. Many of the uses contemplated in the sec-

tion on "Uses of Single Concept Films in Class" have

great specificity and their appropriateness will vary

from school to school and even from class to class.

In fact, much of the expected strength of these films

will be in the ability to tailor film to instructional

need. Furthermore, the careful thought and step-by-

step design of an experiment and its filming will

greatly benefit both the physicist-film maker and his

student helpers.

Many formulae can be found for local film making;

we have chosen to concentrate on the technically

simplest method"in-camera editing"for this puts

the lightest burden on the film-making ability of a

physicist and the heaviest burden on his ability todesign the experiment and its pedagogy.

The reports that follow have been written at ourrequest by two film experts to the specifications re-quested by the Working Group on Film MakingTechniques.

LOCAL PRODUCTION OF PHYSICS FILMS

This "how to do it" material was written by Kevin Smith, Executive Producer ofEducation Development Center's Film Studio, an accomplished professional film maker,but one who has worked with enough physicists and filmed enough physics to under-stand why and how a physicist might produce his own films.

His article is intended to establish initial guidelines for physicists and physics

students who wish to record on film experiments and experimental data for instruc-tional use in and out of the classroom. He has assumed throughout that the readeris no more experienced in photography than the average person who keeps a growthrecord of his children through the use of still or motion pictures.

Mr. Smith has drawn his material from the actual production of a film, Two Fluids

in a Box, which he made specifically for this report under simulated "local conditions"

in the Super 8 format, using in-camera editing techniques. In order to make thisexperience as complete as possible for the reader, Appendix C includes the actual"storyboard" for the film; we also have available on loan from the Commission office

the finished film in a Technicolor Super 8 cartridge.

Eight millimeter motion picture film as a support-ing medium for education has gained wide popularityover the past five years. Extreme portability andrelatively low cost of both projection equipment andrelease prints make this format ideal for instructionaluse. Although significant advances have been made inthe development of high-quality sound tracks andingenious cartridge-loaded projectors of various kinds,a major impact on education was made with the de-velopment of the Technicolor 800 projector serieswhich takes a cassette loaded with up to 50 feet ofeither Regular 8 or Super 8 silent film in an endlessloop which has a maximum running time of aboutfour minutes. Many producers have made series ofthese "loops" on a myriad of subjects which are pres-ently being used by schools and colleges across thecountry. The original photography for these materialsis always done on either 16mm or 35mm filth. Eightmillimeter copies are made by various optical reduc-tion processes. This sort of production requires fullyprofessional attention and can be quite expensive.

This section of the report is addressed to the prob-lems faced by a physicist who wishes to produce short,silent films for use within his own department orinstitution. These guidelines should be helpful, how-ever, in similar situations regardless of subject matter.

No matter what the motivation, the uninitiatedcinematographer is almost always tempted to beginby investing immediately in cameras, tripods, lights,etc. While this is attractive and easy, it should be re-sisted. The effective use of motion pictures in educa-tion requires the development of an overall strategywhich incorporates film only when it is most effective:the initial efforts of a beginner should be on planning.

Let us say, for example, that the motivation for aprofessor of physics is the existence of a difficult andhard-to-repeat experiment, the use of which would, inhis view, give the student an immediate understand-ing of a concept not easily gained otherwise. The ex-periment is, at this moment, set up and running inhis laboratory. Since the experiment has come to hisattention only because it has been delivering good andeffective data and since the graduate student who ranthe experiment is through with it, the photographyshould be accomplished immediately. Rather thanrushing into "production," the physicist should bettersit down with the graduate student and another col-league to explore the details of a presentation whichin four minutes or less will give the student the sameintellectual stimulation which motivated the professorto film the experment. This discussion will un-doubtedly range from the experiment at hand to thetheory of physics pedagogy and back.

The StoryboardThe professor should then prepare a detailed outline

(shooting script). This "storyboard" can be in anyform which is easily understood by everyone involved

and should be varied to suit the situation. One effec-

tive way to prepare such an outline is to use a succes-sion of cards containing detailed descriptions and arough sketch of each scene to be photographed. Story-

boards prepared from memory lose in translation: itwould be best to prepare the outline in the laboratory

while viewing the experiment or phenomenon to bephotographed, either through the viewfinder on the

camera or a rectangular hole cut in a piece of card.The storyboard should include all titles and descriptive

panels that are tc be included in the final film.2

Students at Arizona State University discus!' story-board set up so that each sequence follows logically,as it will in the finished film. (Courtesy of JohnVergis)

During the preparation of the detailed outline,decisions are made which influence the shooting pro-cedures, techniques, and, therefore, the type of equip-ment which will be necessary. The decision on equip-

ment will be influenced by a number of considera-tions. Many colleges and universities maintain somesort of film department which is generally equippedwith 16mm cameras, sound recorders, etc., and may,indeed, in certain cases be very helpful in this kindof production. If, however, the effort is being financedfrom the limited funds available to the physics de-partment, the costs involved in 16mm productionshould be looked at carefully. The shooting itself willnot appear to be very expensive; however, the editing

2See the example in Appendix C.

and optical reproduction of final prints may be toocostly In both time and money.

Let us assume that the physics department in

question can allocate limited funds to a filming proj-

ect, that the subject matter in question lends itselfto silent presentation and can be arranged in segmentsof not more than four minutes duration and, further,that the initial planning discussions uncover severalother possible subjects for similar treatment.

The physicist and his group weigh the pros andcons of several systems and decide to shoot the projectusing Super 8 color film. In making this decision thephysicist, of course, looked at each shot on his story-board and ascertained that it could be illuminated soas to fully expose a film stock with an ASA rating of40. Had this not been possible, he would have had toreexamine his storyboard from this viewpoint or tosearch for a stock with an appropriate exposure rating.

Editing In CameraHaving decided on the system to be used, he can

concentrate on the problems of production. He mustdecide what camera and lighting equipment to pur-chase, but need not make up his mind about a pro-jector yet, inasmuch as the local camera store will beglad to project his "rushes" for critical viewing byhimself and his colleagues. He now faces anothermajor problem, that of editing. Super 8 film can beedited and simple equipment for thls process is avail-able. However, editing requires some skill and istortuous at best. Also, tape splices tend to jam in theprojector and burn the film if they are not skillfullymade. The alternative to this is to edit the material inthe camera, that is, to shoot the film in the exactsequence carried by the outline or storyboard, includ-ing titles. This means that all decisions as to thelength of each shot and the use of titles must be madein advance. The outline indicates that the subject canbe covered in about four minutes. However, examina-tion of the film cartridge reveals that it contains 50feet of film with 72 frames/ft.3 The camera shoots thefilm at a rate of 18 frames/sec. This means a totalshooting time of 200 seconds or three minutes and

;Regular 8mm film has 80 frames/ft; 16mm film has 40frames/ft.

20 seconds. With this time the limiting factor for thelength of the film, the physicist-film maker has tomake a series of psychological, perceptual, and artisticdecisions. For instance, how long should a title run?The title of this particular example is Two Fluids ina Box; reading this title out loud twice takes aboutfour seconds. We allow four seconds more to settledown. The decision is that the title should run foreight seconds. Decisions of this sort are made for eachtitle and scene in the entire storyboard; when totaledthe running time turns out to be four minutes and40 seconds; 80 seconds must be deleted. If to securethese 80 seconds equal cuts were made from eachscene, probably certain shots would become ridi-culously short, causing the entire piece to seem rushed.Instead, careful reexamination of the storyboard willinevitably reveal unnecessary scenes; these could bedeleted bringing the piece within the required lengthand in the process adding to its clarity.

EquipmentHaving designed the film, the physicist will have

to consider what equipment he will need and whatit will cost. His budget for this venture is on theorder of $500. To begin with, $320 of it is spent asfollows: camera and accessories, $200; used tripod,$20; photoflood bulbs, $15; four lamp sockets andextension cords, $25; two aluminum telescopingstands for lights, $15; and about $40 worth of film.Couple this equipment with some ingenious use ofequipment already in the department and a labora-tory stop watch and production can start.

The camera purchased measures approximately 8" x3" x 4", including the film cartridge. It is batterydriven and is equipped with a motorized zoom lenswhich can also be used manually. It has varyingshutter speeds from single frame to thirty-two framesper second and automatic exposure control. It alsohas a through-the-lens viewfinder with an adjustableeyepiece. (This last feature is very useful to agingcameramen.) The major disadvantage of this partic-ular camera is that it does not allow manual exposurecontrol. The only additional accessory which wouldhave been useful would have been a series of threeclose-up adapter lenses, which are slipped on thefront of the camera lens to provide a series of focalranges. The camera lens itself will not focus whenthe camera is less than four feet from the subject.

The physicist is now ready to prepare title cards forhis film and these require special attention.4 Blackletters on a lightly colored background prove to bevery effective. The side of the card itself should belarge enough to be easily handled and letteringshould be done in simple block form with a broadpoint pen, a brush or with the popular felt wick pens.Illegible titles are epidemic in educational films.

liknegap-

A typical, inexpensive set up for making titles. Foranimation effect, titles can be changed below whilecameraman photographs each card in succession.(Courtesy of John Vergis)

Lighting a motion picture scene need not be nearlyas difficult as some professionals claim. The humaneye is still a much more sensitive instrument than thecamera, and in general what looks good to the eyewill also look good on film, if the illumination iswithin the exposure range of the stock used. Colorfilm requires less specialized lighting than black andwhite because the variation in color takes the place,in part, of the black and white contrast range. Thebiggest pitfall for the amateur cameraman, partic-ularly when using a camera with automatic exposureadjustment, is the uneven lighting of a set. If anexposure meter is used to examine all parts of eachframe to make sure they fall within the exposurerange of the stock, mistakes of this nature will beavoided.

Shooting the FilmAnother area of concentration for the beginning

cameraman should be on the shot itself. The basic

4See Appendix C for more detailed information.

28

problem in this case is how to relate a series ofrelatively disconnected views so that they reveal acontinuing operation or idea which follows in somesort of logical progression. This flow can be brokenin a number of ways, either intentionally or by acci-dent. A cut from a relatively long shot into anextreme close-up may disorient the viewer or maybe quite appropriate, depending on the circumstance.Shots, all of five-second duration cut one after theother, might be monotonous. Sequences of shots inwhich the camera moves more than 90° around thesubject from shot to shot will almost always be dis-turbing. There are many more examples of maladroitediting. A helpful assumption here is that a popula-tion such as that in the United States, most of whomhave spent hundreds and even thousands of hoursviewing motion pictures and television, must havedeveloped a subliminal sense for editing.

The actual shooting of a film requires a seriesof physical moves for both the camera and lightingequipment. Each new set up must be examined indetail. Has any item in the previous scene beenshifted during the camera move? Is any polished sur-face reflecting a light or the cameraman's face ontothe film? Is any necessary component missing? Con-stant vigilance is necessary.

If a film is being shot for subsequent editing, thenthe cameraman may try more than one alternativefor each scene and may repeat a shot to correct pre-

vious errors. If, however, he is editing within thecamera, he must use extraordinary care.

When the film is "in the can," that is, when theshooting is complete, the local camera store willforward it for processing at about $2.00 per 50-footroll. Additional prints may be made from the "origi-nal" but they will be of somewhat lesser quality,although quite usable. The camera store providesthis service as well. If prints are desired, then theoriginal should be handled with great care and pro-jected only once in order to avoid damage and thepicking up of dirt.

The use of 8mm film as "original" material formore than a few prints is mechanically difficult. Theability to make multiple prints does make possiblethe exchange of films between interested individualsand institutions.

In summary, these outline instructions for pro-ducing a film by in-camera editing will not lead toinstant creation of festival material. They will, how-ever, lead to usable film and if the spirit is adheredto, the physicist will have put his major effort intoplanning the physics and the pedagogy and willproduce a film whose strength is in these areas ratherthan in technique. Having produced one such film,however, the hook may be set and the next film willrequire an editing table, several cameras, a foldingchair . . . and a trip to Cannes.

FILMING IN A PROFESSIONAL STUDIO

There are many war of films and subjects for filming which pose technical prob.

ktns too difficult for solution is the kind of local production described In the previousarticle. Filmed experiments, for Instance, will in most CilIM demand a precision and

a technical versatility beyond the range of equipment and know-how of the phyoicist.film maker. In the following article, Jacques Parent, Program Producer at the NationalFitin Board of Canada, describes the requirements for precision filming which leadphysicists to seek the collaboration of a professional and the facilities of his studios.

Jacques Parent and the National Film Board of Canada have a distinguished record

in the production of excellent science films. They have been engaged in the atfew years, in collaboration with Project Physics, in the production of a large numberof single concept films for use with the material being developed for high schooland junior college courses. This collaboration is producing a rich reservoir of short films

which will also find application in college physics and will add significantly to the

reservoir of film making expertise in physics.

A professional film maker is a man who has at his

disposal means of making films and technical skills

which are not readily available to the amateur. Whatfollows below is a discussion (not necessarily in the

order of their importance) of these "tools of the

trade."

Shooting SpaceThe amateur physicist who sets about filming his

own table-top demonstration will most likely set uphis demonstration in an ordinary physics laboratory or

classroom and, having made his storyboard, will set

up lights and camera, and begin to shoot. If a profe-s-sional group were to consider shooting the samedemonstration, beginning in the same room, by thetime the cameraman had selected a suitable lens and

the proper type of lighting, he would want to havethe walls pushed out twenty feet in both directionsand the ceiling raised some ten to fifteen feet. The

exacting requirements of professional equipment have

led many new professional or semi-professional film

making groups to snatch up warehouses, old theaters,

movie houses, or abandoned churches as sites fortheir activities. Good films can be made in smallareas; this is not, however, the quickest, or the mosteconomical, way to make films. Height, for example,

is often a major requirement in the filming of physics

demonstrations: suspending pendula from a good

30

height makes it easier to light a scene with a mini-

mum of shadows.

Crew at the National Film Board of Canada preparesto shoot a falling body sequence for AccelerationDue to GravityMethod I. (Courtesy of the Na-tional Film Board of Canada)

Filming Equipment1. Power

Unless they are already especially equipped fortelevision work, most spaces available to theamateur are unsatisfactory for professional workbecause they cannot provide the power require-ments which enable a film maker to shoot typesof film. Power requirements of 300 to 600

amps are not uncommon in the work of the

professional. Physics films in particular are verydemanding in this respect: at the National FilmBoard, we have at times used 600 amps to lightan area one meter wide by one meter high fora sequence shot on color stock at 8000 frames/sec (exposure time: 1/25,000th of a second).

2. LightsLights used in film studios are expensive andbulky: a bulb alone for a 10 kilowatt light costsmore than $100; the average rental rate for suchlamps in the industry is $10 per day per lamp.The National Film Board often uses fifteen suchlamps for sequences in the Project Physics loops.The cost of electricity for these lights is stagger-ing. The cables needed to supply the lampswould fill an average-sized truck. And further-more, such equipment can only be safely handledby qualified electricians.

Professional photographers require expensive light-ing arrangements for high speed sequences. This isthe set up for Collisions with an Unknown Object(Chadwick experiment) in which a model first ball("neutron") hits "nuclei" of two different sizes.(Courtesy of National Film Board of Canada)

Why are so many lights needed? Good filmshave been made using four-light quartz lamps.But these are the exceptions. Let us look at thetypical requirements which affect the amount oflighting needed. A table-top demonstration isfilmed using 16mm equipment. The cameramanselects the lens which will give him the leastamount of distortion. Then he places his lightsin such a way as to minimize disturbing shadowsin the background; the background must there-fore be a certain distance behind the table. He

31

draws lines from the camera which show thelens coverage and adds to that area 20% for 8mmprojector cut off. The amount of backgroundarea which has to be lighted is now obviouslyfar greater than the actual demonstration areabeing filmed. All of this assumes, of course, thatthe sequence is being shot at the conventional18 frames/sec and not at some higher cameraspeed, as is often the case when making physicsfilms.

3. Conventional filming equipmentA professional film maker can normally selectthe camera he uses for any particular job froma wide variety of camera types. Each cameracomes equipped with a wide variety of acces-sories. In the course of one day's shooting, it isquite common for a professional film maker touse two or three cameras, ten different lenses,some of which (like the 300mm or the 1000mm)are not found in everyone's kitchen. And evenif the right lens is available, the socket for itoften is not. In one day of shooting at theNational Film Board not long ago, we used fourdifferent types of dolly equipment for what wethought was a simple travelling shot. In addi-tion, the professional will need auxiliary equip-ment such as gear heads for the camera, lightmeters, filters, tripods, batteries, synch motors,magazines, gobo stands, hydraulic lifts for 10kilowatt lights, diffusers, fork lifts for conven-tional shooting.

4. Specialized cinematography techniquesIt is becoming evident as we at the National FilmBoard study more closely the most efficient useof the moving image in a teaching situation(e.g., in physics) that some of the desirablesequences will be increasingly more difficult toproduce. The "physics" aspects of the film aredifficult enough to design. After this is done, thefilming problems low luminosity, the scaleproblem, the need for fast and slow actionmay be still more difficult to surmount. Finally,the equipment one needs for these jobs is expen-sive. In the specialized fields of high-speed cine-matography, time lapse, computer animation,macro-photography, micro-cinematography, strob-ing, etc., there are no short cuts to quality. Exist-ing equipment was in most cases originally de.

)

A stroboscopic photograph of a two-dimensionalcollision capable of producing data for studentanalysis. (Courtesy of the National Film Board ofCanada)

signed to satisfy special research needs and not

to meet professional film making standards. Most

of this equipment has to be modified and main-

tained and must be operated by specially trainedpersonnel. In some cases it has to be entirelyredesigned for the film maker's purposes. This

is a frustrating and costly way to make films

but rewarding at times.

In the last two years, the National Film Boardhas tested, in the field of high speed cinematog-raphy alone, six different types of cameras. We

have calculated with great precision frame by

frame in the case of rotary prism mechanisms of

the continuous drive cameras the amount oflateral and vertical excursion at different operat-

ing speeds. This becomes important when oneis filming to provide data for analysis. It is aproblem that, while it cannot be licked, can beminimized. However, better equipment is being

developed and as more knowledge comes to

bear in this field, it will become easier for theuninitiated to step in.

Yet the camera is only one part of the story. As

the frame rate goes up, so does the amount ofillumination needed. There is at present noadequate high luminosity source available for

this purpose; we have even tried DC-8 aircraft

landing lights, but so far with no success. (I am

not talking here about strobi.ng, which is a dif-

32

t

A high speed camera (600 fps) mounted on a rail(foreground) follows a simple cart as it movestoward collision with a second cart at rest. Fromthe film A Matter of Relative Motion, which showsthe collision viewed by a camera at rest, at the samespeed at the initial car, at half that speed, to illu-strate Galilean inertial frames of reference. (Cour-tesy of the National Film Board of Canada)

ferent problem altogether.) We are presentlyinvestigating the use of high reflectance frontscreen projection to overcome the luminosityproblem, but so far it seems that this will helponly in the lower high-speed range.

5. Film stock and special effects

High-speed film stocks are now available, but

must be used with great care. While they doallow scenes to be shot with lower illumination,

the quality of release prints obtained is far fromadequate as yet because of excessive contrastand grain. In addition, there is no intermediatelaboratory stock to match the high-speed original

for use in preparing high quality release prints.

Personnel

1. Film directorIt is difficult to evaluate the potential contri-bution of professional film makers to the mak-ing of educational films. In the industry, the filmdirector is the man who gets things done whilecontinuously planning ahead for other thingswhich have to be done. This talent is often miss-

ing in the local production operation.

What can an experienced film director bring tothe educational film? In the past, the role ofphysicists and teachers in the production ofphysics films has been negligible and the filmsproduced have been correspondingly poor bothscientifically and pedagogically. Experienced filmmakers have underestimated the importance ofthe choice and organization of the content. Re-cently teachers have decided to produce filmson their own: as a result, both the physics con-tent and the pedagogy have improved, but thefilms have occasionally been "cinematographi-cally" poor. Even the most experienced teacheroften lacks a "visual sense" (an eye for imagecomposition, color schemes). What is evidentto every "billboard" artist is not always evidentto a teacher. Obviously some of both skills isneeded. More recently film makers have becomematter specialists, and conversely, these special-ists have become aware of the need for adequatefilm technique.

The small format 8 mm screen, or televisionscreen, requires a greatly simplified image. Toomany details may confuse the viewer. A crack ina cement wall or a spider crawling on a man'slapel may be more important to the young viewerthan the highly sophisticated equipment on thetable. Camera movements should continually aimto orient the viewer, not to disorient him. Andthere are many other things which a patient,skilled film maker learns over the years whichhe can bring to this type of project: editing skill,film pace, story development, and unclutteredflow of information.

2. CameramanWe have found from experience that camera-men's skills differ just as the skills of any otherprofessional. Some are most skilled at exteriorshooting; some are best for interior shooting;one might choose one cameraman for shootingfrom helicopter or aircraft and another for fixed

in a precarious pose, cameraman hangs suspendedfrom a bridge to shoot a sequence for Vector Addi-tion 1. (Courtesy of the National Film Board ofCanada)

camera shooting, another for hand held cameras;some are not good for anything. A professionalfilm maker has access to a wide variety ofcameramen, whereas a small audio visual centerrelies usually on one or two persons who haveto do all shooting.

3. Set designers and propsAs one seeks to make better films, the need forfilm "props" becomes inevitable. Film is essen-tially a "visual" medium. What the viewer seeson the screen can be visually pleasant or un-pleasant. A strong personality on the screen mayoverrule a slight nervous twitching of a physicalhandicap. A fat man on the screen does not moveabout as gracefully as a trim fellow (and hewill fill more of the small screen! ). A profes-sional film director has access to experiencedpeople who can provide various types of props.What can be trouble to teachers making films issimple routine around a film studio. Film direc-tors also have access to good designers withtraining who can assist in set design, props, etc.The importance of these skills to a successfulfilm should not be underestimated.

COMPUTER,ANIMATED FILM MAKING

tt. . . A good deal of instroction in the physical sciences is in terms of 'movies' of

mathematical models of natureexcept that the student does not normally see the

movies, he only hears verbal descriptions of them."'"

As long as the physics instructor is content with

simple one-parameter (and one-dimensional) descrip-

tions of nature, a chalk and blackboard presentation

of the variation of this parameter with time will beadequate (though not ideal). However, if the param-eter is multi-dimensional or if it is important to con-sider simultaneously the time dependence of morethan one parameter, then the blackboard begins torestrict the description and a film begins to offer

advantages.

If this time dependence requires for its estab-

ment difficult and/or tedious computation, then acomputer becomes valuable. Instances come easily tomind in which both these conditions hold, and it is toimprove the ability to present to our classes such

complex and time-varying examples that physicists

have turned to the technique of computer-animation,in which the dynamic display of film is combined with

the computer's enormous computational resources.

Two bodies of unequal mass orbit about the centerof mass under an attractive force. From Frank Sin-den's Fixed System of Orbiting Bodies. (Courtesy of

Education Development Center)

5E. E. Zajac) "Film Animation by Computer." New Scientist,

39, (February 10, 1966) reprinted as Appendix B of this

report

34

This film making technique is relatively new, but

already there are examples which provide convincing

evidence of the great potential it holds.° In one of

these, Scattering of Quantum Mechanical WavePackets from Potential Well and Barrier,7 for instance,

one sees in impressive detail the behavior of a one-dimensional Gaussian wave packet as it traverses

square wells and rectangular barriers of differentpotential energies. The pedagogical superiority of the

film to the presentation of the asymptotic solutions

by a static drawing is easily seen. The MIT Educa-don Research Center has underway the production of

several additional computer-animated films in quan-

tum mechanics which should be available by fall1967.

The article by E. E. Zajac in Appendix B describesthe step-by-step process of making a film by thistechnique; it may be useful to summarize these stepsbriefly here.

The first step should precede all film making, choos-

ing a limited subject area and deciding in frame-by-

frame fashion what will be displayed in the film

sequence, i.e., the storyboard. A computer programis thep constructed which contains the instructionsnecessary to produce the points and lines of theinitial frame of the sequence and the instructions

necessary to change what is displayed in the initialframe for each of the succeeding frames in accordance

with the chosen mathematical model. This programis fed into a general-purpose computer and the out-

put recorded on magnetic tape which is then usedon a microfilm recorder to control the electron beamof a cathode ray tube. The result is the display ofgraphic representations of the mathematical model.An ordered sequence of such displays is recorded

°See Appendix III of Short Films for Physics Teaching, avail-

able from the CCP, for a list of these films.

?Produced at Lawrence Radiation Laboratory with the col-laboration of Abraham Goldberg, Harry Shey, and JudahSchwartz; available from Palmer Laboratories.

frame by frame on motion picture film to produce adynamic or "animated" representation of the pro-grammed mathematical model.

Until recently, making a computer-animated filmrequired that, in addition to being a subject-matterexpert, one had also to be reasonably adept at com-puting, to have some understanding of film making,and to have access to the necessary computers. Im-provement in equipment and the accumulation ofexperience has made the process easier. To producethe film in-house the physicist needs to have acomputer-controlled camera and CRT display suchas the Stromberg-Carlson 4020 Micro-Film Recorder,the Data Display Model 80 or the Control Data Cor-poration Digigraphics display. In addition one wouldneed a general-purpose computer such as the IBM7090 or 360, or the CDC 3600, either connecteddirectly to the small computer or capable of produc-ing tapes which could be transferred to the smallcomputer. For a finished product the staff and equip-ment for titling, optical printing, and editing wouldhave to be available.

Education Development Center, Inc., 55 ChapelStreet, Newton, Massachusetts, where some computer-animated films on fluid mechanics are currently beingproduced, has such facilities. Commercially, theJoseph Kaye and Co., Inc., in Cambridge Mass-achusetts is also prepared to provide such services.

But even lacking this complete facility, it will berelatively easy for a physicist to produce a film bycomputer-animation, for most of us do have or willhave within the next few years access to somegeneral-purpose computer with tape-writing capa-bility. It is the computer-controlled cathode ray tubedisplay equipped with an animation camera which isnot generally available. However, from the preceding

discussions it is clear that the computer calculationof what should be displayed on each frame of thefilm can be separated from its display and filming.If simplified routines, usable as sub-routines of aFortran main program on several of the more populargeneral-purpose computers, can be written and tapesproduced, the tapes can be mailed to an installationwhich has the necessary display capability and thephotographic equipment and which can use the tapesto produce a 16mm film. One would, of course, haveto contend with the time delays in mailing the tapeand the film back and forth. Nonetheless, the CCPfeels that the end product can be such an effectiveteaching device that this method is worth developing,at least for the production of films for local use.

To produce the necessary Fortran sub-programsfor a variety of currently used computers and to ex-plore the feasibility of producing computer-animatedfilms in this way, we sponsored a small workinggroup during the summer of 1967, which attempedto write the sub-programs and to produce a fewsample films by this technique.8 A report of thisworking group should be available from the CCP byDecember 1967.

A service facility to assist physicists making com-puter-animated films has been set up in the past yearat the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, by EdwardZajac (on leave from Bell Telephone Laboratories).The cost of converting..magnetic tape output into16mm film at this installation depends, of course, onhow much information is contained in each frame ofthe film, but typically the computer and film costswould be between $.05 and $.10 per frame.

The Commission will continue its strong interestin this technique. Interested physicists should corres-pond with John W. Robson, Staff Physicist, at theCCP office.

Part IV Equipment

"'

,111111...41' 4

4

INTRODUCTION

Such a great variety of photographic equipmentexists for shooting and projecting film that it wasclearly necessary for this report to limit the descrip-

tion of equipment in some way. Because the Con-

ference concentrated on the short or "single concept"film, this report is limited to equipment suitable forproducing and showing 8mm film and emphasizesprojectors designed for cartridged films. This choice,however, still leaves us with the task of describingfar too many cameras. Since we are interested inconvincing physicists that there are useful films thatthey themselves can make, we have taken our cuefrom Kevin Smith's article in the film making section(pp. 26-29) and have described the characteristicsan 8mm camera should have (including importantaccessories) in order that a physicist-film maker canproceed with confidence along steps described in thearticle for producing a short film by in-cameraediting. Appendix D contains a chart of Regular 8,Super 8, and Single 8 cameras, listing their specifica-tions according to the discussion on pp. 39-41 below.

We have followed these same guidelines in ourdiscussion of film stocks, concentrating on 8mm filmof all formats and leaving the description of 16mm,which is clearly the proper choice for the professionaland the experienced amateur, to other sources. Ap-pendix D contains a listing of 8mm film stocks andtheir specifications.

Maker Eppenstein (Chairman). Stephen Blucher, JosephBower, Bruce A. Egan, Elwood Miller, Nat C. Myers Jr.,William Riley, Richard F. Roth, Gordon H. Tubbs, HaroldZallen (members).

39

Equipment for 8mm film making'

CAMERAS AND ACCESSORIESFOR AMATEUR SCIENTIFIC FILM MAKERS2

A physicist using Super 8 film need not have a"professional" Super 8 camera, which would cost morethan $1000. 'The best grade of "home movie" camerais recommended; such cameras fall into the $200 to$250 range. The following features, available in sev-eral makes of Super 8 cameras, would be useful to thephysics teacher making short films for use in his ownclasses.

Camera specifications

1. LensA good lens is the first attribute of a good cameraand one which will account for a large fractionof the cost of a camera. A fast lens (f/2 orbetter) with crisp resolution and low aberrationsis necessary. However, not all f/2 lenses are ofequal quality, and it is difficult for a beginner tojudge lens quality even on the basis of a specifica-tion sheet. The reputation of the manufacturer isprobably as good a criterion as any, unless one isprepared to delve deeply into the technology ofpractical photography. Buying guides and con-sumer ratings referred to in the bibliography willbe helpful in this selection.

2This section was written at our request by Franklin Miller,on leave from Kenyon College at the National Film Boardof Canada, a pioneer in the production of short silentphysics demonstration films. It is intended as a companionpiece to "Local Production of Physics Films" in the reportof the Working Group on Film Making Techniques.

2. Tbrougb-tbe-lens reflex viewingWith this capability, the operator can see whilehe is shooting exactly the same image that ap-pears on the film by means of a semi-reflectingmirror and prism. This allows the film maker toframe his subject more reliably and to determinethe effect of changes on camera placement,zooms, pans, and other maneuvers. For criticalfocussing, an adjustable eyepiece is an essentialaid.

3. Automatic exposure with manual overrideA built-in light meter controls the lens openingto compensate for variations in illumination ofthe subject. This capability greatly reduces thepossibility of grossly underexposed or overex-posed footage and for many applications, includ-ing scientific ones, such a capability is both use-ful and convenient. However, for much scientificphotography, it is essential that the user be ableto override the automatic exposure control. Forexample, the region of interest is often welllighted, but occupies only a small portion of theframe, which otherwise remains dark. In thiscase, the automatic exposure control, which re-sponds to the illumination averaged over theframe, will set too large a lens opening and theregion of interest will be overexposed. Althoughthe automated aperture setting is useful for afirst approximation, the user should be able tomanually control the lens opening as well. Aconventional (external) light meter is valuablefor checking the lighting of various parts ofthe frame.

4. A range of camera speedsThe standard speed for projection of Super 8film is 18 frames/sec. It should be possible toshoot film at 36 frames/sec, so that when pro-jected normally the action will be in slow mo-tion, at half speed. There are occasions, however,when it would be desirable to compress the timescale by shooting at, for instance, 9 frames/sec.It is not necessary to have a continuously vari-able camera speed for such purposes, but someprovision should be available for selecting oneof a few fixed speeds ranging from perhaps 6-36frames/sec.

5. Single-frame exposureFor time-lapse photography or for special effects,e.g., animation, it is desirable to be able to exposea single frame of film at will. Such single-frameexposure will probably require use of a conven-tional light meter to obtain correct exposure.

6. ZoomThe ability to zoom ( i.e., to change the size ofthe image while keeping it in focus) is a de-sirable feature. Zoom ratios vary: wider ratiosmean more versatility (3:1, 4:1, and even 5:1ratios are becoming common; 8:1 is available onprofessional cameras). Properly used, a zoomcan provide emphasis while maintaining contin-uity of action. An equally important advantageof a zoom lens, even if zoom action is not re-quired, is that it can provide the film maker withan infinitely variable selection of focal lengths(within limits). Thus a single zoom lens canserve both as a wide angle lens (short focallength) and as a telephoto lens (long focallength). Make sure that the lens can be zoomedwithout advancing the film.

7. Electric operationLook for a battery-driven motor and, if a zoomlens is used, for a motorized zoom action. Manycameras also incorporate pushbutton electricfocussing, which is handy but not indispensable.

Camera Accessories

1. Auxiliary lensesIt would be well to find out whether a "close-upadapter" lens is available on the camera youselect. This is a positive lens used to supplementthe power of the camera lens. Such an auxiliaryslip-on lens is essential if shots are to be made inextreme close-up. For example, the zoom lens ofa typical camera focuses on objects between fourfeet and infinity. At four feet, an object eightinches wide will fill the frame horizontally. Withsuitable auxiliary lenses, this same camera canfocus to a distance of about 0.6 feet, so that aone-half inch object will fill the frame. A set ofthree close-up adapter lenses of power +1, +2,and +3 diopters allows all combinations from

+1 to +6 diopters. Such a set can significantlyextend the usefulness of a camera.

2. TripodThe importance of a sturdy, heavy-duty tripodcannot be overemphasized. A tripod should havea hand crank to permit reliable adjustment ofheight.

3. LightingSo far, Super 8 film comes in one emulsion stockthe so-called daylight emulsion of speed ASA40.3 Other emulsions will eventually be available.Usually a physics demonstration is filmed indoors,using tungsten lamps. While it is possible toshoot film with a lamp attached to the cameraitself, this procedure produces flat, shadowlesslighting. For better lighting effects, lamps shouldbe mounted on tripod supports placed on eachside of the subject, above or below. A usefulcamera feature is an interlock which drops asuitable filter into place when a lamp is pluggedinto the camera housing; it must be possible, ofcourse, to use this built-in filter independentlyof plugging a lamp into the camera socket. Withthe fast lenses and emulsions now available, it isgenerally sufficient to use four or six 500-wattphotoflood lamps with built-in reflectors, or withseparate metal reflectors. More will be needed ifa large area is to be illuminated. Several "clip-on"reflectors will also prove useful.

4. Editing and splicingIt is not always possible to shoot a film in theexact sequence desired; if a predetermined lengthsuch as 50 feet of Super 8 must be adhered to,some cutting and splicing is usually needed tobring the completed film to within the desiredlength, and to place scenes shot at different timesin proper sequence. Film is edited by splicingtogether bits and pieces from several rolls of film.Super 8 splices by amateurs are usually madewith Mylar tape; be very careful to rub the splicewith a fingernail to remove all traces of airbubbles between film and My lar. Use a splicerthat makes an S-shaped cut. This splice is neces-

3Editor's note: There are others; see p. 42 for discussionof Super 8 emulsions.

41

sary when preparing film for use in an automaticcartridge; the older butt splice will not stand upunder the twisting and turning of an endlessloop. Several viewer-editor devices are on themarket. As film goes from reel to reel, it passesby a rotating prism which both serves as a shutterand a reflector, projecting the image onto a smallscreen. A design defect in some viewers givesrise to a disturbing motion of the image on thescreen as the prism turns; other viewers are freefrom this defect. If possible, test the action ofthe viewer before purchasing one.

Limitations of inexpensive camerasWe have described the minimal equipment needed

by a teacher starting to make films for his own use. Thehome movie cameras, at best, are engineered for amass market and are not as rugged as more expensiveprofessional cameras. They must be handled carefully,preferably by one person only ( the teacher ). Some ofthe limitations of the inexpensive ( $250 ) camerawould be important to a professional film maker. TheSuper 8 cartridge cannot be rewound in the camera,so "burn-in" of legends or numerals cannot be madeby the usual techniques of double exposure.4 Themotorized zoom lens usually cannot be removed, soexposure directly on the film, without the use of anylens, is not practicable. The behind-the-lens lightmeter needs periodic calibration. An "inexpensive"camera is really more complicated than a more ex-pensive, rugged camera costing $1000. But the aver-age physics teacher should not consider himself aprofessional film maker; his use of the medium is alimited one which should be served well by a camerasuch as has been described here.

FILM

FormatsMuch time was spent in the working group session

on the subject of film sizes and the question of stand-ardization. While the preference of film users wouldbe for maximum interchangeability of film and cart-

4This can be accomplished with "Single 8" cartridges; seedescription page 43.

ridges, this clearly goes against the philosophy ofcompetitive industry.

Until recently educational films came in two sizes,Regular 8mm and 16mm, with the latter dominatingthe field until the advent of the 8mm cartridge pro-jector. There now are several more formats, Super 8and Single 8, View lex, and the 9-1 /2mm film intro-duced in Europe.

The place of 16mm film seems secure. Most pro-fessional filming will be done in 16mm because itoffers a greater variety of film stocks and wider pos-sibilities for laboratory work. It will probably remainthe favorite for longer films designed for large audi-ence viewing. In any case, 16mm can always bereduced to 8mm for cartridging.

14.3mm2

3.28

44.37* 0I JO

REGULAR 8mm SUPER 8mm

1.00 1.50 4.86 - RATIO OFPROJECTED AREA

19.4 15.8 8.8 - MAGNIFICATIONREQUIRED TO MAKEIMAGE 3itin.WIDE

16 mm

The three major 8mm film formatsRegular 8,Super 8, Single 8compared.

The liveliest present controversy is between theRegular 8mm format and the Super 8 format (ofwhich Single 8 is a variation). The essential differencebetween these two formats is shown above. By reduc-ing the size of the sprocket holes and eliminatingthe space between frames, the image area on Super 8and Single 8 has been increased 50% over that onRegular 8, which gives either a brighter projectionimage of the same size or a larger image for the samebrightness. These three formats are described ingreater detail and compared below:

42

1. Regular 8Regular 8mm film evolved from 16mm andcarries the same size sprocket hole, but withhalf the separation (see above). The film is

normally exposed in double width and then slitdown the middle to give two strips of film withrelatively large perforations on one edge andthe image off-center, close to the other edge.A sound track can be added in the margin spacebetween the perforations and the film edge.The evolution from 16mm has also createdwasted space between frames, as is shownabove. The major advantage of Regular 8stems from its long domination of the market.A wide variety of cameras, projectors, accessories,and films is available in this format and adequateprocessing facilities have been established.Furthermore, in the present changeover periodthere will be many bargains in Regular 8 equip-ment. The film is somewhat less expensive thanthe Super 8 format (for comparison, see TableIV-1). There are projectors (not cartridge-load-ing ones at present) which will take both 8 andSuper 8.

2. Super 8The most important advantage of this new for-mat is clear from the drawing above; the imagesize of Super .8 is 21.1mm2 compared to14.3mm2 in the Regular 8 format. The advan-tages in picture quality can be compared by useof the information on magnification (see TableIV-4), the number of times the picture must beenlarged before it reaches a width of three andone-half inches for viewing at a distance of teninches (or for the projection set-up to be com-parable when the viewer is sitting at a distanceof three times the screen width from the screen).The magnification required for Regular 8 isalmost 25% greater than that for Super 8 forthe same image size. Other things being equal,the sharpness of the projected image is relatedto the magnification. Super 8 has other lessimportant yet significant advantages: the changein spacing and shape of the sprocket holes makesSuper 8 about 25% stronger under tension thanRegular 8; locating the holes on the picturecenterline enables splices to be stronger (theydo not pass through a perforation); Super 8 has

Price(including

Approximateprice per

Approximatefilm cost for

Type of Film processing) minute 15-min. movie

Single 8 Fujichrome $4.40 $1.30 $20.00

Super 8 Kodachrome II $4.90 $1.50 $22.00

Double 8 Kodachrome $4.40 $1.20 $18.00

Table IV-1

The table above gives the manufacturer's list prices per 50-foot cartridge for Single 8 Fujichrome and Super 8

Kodachrome II, the only films available until recently in the new formats, and the price per roll for the un-magazined Kodachrome used in old-style double 8mm cameras. (Chart reprinted from Consumer Reports,

June 1967)

more area on the unperforated side than Regular8, allowing more precise guiding of the film andflatter presentation at the projector aperture.

There are disadvantages, some of which willdisappear with more pressure from the marketplace. One which will not disappear is caused

by the increase in separation between sprocketholes. The Super 8 film moves somewhat morerapidly through the projector and gives less pro-

jection time per foot of film. There are 72frames/ft of Super 8 film as against 80 frames/ftof Regular 8; both are projected at 18 frames/sec.

For added comparison, 16mm has 40 frames/ft,projected at 24 frames/sec. The other disadvan-

tages are the present limited selection of equip-ment and film types.

Only two emulsions have been available in Super8Kodachrome II Type A, ASA 40 tungstenand ASA 25 daylight (with filter) and Dyna-chrome, ASA 40 daylight. In mid-1967 two newemulsions appeared: Agfachrome ( in Super 8cartridges), ASA 40 tungsten and ASA 25 day-light, and Moviechrome II (in Super 8 car-tridges) also ASA 40 tungsten and ASA 25daylight. Super 8 is marketed almost exclusivelyat present in preloaded cartridges5, which allowno rewinding for special effects (lap dissolves,double exposures. etc.) and they cannot be re-loaded.

5There is a double Super 8 similar to the Regular (double) 8which comes on larger reels. The reels must be switched

at midpoint to expose the other side and it is then sliceddown the middle in processing.

The present narrowness of choice in Super 8equipment will rapidly disappear. Thirty-nine

new Super 8 cameras were introduged at the1967 MPDFA show in Chicago with new andsophisticated features° including variable speedzoom, wider zoom ratios, instant diaphragm re-sponse to light variation, etc. It is clear that thisformat is here to stay.

3. Single 8This interesting new format is being marketedin this country by the Fuji Photo Film Company,

Ltd. of Japan. It has the same format as Super 8

but the emulsion (Fujichrome RT 50) is on apolyester film base which is stronger, and, moreimportantly, about one-third thinner. This allowsthe reels to be smaller and has enabled the FujiCompany to make a film cartridge in which thereels are placed edge to edge (in the same plane)rather than side by side (coaxially) as in theSuper 8 cartridge. As a result, the Fujica Single

8 P1 and the more flexible Single 8 Reflex ZoomZ1 and Z2 are thinner than the Super 8 camerasand the cartridge design allows rewinding (fordouble exposure, etc.) and reloading. Even moreimportant, the thinner film base allows morelight to pass through and gives even brighterpictures in projection than Super 8.

Single 8 shares with Super 8 the disadvantageof limited selection of equipment and film types.It is somewhat harder to splice than Super 8(it can take only dry, self-adhesive patches

6See "Super 8: More Sophisticated," Photography, June1967, pp. 106-7.

rather than ucementn. It Is competitive in pricewith Super 8 and can be run in the same pro-jector and even interspliceci with Super 8. Atthe present time, few printing laboratories inthis country are equipped to handle Single 8stock

It was generally agreed that eventually the Super8 format will probably become the most popularfilm size, but no one, at this point, can predict howlong it will take. An analogy was drawn with phono-graph records For a number of years four recordspeeds have been available-75, 45, 334/3 and16-2/3 rpm. In the long run only two of these sys-tems seem to have survived and one tends to be thelargest seller. However, the 45 and 33-1/3 rpmrecords now tend to serve a different function in themusic business with the 45 rpm being a popularmusic record and the 33-1/3 being for long playingrecords of adult concert music. For many years, prac-tically no research has gone into the improvement of78 rpm records, although they are still available.

Film Printing and Reproduction

At present the decision to use a particular filmformat is strongly influenced by what is to happen toit after it leaves the camera. If optical effects are tobe a part of the finished film, or if many prints areanticipated, then a 16mm original is needed. Labora-tory work on all types of 8mm at this time is veryrestricted. For some time to come, most professionalfilming and much ambitious amateur filming willcontinue to be done on 16mm.

Kodachrome II, the most popular stock for ama-teur movie-making, is designed for proper contrastin projection; in any duplication process, contrastwill be increased and there will be some loss ofdefinition. Duplicate prints can be made from thisfilm but they will be somewhat inferior to the orig-inal. But in most cases it is possible to obtain a usableprint, particularly if the suggestions below are keptin mind. The cost of duplication on this direct re-versal color stock is relatively high.

In indoor shooting, some of the difficulties con-nected with duplicating Kodachrome II film can beovercome by deliberately lighting the set for "flat"scenes of low contrast. Emulsions (not yet available

44

In Super 8) have been developed which minimizethe contrast enhancement formerly thought to beInevitable when printing directly from Kodachrome11 original&

There Is yet no entirely satisfactory way for usingSuper 8 original film to make high quality duplicateprints in quantity. However, it is likely that within ayear or two Super 8 will become avallame in somewide variety as is now the case for 16mm. Aerefore,a descripdon of present 16mm practice can serve asa preview of what is yet to come for Super 8. Threematched emulsion types are used. Exposure is madeon 16mm Ektachrome Commercial Type #7255, alow contrast original film designed for duplicatingand not for screening. The next step is to have theprinting laboratory prepare an internegative on 16mmEastman Internegative Type #7270. Finally, theintemegathe is used to make release prints on 16mmEastman Color Print Type #7385. The same 16mminternegative can be used to make 16mm prints or,by optical reduction, Super 8 prints, When, and if,Ektachrome Type #7255 becomes available in Super8 cartridges, laboratories will be able to reproduceSuper 8 original film in quantity, with high quality.Even now, it is possible for Kodak to use a Super 8Kodachrome II original to make an Ektachromeinternegative on Type #7270, This can, in turn, beused for vanety printing on Type #7385, but thefinal result wiE have high contrast introduced by theinitial reproduction from a projection-contrast filmsuch as Kodachrome

It Is clear that Kodak at least is moving to makequantity printing of 8mm economical. They have re-cently announced the development of a mass produc-don Super 8 print system to accomplish the efficientproduction of high quality Super 8 magnetic soundprints.

The new system uses 35mm prestriped film whichafter slitting produces four Super 8 prints. The heartof the system is a fast contact printer, the Bell andHowell Model 6600 MS Panel Printer, which hasonly recently been developed. This printer, workingfrom a 35mm internegative, transfers both the imageand the sound onto the prestriped taw stock at 200ft/min, producing, therefore, sixteen, 50-foot Super 8prints per minute.

Kodak has also developed a new fine grain color

print film, Type *7380, which has a significant grain

size reduction compared to Type #7385 used in the

16mm printing.

While this fast system will hold no great interest

for the physicist-amateur making a few films for his

own class use, it is clear that it opens the way to the

mass production of Super 8 for educational as wellas entertainment films and that it is the "printingpress" which was needed to make Super 8 the "paper

back" of films.

Film CartridgingAt present the only cartridges for 8nnm film are

the silent cartridge for Technicolor projector which

holds up to 50 feet of 8mm or Super 8 film (4.5

minutes maximum), the optical sound cartridge for

the new Technicolor 1000A model which holds either

200 feet of Super 8 film (4-10 minutes) or 600 feet(10-30 minutes), and the sound cartridge for theFairchild projector which holds 400 feet of Regular

8mm with magnetic striping (30 minutes maximum).

16mm EKTACHROMEA & B

andwork print fromsame material

16mm CHECK PRINTfor

checking effectsand continuity

135mm BLOW-UP NEGATIVE

or16mm INTERNEGATIVE

SUPER 8DYE TRANSFERCOLOR PRINTS

LUBRICATION ANDMOUNTING INCLUDED

IN TECHNICOLOR'SCARTRIDGE PRICE

35mm - 16mm - veMIXED MAGNETIC

TAPE

3 RANK OPTICALTRACK NEGATIVE

Figure IV-1

Sequence of operations for processing and loading film in cartridges at the Technicolor Corporation.

Technicolor Corporation will process and load filminto their cartridges. The sequence of operations isgiven in the diagram in Figure IV-1. The sound track,if there is to be any, is provided on magnetic tape.The cartridges themselves cost $.75 for the short silentfilms and $3.97 for the 30-minute sound film, includ-ing loading and lubrication charges.

The larger cartridges for the Fairchild projectorscost from $6.60 to $9.95 per cartridge (based onquantity ordered); film treatment, costing between$.01 and $.015 per 8mm foot (minimum charge of$4.00), is mandatory for cartridge loads in excess of200 feet. An additional charge of $1.50 to $3.00 percartridge (depending on quantity) is made for car-tridge loading.

It is possible to obtain cartridge-loading equipment7if the expected volume of film being produced war-rants it. With the present systems, however, it willprobably be best for the majority of physicists toleave the cartridging to the projector distributors.

There is hope that future cartridge projector sys-tems will be developed in which the cartridge itselfwill cost a small fraction of what the film costs;Kodak is working on a quasi-cartridge system forwhich the cartridge cost is but a few cents a unit.8Such developments will certainly encourage wideruse of 8mm film in education.

PROJECTORS

This section briefly summarizes some of the im-portant things one should consider in choosing amovie projector. These first general remarks applyfor the most part to projectors which will be usedin classrooms in the conventional manner. Followingthese are somewhat more detailed descriptions ofcurrently available cartridge projectors and severalnew systems which have features consistent with themore varied use of film which this Report foresees.

7Technicolor Magi-Cartridge Loading Station which can bebought for $100.00 from Technicolor. Gross of parts forthe loader costs $114.00.

8See description of the Kodak Ektagraphic 8 System, page 48.

46

Lenses

Although a projector cannot add to the qualityof a film it can detract from k. For best results, there-fore, the projector lens should be as good as thecamera lens. In deciding on the lens it is worthremembering that "zoom" lenses (see later discus-sion) are not as good, dollar for dollar, as fixedfocus lenses. Detailed information on the relationbetween focal lengths and image size is provided.byTable IV-4 in the section, "Utilization of ProjectedMaterials," page 54.

BrightnessThe brightness of the projected image is one of

the most important comparison points for projectors.Lamp voltage and lens aperture do not provide aunique index for determining brightness; new highintensity lamps with built-in reflectors and the evennewer quartz-iodine lamps focus light more efficientlyand produce a brighter, color-constant light. To judgebrightness take the following as a guide, using a lightmeter or a camera exposure meter (remember that"white" or bluish light will appear brighter to theeye than "warm" reddish light even though the meterreading may be the same):

with the projector running at normal speed,but without film, and the screen at the requi-site distance, you should get an incident-lightreading of 3 to 41/2 footcandles at the centerequivalent to an exposure of 1/10 secondat 1/5.6 to 1/30 second at /14 with a film-speed setting of 100. Fall-off at the cornersshouldn't be more than 50 percent, or onef-stop.8

Film Tiansport

At silent speed (18 fps) a 400-foot reel takes onehalf-hour of Regular 8 film.. Super 8 film of the samefootage will have a reduction in running time of 10%However, the same reel will hold 33% more Single 8film because of its thinner base. Projectors shouldbe checked for image steadiness and quiet perform-ance. It is also important to determine the ease with

91967 Photography Directory and Buying Guide (NewYork: Ziff Davis), p. 24A.

which a projector can be stopped in mid-run andthe reels removed a useful feature for the instruc-tor who wishes only to show part of a film. Most ofthe present projectors are self-threading, a highlydesirable feature. Fast rewind is also a must.

Controls

1. ZoomThe projector zoom lens does not function inthe same way as a camera zoom lens, that is, itdoes not allow isolation and expansion of asmall section of the image frame. Zoom capa-bility is useful, however, because it enables theprojectionist to adjust the image to a screento fill from a range of projector distances andto compensate for the frame sizes of different8mm formats without moving the projector.

2. Variable speed and reverseVariable speed projection allows special effects,slow motion, and skimming over unimportantsections. Reverse allows rerunning of a scenewithout rewinding. Projectors with special set-tings for slow motion should be checked at thisspeed to make certain that the picture is "flicker"free.

Still-frame projection is also potentially useful ininstructional films but in most cases, the filterwhich protects the film from burning reducesthe image brightness considerably.

CARTRIDGE LOADING PROJECTORS

If large quantities of film are to be made accessibleto students, then viewing convenience must be op-

REEL-TO-REEL PROJECTORS

Appendix D describes briefly the important fea-tures of 8mm projectors. It should be mentioned,however, that the emergence of the new 8mm formatshas been followed by the development of new con-vertible projectors designed to accommodate all 8mmformats, most of these have sprocketless drive; somecan even take Regular 8 and Super 8 spliced into thesame reel.

47

timized. The student must be able to obtain a filmas easily as he does a book and he must be able tolook at it without the inconvenience of learning howto thread a projector and without danger of damagingthe film. The cartridge-loading projector is one highlysuccessful way of making film available to students.

Technicolor CorporationTechnicolor Corporation has developed several

series of cartridge-loading machines for both Regularand Super 8. Whether front or rear screen projection,each model accepts a plastic cartridge which, whenpushed into the side back or front of the machine(depending on the model), automatically triggers theprojector. The cartridge holds up to 50 feet of filmin a loop and repeats automatically until removedfrom the projector. No threading or rewinding offilm is necessary; and cartridges protect the film fromfingerprints and damage from mishandling. Techni-color has also developed a cartridge-loading soundprojector (Model 1000A below) with optical sound,which takes. cartridges which hold either 200 feet offilm and run from 4-1Q minutes or 600 feet of filmand run 10-30 minutes. The projector weighs only18 lbs.

Table IV-2 includes brief descriptions of Technicolormodels and their optional features.

Technicolor Model 500 Regular 8 Projector beingloaded from the rear.

BASIC LIST LENS ANDMODEL # PRICE FOCAL

LENGTHLAMP

PROJEC-TOR

SPEED(,FPS)

AUXILIARY MODELS EXTRAS

$184.50 20, f/1.6 150 wattdichroictruflector DCL

16 200Z: Lens-15-25,f/1.5 zoom($199.50)

200WA: Lens-9.5-15,fj1.5 zoom($204.50)

WOWS: Lens-10, f/1.1

Regular 8; remote control;single frame projection;tilt control.

500 $ 69.50 20, f/1.6 150 watt tru-flector DCH

16 500Z: Lens 15-25,f/1.5 zoom(x84.50)

500WA: Lens-9.5-15,f/1.5 zoom($89.50)

500WS: Lens-10, f/1.1($94.50)

Regular 8; tilt control;optional: automatic shut-off; single frame pro-jection; speed of 24 fps.

$199.50 10, f/1.1 150 watt, 21.5volt dichroicDCF

16 600E: voltage range,220-250, 50cycles

600AD: single frame pro-jection, carryinghandle, tilt con-trol. ($249.50)

600ED: same as 600ADwith voltage rangeof 220-250,50 cycles

Regular 8; rear screenprojection (15% x 11%")optional: automatic shut-off; automatic shut-off withpush-button restart; speedof 24 fps.

20, f/1.5 150 watt tru-flector DJA

16 510Z: Lens-20-32,f/1.4 zoom

510WS: 10, f/1.1

Super 8; tilt control.

800 $ 99.50 15.25, f/1.5 150 watt tru-zoom flector DCH

16 800WA: 9.5.15, f/1.5zoom (x 104.50)

800WS: Lens-10, f/1.1(x 109.50)

Regular 8; tilt control.Optional: automatic shut-off; automatic shut-off withpush-button restart; singleframe projection; speedof 24 fps.

20, f/1.5 150 watt, 21.5 16 810Z: Lens-20.32,volt dichroic f/1.4 zoomDCF 810WS: Lens-10, f/1.1

Super 8; single frameprojection.

1000A $299.95 20, f/1.1 Quartz-halogen 2421.5 voltdichroic reflector,150 watt

Super 8; optical sound;built-in 4 in. speaker; 7watt amplifier; takes car-tridges from 4.10 min. (200ft., and 10.30 min. (600 ft.).

700A $179.50 10, f/1.1 150 watt DCH 16(AutomaticDisplayProjectionSystem)

Regular 8; designed forunattended display; startsat push of a button; auto-matic shut-off at end offilm; lighted panel, "ToSee Demonstration, PushButton." Built-in screen,

x 7"

Table IV-2Technicolor Cartridge-Loading Projectors

48

Technicolor Model 1000A Super 8 Projector

Technicolor Model 810 Super 8 Projector

Fairchild Camera and Instrument CorporationFairchild cartridge-loading machines take up to

22 minutes of color and up to 30 minutes of blackand white 8mm film with magnetic sound track. TheMark IV model is a rear screen projector; the car-tridge is inserted in the front, a lever depressed, andthe machine automatically runs, rewinding as it plays,and stopping automatically at the end of the loop.It has a built-in speaker, transistorized sound, andweighs 20 lbs. The Mark V is a front screen projec-tor with a detachable built-in speaker. Cartridge load-

ing is the same as for the Mark IV. Specifications forthe Fairchild projectors appear in Table IV-3.

KodakKodak has taken a new approach to cartridge-

49

Fairchild Mark IV Projector

Fairchild Mark V Projector

loading projectors. It is their belief that the contin-uous-loop feature adds little to the convenience offilm viewing; that almost all films are looked at onlyonce and not several times in a row. They have there-fore preferred a reel-to-reel approach cartridged in-expensively for protection and ease of storage. In thenew Ektagraphic 8 projector, Super 8 film is snappedonto an inexpensive plastic cartridge and then in-serted into the gate. The film is threaded completelyautomatically and when it has run through, rewindsautomatically at high speed. The film can be returnedto its beginning at any point by depressing a rewindlever. The Kodak cartridge will take up to 50 feetof Super 8 film; the machine can also take up to 200

LISTMODEL # SPEED PRICE AUXILIARY MODELS LAMP EXTRAS

400 24 $479.00

Mark IV 24 $589.00 Record amplifier withmicrophone attachment$180.00

Mark V 24 $559.00

8 volt, 50watt pre-focused

8 volt, 50 watt

Regular 8; rear screen projection; screensize, 81/2 x I built-in; 3-watt amplifier;4 x 6° oval speaker, built-in.

Regular 8; rear-screen projection; screensize, 81/2 x I I"; 3-watt transistorizedamplifier; 5 x 7" oval built-in speaker.Outlets for headphones.

8 volt, 50 watt Regular 8; front screen projection; speakerin detachable top. Otherwise similar toMark IV.

Table IV-3Fairchild Cartridge-Loading Projectors

feet of film on standard reels. The Ektagraphic 8 isscheduled for delivery in September 1967 at a costof slightly over $100.

Kodak's Ektagraphic Silent Super 8 Projector

Kodak's Ektagraphic Sound 8 Projector

.4i14,

Hudson Photographic Industries, Inc.Hudson's Sonomute 610 Single Concept Projector

projects 8mm Technicolor cartridges on a rear screen.Its dimensions are 27"x13"x10" with a 5"x7"screen. The Sonomute 610 has a f/9.5 zoom lensand a 150 watt DCH lamp and sell for $300 list.

Audio-Sell

Audio-Sell has developed a cartridge tape recorderattachment for the Technicolor 800 projector whichallows the synchronization of magnetic sound tapedcommentary and silent 8mm Technicolor loops.Model TMT-25 Tele-Sell has variable projectionspeed (14-25 fps), a 11/2 watt amplifier, a 3''x5"speaker and sells for $1269.50 list.

Color Sonics, Inc.Color Sonics Model 2600 is an audio-visual "juke

box" unit in a case with push button control, designedfor restaurants and bars, but potentially useful ineducation. It uses a small Fairchild cartridge whichholds five minutes of film projected on a rear screen.The machine will hold 26 such cartridges at one time.Cartridges can be changed easily through a frontdoor. Such a machine could be placed in dorms,laboratories, classrooms or libraries allowing studentsrandom access to a selection of films by push-buttoncontrol. The Model 2600's screen is 300 square inches;Color Sonics claims the films can withstand 2,000

plays. The cartridges and the internal mechanism aremanufactured by Fairchild.

MPO Productions, Inc.The MPO Videotronic Super 8 cartridge-loading

projector is a sound projector which takes loopsholding about 14 minutes of film. It can be used asa rear-screen projector or it can be converted toproject a picture on a wall or screen. The Videotronicprojector sells for about $450.

UTILIZATION OF PROJECTED MATERIALsio

Regardless of the quality of a motion picture filmor slide, or the advanced state of the art in hardware,successful projection techniques remain the key totransferring ideas and concepts from the projectedimage to the student's mind. By following good prac-tices in setting up a classroom or laboratory for theshowing of film, the instructor gains the ultimateflexibility for utilizing a slide or film clip in thelecture with the confidence that the class will receivethe maximum benefit from the medium.

This section is intended to help clarify some of thesteps necessary to insure that the message reaches

the class without interference by the projectionprocess.

For effective projection in the classroom, considera-

tion should be given to the following:1. selection of a screen location, size, and type;2. selection of the optimum projector location;

3. providing required image brightness;4. general considerations of student comfort in the

lecture room including light control, adequate

sound facilities, and seating.

For the optimum use of projection during a lecture

there should be a minimum of equipment and facility

adjustments. For all practical purposes, the screen

should be in a fixed position away from direct light

I °This section is reprinted with permission from the publi-cation Modern Teaching Aids for College Chemistrypublished by the Advisory Council on College Chemistry.The reader is referred to that publication for other usefuldiscussion.

51

sources and from areas used more frequently, e.g.,avoid if possible a screen location where a roll-down

screen covers the chalkboard.

Under ideal conditions, the instructor should beable to push a button and insert into the lecture afilm or slide for seconds or minutes as needed, withabsolutely no mechanical distractions to the class.

Projection Screens*The screen is most often the weakest link i.n using

the projection systems. The efficiency with which

the screen can transmit color brightness and contrastto the eye affects the ease with which the point beingmade can be understood by the student. Followingare brief discussions of screen types and their suit-ability to classroom or laboratory applications:

1. Matte screensMatte screens diffuse light evenly in all direc-tions. Images on matte screens appear almostequally bright at any viewing angle. To avoiddistortion because of viewing angle, however,viewers should be no more than about 30 de-grees to the side of the projection axis, and notcloser than two-image widths to the screen.

Most matte screens are about 85% efficient. Ametal finish matte screen will give valuablecolor correction to pictures where true renditionis important. A form of matte screen can be asmooth wall painted white, although it shouldbe viewed critically before accepting it for class-room use.

2. Lenticular screensThese screens have a regular pattern of stripes,ribs, rectangles, or diamond shaped areas. Thepattern is too small to see at viewing distancesfor which the screen is designed. The screen sur-face may appear to be enameled, pearlescent,granular metal, or smooth metal.

By control of the shape of the reflection sur-faces, the screen can reflect nearly all the lightfrom the projector evenly over a fan shapedarea 70 degrees wide and 20 degrees high. Many

*Most of the information on screens was taken from East-man Kodak publications.

lenticular screens provide an image three orfour times as bright as a matte screen.

3. Beaded screensBeaded screens are useful in long narrow roomsor other locations where most viewers are nearthe projector beam. They are white surfaces withimbedded or attached small clear glass beads onsilica chips. Most of the light reaching the beadsis reflected back towards its source. Thus, abeaded screen provides a very bright image forviewers seated near the projector beam. As aviewer moves away from the beam, the imagebrightness decreases. At about 22 degrees fromthe projector beam, the image brightness on abeaded screen will be about the same as thaton a matte screen. Beyond this angle it will beless bright than on the matte screen. Studentsshould sit no closer than two and one half timesthe image width from a beaded screen.

4. Rear projectionRear-projection pictures have the same require-ments for image brightness, size, and contrastas front-projected images. Rear projector screensare made of glass, plexiglass, or flexible plasticswith one side of the screen a matte surface.

To reduce space requirements in rear projec-tion, short focal length lenses sometimes areused. A single mirror between the projector andthe rear screen is necessary; however largemirrors must be avoided. A special lens witha mirror encased and suitable for this purposeis available from Buhl Optics.

With most projectors, images as wide as 42or 48 inches will be satisfactory on a dark rearprojection screen in moderately lighted rooms.For larger images, a light screen in a darkenedroom is usually needed. In very brightly lightedrooms, images should usually be no more than24 or 30 inches wide and the screen materialdark.

5. Front vs. rear projectionIn considering which projection system is bestfor given conditions, two common argumentsregarding both systems are discussed below.

Shortened projection distances are claimed asan advantage by proponents of each system.

52

While this is true in both cases, a short projec-tion distance often does not give the imagesharpness and brightness desired. However,when space is at a premium, short projectiondistances may be necessary and the equipmentcan be made to perform adequately.

Visibility in lighted areas also is claimed asan advantage by proponents of both front andrear projection. Either system will do a goodjob, depending upon conditions. When a smallimage (up to 3 feet wide) is desired, a darkcolored rear-projection screen may providedramatically better image contrast and colorsaturation than a front-projection screen. Al-though a rear-projection screen reduces imagebrightness, the amount of room light reflectedtoward the audience is reduced by an evengreater factor. The back of the screen mustbe shielded from stray light. Front-projectionscreens always must be shielded from directlight.

When a large image (wider than 3 feet) isdesirable, front-projection systems using a lenti-cular screen usually give better results than rear-screen systems. Location and control of roomlights are important factors to consider here.In any case, more care must be given to theorientation of the projector, screen, and audiencethan is necessary for a smaller rear-projectedimage.

6. Screen sizeThis should be such that the back row of view-ers is no more than six times the image width(W) from the screen, with the followingexceptions:

a. Certain. materials, including many teachingfilms, are designed with titleS and importantpictures bold enough to permit satisfactoryviewing at distances of 8 to 10 times theimage width. When this is true for the ma-terials to be projected, the projector may bemoved closer to the screen to give a smallerand brighter image. Moving the projectorenough closer to change the back row from6W to 8W will approximately double theimage brightness and allow the front row tobe moved a little nearer the screen.

b. In some situations, materials which limitmaximum viewing distance to less than 6Ware commonly used. Typewritten materialprojected with an overhead projector is anexample. For showing the full area of an 8.5

by 11-inch page, pica type calls for a maxi-

mum viewing distance of 3W. The teachershould critically test this for his particularsituation, perhaps by taking the poorest seatin the classroom.

A discussion of screen size with excellent solu-tions to common puzzles is available in EastmanKodak publication Effective Slides S-22, andLegibility Standards for Projected Material, S-4,and in the ACS publication, How to MakeSlides.

7. Image brightnessRequired brightness (the amount of light thestudent sees) depends on viewing angle; screentype; projector design, wattage, life rating, andage of lamp; character of material being pro-jected; image size; line of the optics. Lamp wat-tage alone gives little indication of image bright-ness,. Using wattage as a measure of imagebrightness is comparable to rating an engine bythe fuel consumed rather than the work done.

The effectiveness of a projector, expressed asimage brightness, is defined in terms of lumenoutput. Lumen output divided by image area(in square feet) gives the foot-candles fallingon the screen from the projector. Foot-candlesof illumination multiplied by the reflectance ofthe screen (about 0.85 for a good matte screen)gives in foot-lamberts, a measure of the bright-ness of the image seen by the viewer.

Thus, a projector with a 120-lumen outputprovides 10-foot-candles of illumination for a 3by 4-foot (12 square foot) screen image; thatis, 8.5 foot-lamberts of image brightness for theviewer of a good matte screen. With a projectorlight output of 80-100 lumens, and a mattescreen in a well-darkened room, an image 3 or 4

feet wide can be viewed easily. As a roughestimate of the image brightness required, thereshould be as many foot-lamberts of light persquare foot of screen as there are foot-candlesof light in the room. For a more detailed dis-

53

cussion of image brightness see Eastman Kodakpublication S-14 What Can You Do With 100Lumens?

8. Projector locationOptimum projector locations depend upon avariety of factors including the lens and thescreen size. Most manufacturers of projectors aswell as lens suppliers (Buhl Optical Company)can provide a wide range of lenses for any typeof projector. To decide on the lens needed fora given projector and situation, one should firstdetermine the size of the screen to be used andthen with the aid of a table such as Table IV-1,the correct focal length for the lens can beobtained.

Determining Projection Distance, Image Width, orLens Focal Length*

To determine the projection distance for a desiredimage width (or the image width for a desiredprojection distance), find in the following table thefactor that applies to the film format and lens youare using. Then position a straightedge on thenomograph so that the edge passes through thepoints for the two known figures; read the thirdfigure at the point where the edge passes throughthe other scale. For greater accuracy, add the focallength of the lens to the projection distance deter-mined for a desired image or subtract the focallength from the desired projection distance whendetermining the image width.To determine the best lens focal length, positionthe straightedge so that it passes through the de-sired image width and projection distance. Nowread the figure that is nearest to the point wherethe edge passes through the left-hand ("Factor")scale and then consult the table to find the lenswith the factor nearest to this figure. If screen sizeis a limiting element in the projection situation,choose the lens with the next larger factor.

*Reproduced through permission of Eastman Kodak.

Lens Focal LengthType of Material (Inches) Factor

16mm MotionPictures

11/2

15/8

2

3.9

4.2

5.3

(0.284" x 0.38" 21/2 6.6projector mask) 3 7.9

4 10.5

Super 8 MotionPictures 1.1 (28mm) 5.2

(0.158" x 0.211" Zoomprojector mask) (20-32mm) 3.7-6.0

8mm MotionPictures(0.129" x 0.172"projector mask)

3/4

3/43 (22mm)

Zoom(15-25mm)

Table IV-4

4.45.0

3.4-5.7

Part V Conclusions

The message we want this report to carry is two-fold: (1) there is much for film to do in physicsinstruction; (2) the necessary technology is readyand waiting. Part II provides elaboration of the firstof these themes and Parts III and IV support thesecond assertion.

The conferees suggested that, in addition to filmeddemonstrations and films about physics and physicists,film be used to supplement the verbal presentation ofdefinitions, to demonstrate models, and to presentproblems for solution. Looking beyond the classroom,they saw potential usefulness of film in laboratory,e.g., films which demonstrate the use of equipmentand an occasional film which forms the experimentitself. But the widest use of film will come, we think,as instruction breaks away from the constraints oflecture and laboratory and becomes more flexible, asthe emphasis shifts from teaching to learning. Thena full menu of visual physics from which studentscan choose or be served will have obvious importance.

In an effort to stir physicists to the production aswell as the use of film, we have presented a summaryof all the technical information which might conceiv-ably be useful: a step-by-step description of the pro-duction of a short film by in-camera editing, insightinto the assistance that can be given by a professionalfilm studio, short articles on several of the specialfacets of film-makingtitling, camera testing, etc.and a brief but, we hope, helpful survey of equipment.

We hope, of course, that this Report, the ideas init, the how-to-do-it sections, and the technical infor-mation will lead to an increased role for film inphysics instruction. But neither the Conference par-ticipants nor the Commission on College Physicsnaively believes that a Report will by itself accom-plish very much. Much more is needed and some ofthe next steps are already in sight.

Conclusions

The Visual Aids Committee of the AAPT, encour-aged by a Conference resolution, has announced aFilm Competition which will be held for the firsttime as a part of the 1968 Annual Joint Meeting ofthe AAPT-APS (Chicago, 29 January-1 February)and will, like the biennial apparatus competition, bea permanent part of these annual joint meetings. Thedescription of this competition as it appeared in theCCP Newsletter #13 is as follows:

The competition will be open to any physicsstudent or instructor who has not produced afilm or films now in commercial distribution(a separate category may later be added forphysicists who are experienced film makers).Prizes of $500, $300, and $100 will be award-ed to first, second, and third place winners,respectively. Honorable mentions may begiven for other films of merit.

Films can be live or animated; the importantconsiderations are that they be instructionalin nature and "short." They should be singleconcept films in the sense that they are organ-ized around a single phenomenon, idea, ortheme in physics. The criteria for eligibilityare that:

a. The film is not commercially available;b. No commercial producers were in-

volved in the production of the film;c. The contestant regards the film as his

own work;d. The entry is submitted on 8mm film

(any format) in reel or cartridge;e. The film does not exceed five minutes;f. Copies can be made available to inter-

ested physicists at a reasonable cost.

Film notes will in general be helpful and willbe considered as part of the entry. A maxi-

mum of three entries per contestant will bepermitted.

Entries will be judged primarily on contentand pedagogy and secondarily on photo-graphic technique. The films will be judgedby a panel of three physicists, including oneexperienced film maker and at least one teach-ing physicist who has not made films.

The deadline for submission of films for the1968 competition is January 10, 1968. Filmsmay be submitted at any time and will bereturned after the AAPT-APS meeting. Al-though the Committee will exercise due carein handling the entries, competitors are ad-vised to keep at least one copy of any filmsubmitted. Entries should be mailed to W. T.Joyner, Chairman of the AAPT Visual AidsCommittee, Department of Physics, Hampden-Sydney College, Hampden-Sydney, Virginia.

The Commission on College Physics is particularlyanxious to see pilot films made in some of the cate-gories in which examples presently do not existlaboratory instruction films, for example, or visualexamination problems. We are willing to help withencouragement, advice, and even some support tosee such films produced and look forward to hearingfrom those within the profession who would like towork with us on such projects.

We are also convinced that in the long run, nosingle filmed examples, no matter how good, willmake significant in-roads against the inertia of estab-lished practice. We hope to work with some imagina-tive departments to develop pilot courses in whichfilm plays a major role, for it will be only in suchcourses that the real usefulness of film can be assessedand from such courses that the necessary new filmideas will grow.

And, anticipating success, we must look evenfurther ahead. If films for all the many purposes wehave described in this Report suddenly become apart of physics instruction, we will need a much moreflexible system of review, distribution and recognitionthan we now have. What incentive can we hold out

58

to the physicist-film maker to make a good film whichcan be useful outside his own classes, and what helpcan we give to him if others ask for his film?

For the few excellent films of wide appeal, com-mercial film distributors will handle the problems androyalties will provide incentive and recognition. Tobe commercially attractive, however, a film must showpromise of selling 250-300 prints per year.

At the other end of the scale will be the locally-produced film which is designed for a specific purposeand for which there may be five to ten requests peryear. The physicist film maker himself can handlethese requests if he follows the instruction on pages26-29 and keeps a good print to have copies madefrom.

In between these extremes there is need for inven-tion. What is needed is a "publication" system forfilms with all that the word "publication" implies:judgment of the film by one's peers, professional-levelfinishing of what may not be a completely finishedfilm, and a means of making the film's existenceknown to prospective users and meeting their de-mands for it. If such a system can be established, thenmaking a good film which is referred and acceptedfor publication can carry the same rewards and recog-nition as publishing a journal article. The CCP willwork with the AAPT and other appropriate agenciesto establish such a system.

Finally and importantly, the Commission recognizesthe necessity (and the difficulties) of evaluation.There is urgent need for data on how films are beingused at the present time in physics, for studies of theefficacy of learning through visual media as contrastedwith more traditional means. We need to find out ifthere are within our prospective audiences studentswho are more easily reached and interested in thisway. Because film making and, to a lesser extent,film viewing will for some time be considerably moreexpensive than writing and distributing books, anyreal surge forward into an age of accessible film mustbe built on the answers to these questions.

Wednesday, December 14

8:00 p.m. Viewing of films

Thursday, December 15

Morning Session Walter Eppenstein, RPI, Chairman

9:00 a.m.9:10 a.m.

10:00 a.m.

10:30 a.m.

11:30 a.m.11:45 a.m.

12:15 p.m.

1:30 p.m.

Afternoon Session

2:45 p.m.

4:30 p.m.5:00 p.m.

WelcomeIntroduction: The Uses of Single Concept Filmsin EducationFilm-Centered Tutorial Instruction: The PurdueBotany CoursePresent and Potential Uses of Single ConceptFilms in Physics Instruction

Coffee BreakFilm Making Equipment

The Making of Film Loops1. Shoestring Operation

2. Studio Production

Lunch

E. Leonard Jossem, Ohio State University,ChairmanNew Techniques in Film Making

Some Uses of Video TapeComputer-Animated Films

61

Conference agenda

Holiday Inn

Experimental ClassroomLibrary Building, RPIClayton Dohrenwald, Provost, RPIJohn P. Vergis, Arizona StateUniversityJoseph D. Novak, PurdueUniversityPanel: Walter Eppenstein, RPI;Anthony P. French, MIT; RichardHartzell, SUNY-Stony Brook;Fletcher Watson, HarvardUniversity.Moderator: John M. Fowler, CCP

Elwood Miller, Michigan StateUniversity

Wendell Slabaugh, Oregon StateUniversityJacques Parent, National FilmBoard of CanadaBlue Room, Russell Sage DiningHall

Experimental ClassroomShirley ClarkeWheaton GalentineWalter Eppenstein, RPIEdward E. Zajac, PolytechnicInstitute of Brooklyn

5:30 p.m.6:00 p.m.6:30 p.m.

8:00 p.m.

Friday, December 16

9:00 a.m.

Discussion of Working GroupsADJOURNDinner

Film Viewing and Demonstration of Equipment

Working Sessions Meet

Working Groups

1. Uses of Single Concept Films in Physicsa. In-Class Useb. Laboratoryc. Self-Instructional Uses

2. Film Making Techniques3. EquipmentDistribution will be included in the Final Report, but will not be a full working session.

John M. Fowler, CCP

Blue Room, Russell Sage DiningHallRowland Laboratory, Room 2C25

Rooms to be announced

1:30 p.m. Lunch Blue Room, Russell Sage DiningHall

5:00 p.m. ADJOURN6:30 p.m. Banquet Holiday Inn

After dinner remarks Louis Forsdale, ColumbiaUniversity

9:00 p.m. Open House Home of Dr. Robert Resnick13 Oxford Road, Troy

Saturday, December 17

9:00 a.m.11:30 a.m.12:30 p.m.

Reports of Working GroupsConsideration of Final ReportADJOURNMENT

62

Appendix B Film Animation by Computer

By feeding a cathode ray tube with data from acomputer it becomes very easy to make animatedmotion pictures illustrating a mathematically com-plex sequence of events. The technique has greatpotential, in enabling research workers to visualizeth_ results of computation and in preparing educa-tional films.

Suppose you are teaching a course in celestialmechanics. You want to show the satellite orbits thatwould result if Newton's universal law of gravitationwere other than an inverse square law. On a piece ofpaper you write:

DELT = 1.0

TFIN = 1000EXP = 3CALL ORBIT (DELT, TFIN, EXP).

Then you take the paper to the computation centre.After a few hours, you return to pick up a movie,which you then show to the class.

In the movie the positions of the satellite andparent bodies are drawn on a frame of film everyminute of their orbits (DELT = 1.0) for the first1000 minutes (TFIN) = 1000). The satellite andparent body, obeying an inverse cube gravitationallaw (EXP = 3), start out in circular orbits. How-ever, as you have shown in class mathematically,circular orbits for an inverse third power gravita-tional law are unstable. The 1000-frame (42-second)movie drives home the point; the students see theinitial, almost perfectly circular orbits disintegrate,with the satellite making ever-closer swings aboutthe parent body until the two bodies collide

(Figure 1).

iBy E. E. Zajac, Bell Telephone Laboratories, Murray Hill,New Jersey. Reprinted from New Scientist, 29, 346-349,(February 10, 1966) with permission of the author andthe publisher.

65

Film Animation by Computer'

Figure 1Two massive bodies interact according to an inversecube law of force. The bodies either spiral in andcollide, as shown, or spiral ever outward. FromForce, Mass and Motion.

To those who have tried to make an animatedscientific film by conventional means, this accountmay sound Utopian. Hand animation for a movie ofthis sort first requires the computation of the coor-dinates of the satellite for each frame of film. Thencomes the tedious task of drawing and properlypositioning the satellite 1000 times on celluloid"cels." Finally, the cels have to be individually photo-graphed.

Yet, at the Bell Telephone Laboratories, I cantoday write the programme I have shown and obtain16mm film, ready for viewing, within three or fourhours. At present, there is only a handful of installa-tions in the world where this procedure is possible.But within a few years, I suspect it will be availableat most major universities and industrial laboratoriesin the United States and Western Europe.

The cost of making the film,. including computertime and processing, but not including my labour,

would be about $30. However, this cost and the abovedescription are deceiving, for they do not take intoaccount the work of my colleague, F. W. Sinden,who constructed the "subprogramme" called ORBIT

which computes the orbit and produces the film. To

have a more balanced view, we have to consider how

computer pictures are drawn and how subpro-grammes such as ORBIT work.

The computer-driven cathode ray tube

Figures 2 and 3 are themselves computer drawn,

to illustrate the picture-making process. The instruc-tions or programme for the picture are fed into thecomputer, usually on punched cards (Figure 2). Thecomputer then calculates numbers that specify thepicture and the commands for film advances. These

are read on to magnetic tape, shown in the bottomright of Figure 2. Next, the tape is rewound; it isthen connected to a cathode ray tube and the film-

advance mechanism of a camera (upper right, Figure

3). As the tape is run from its beginning, the num-bers on the tape are translated into electron beamcommands for the cathode ray tube; the pictureappears on the face of the tube and is recorded onthe camera film (the shutter is always open). Whena frame is completed, a command from the tape tothe camera causes the film to advance to the nextframe. All this happens at electronic speeds, so thata film such as the celestial mechanics film describedearlier might be made at the rate of 5 to 10 framesper second, or about one quarter of the rate of stand-ard movie projection.

Programming of computer animationThe cathode ray tube performs only two basic

tasks: (1) it "types" a small font of standard-sized

letters and (2) it sweeps a straight line segmentbetween two specified points. (The description herepertains specifically to the SC-4020, a computer-driven cathode ray tube manufactured by the GeneralDynamics Corporation. However, other computer-driven cathode ray tubes work in a similar manner.)

Although these tasks are performed with high

precision and reliability, they are in principle ex-

66

Instructionsfor the 'desiredmovie enter thecomputer as adeck of punchedcards.

Figure 2A programme on punched cards for a picture is fedinto the computer. The computer writes the numbersrepresenting the computed picture on to magnetictape. From A Computer Technique for the Produc-tion of Animated Movies.

In this newmethod of anipotion, IDOth...

Tilm::MOt100.J

.... M

1141ii,1 t

411.,

iffit

tgimiFigure 3

The computer picture is read from magnetic tapeto drive a cathode ray tube and camera film ad-

vance mechanism. From A Computer Technique

for the Production of Animated Movies.,

IIITITIFMTWII1T,IT',1" 1"IddlinelaJlutotglitt

tremely simple. The advantages of computer anima-

tion do not lie with an elaborately versatile cathode

ray tube. Rather, they lie with the power of a high-

speed digital computer. Indeed, the special virtue of

computer animation is that it brings the power of

computing to the film medium

To illustrate this power, let us consider how onebuilds a programme for an animated film, starting

with the line-drawing ability of the cathode ray tube.

An example of the basic line drawing command is:

CALL LINE (-5, 3, 15, 22)

This command causes the electron beam to connectthe point with horizontal coordinate x = 5 andvertical coordinate Y = 3 to the point with coor-dinates x = 15, Y = 22. The plotting area of thecathode ray tube is a square with x and Y rangingbetween 512 and + 512, giving more than onemillion reference points.

The above instruction is written in a standardscientific programming language called Fortran, al-though Fortran users will note that, in the interestof clarity, I have taken certain liberties with standard

Fortran. A Fortran programme is actually executed

in two passes through the computer. On the first

pass, the symbolic Fortran instructions are translatedinto the basic numerical code of the computer; theoutput is a set of punched cards or a magnetic tape.In the second pass, this numerical code is read fromthe cards or tape and executed; the result is the final

numerical output of the computer.

Fortran was written to allow symbol manipulation,akin to ordinary algebra (Fortran stands for "FOR-mula TRANslator"). For example, the two Com-mands

Y = 5CALL LINE (-15, Y, 30, y)

will cause a horizontal line to be drawn from thepoint x = 15, Y = 5 to x = 30, Y = 5. Symbolicspecification is convenient in the writing of "loops,"for example

DO THRU*, I = 1, 100

Y = I*CALL LINE (-15, Y, 30, y)

The first instruction signals the formation of theloop. It commands the computer to execute 100

times the instructions following, up to and including

the instruction marked by the asterisk. Each time

through the loop, the Y coordinate of the line isgiven the value of the counter, I. So on the 29th passthrough the loop Y = 29, on the 30th pass Y = 30,

and so on. In this example, 100 horizontal lines,

spaced vertically one unit apart and lying betweenY = 1 and Y = 100 would be drawn on a single

frame of film.

67

P'

Computer loops are tailor-made for animation. Toillustrate, first introduce the instruction CALL FRAME.Fortran translates this into a command to the camera

to advance the film by one frame. Insertion of CALL

FRAME into the loop gives:

DO THRU* 1 = 1, 100

Y = ICALL LINE (-15, Y, 30, y)*CALL FRAME

The result is animation. We get 100 frames of amovie showing the steady upward motion of a singlehorizontal line.

Even this simple four-instruction programme il-lustrates several points. First of all, note that a com-puter loop is not the same as a film loop. A film looprepeats the same sequence of events over and over.A computer loop repeats the same sequence of com-mands over and over. A command, such as Y = I,may call for a change from the previous passagethrough the loop. Thus,"ihe event produced in eachpassage through the loop generally differs in a sys-tematic way from the event produced in the previouspassage.

Secondly, note the ease with which we can changethe programme to produce a new animated sequence.Suppose we want the action to go only one-half asfast. We simply replace the command Y = I by Y =1/2, and the command DO THRU* I = 1,100 by DOTHRU* I = 1,200: Or, we might decide that the lineshould extend from x = 5 to x = 50. This re-quires only that we change the LINE call to CALLLINE ( 5, Y, 50, y).

In fact we could allow for all of these changes atonce by using symbols. The addition of an instruction,READ, allows us to specify particular values at thetime of running. The complete programme then lookslike this:

READ, SPEED, X 1, X2

DO THRU* I = 1,100 X SPEED

Y = I/SPEEDCALL LINE (X1, Y, X2, y)

*CALL FRAME

STOP

3, 10, 72

The READ instruction says to the computer, "Whenthe card containing STOP has been reached, all in-structions in this programme will have been loadedin. Look for numbers on the next card. Set SPEEDequal to the first number, xl to the second number,and x2 to the third number. Then execute the pro-gramme."

For each particular set of values of SPEED, xl, x2,we get a different film. This illustrates another pointof great importance; a successful programme gen-erates more than a single film; it makes possible awhole family of films. The family is a function ofseveral variables just as in mathematics a family ofcurves can be a function of several variables. Foreach particular choice of values, a new film results.Different choices may give films that do not evenresemble each other. Thus, in the celestial mechanicsexample, a single programme using the Newtonianlaw of gravitational force yields movies of circular,elliptical, parabolic and hyperbolic orbits, dependingon the initial conditions.

Modern computing allows still another freedom.We can make our programme into subprogramme.First, we decide on a name. In Fortran, we are limitedto names of six symbols. We pick HRZLIN (standingfor horizontal line). Then we modify the previousprogramme as follows:

SUBROUTINE HRZLIN (SPEED, Xi, X2)

DO THRU*I = 1,100 X SPEEDY = I/SPEED

CALL LINE (X1, Y, Xw2, y)

*CALL FRAME

This programme is stored in the computer or oncards once and for all. If in some film in the future,we decide we want to show an ascending horizontalline, we would write:

READ, SPEED, Xi, X2

CALL HRZLIN (SPEED, Xi, X2)

STOP

2, 5, 50

If we did not want to experiment with several differ-ent SPEEDS, xls and x2s, but rather knew that thesevariables should have the values 2, 5, and 50, the pro-gramme would be shorter still:

CALL HRZLIN (2, 5, 50)

This illustrates the powerful "naming" or sub-routine capability of programming. By this meanswe can build up a library of programmes as we goalong. This library differs markedly from the usualfilm library. Each entry represents a family of filmsrather than a single film. Each entry probably em-bodies loops. But these are computer loops, not filmloops.

The reader can now perhaps understand the celes-tial mechanics example given at the outset. HavingF. W. Sinden's general programme, ORBIT, for pro-ducing a family of orbit films as a function of therelevant variables, it is simply a matter of writing theinstruction CALL ORBIT and specifying values to ob-tain the particular orbit film desired.

Applications of computer animation

Computer results usually emerge in the form ofnumbers printed on paper, sometimes hundreds ofthousands of numbers per sheet on hundreds ofthousands of sheets of paper. With computer anima-tion one can translate the numbers into a series ofpictures which can be scanned in succession as amovie. Figure 4 is a frame from such a movie. Inthis case, I was studying; by digital computer simula-

Figure 4Box representing a satellite changes attitude accord-ing to a mathematical model of the Earth's gravity.Clock counts off orbits. From Simulation of a Two-Gyro, Gravity-Gradient Attitude Control System.

68

r

O

Figure 5Superposition of every fifth frame during one orbitfrom Simulation of a Two-Gyro, Gravity-GradientAttitude Control System.

tion, the orientation control of a satellite. At first, Ihad the computer print out numbers giving the satel-lite orientation at successive instants of time. Theproblem of visualizing the satellite motions from theprinted numbers was formidable. So I wrote a sub-programme which took the numbers that wouldnormally be printed out and used them to computea perspective drawing of a box representing a satel-lite. Figure 5 shows the superposition of every fifthframe of the movie for the first satellite orbit ( in themovie itself the Earth turns). An orbital clock in theupper right-hand corner counts off orbits.

In the programme it is easy to change the pointof view of the perspective. In Figure 6, also takenfrom the movie, the viewer is travelling in orbit withthe satellite.

Most of the applications of computer animation sofar have been of this sortusually short sequencesvisually displaying the results of a scientific computa-tion. Examples are:

A movie of successive iterates of an iterationprocedure for so* ring an optimization problem(Bell Telephone Laboratories; Sandia Corporation).

Flow of a viscous fluid, including the forma-tion of a von Karman vortex street (Los Alamos) .

Propagation of shock waves in a solid (LosAlamos; Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Livermore,California).

69

Figure 6Satellite as seen in an orbiting reference frame. FromSimulation of a Two-Gyro, Gravity-Gradient Atti-tude Control System.

Lines of constant pressure, temperature, pre-cipitation, etc. in a dynamic meteorologicalmodel of the Earth's weather (Lawrence RadiationLaboratory)

Vibration of an aircraft (Boeing Aircraft)

Simulation of an aircraft carrier landing (Boe-ing Aircraft)

Most of the animation has been in black and white;however, the movies at the Lawrence RadiationLaboratory have been in colour.

The possibilities of the use of computer animationin this way as an output means for standard comput-ing are limitless. Indeed, one can argue that graphicaloutput is "natural," and the usual numerical com-puter output is woefully inefficient. The human eyehas great pattern recognition ability; for this veryreason the usual first step in handling scientific datais to plot it. The human eye also quickly picks out amoving object from a static background. Moviesallow one to take advantage of this ability by addingthe dimension of time to the familiar spatial dimen-sions in studying computer output.

Moreover, many of the calculations done on acomputer are of essentially dynamic phenomena.One wants to see the unfolding or evolution of aprocess either as a function of time or of some other

variable. Motion pictures are the obvious way ofaccomplishing this.

Finally, as the sample frames of Figures 4.6 show,it is easy to make perspective views of solid objects.It is likewise easy to make two perspectives side byside, that is, to make stereographic movies. This lineof research has been pursued by A. M. Noll of theBell Telephone Laboratories. Among other things, hehas made a movie of a four-dimensional cube rotatingabout one of its axes, as seen when projected intothree dimensions.

Educational use of computer animationThe use of computer animation for the display of

the results of scientific computations is a form ofeducationone scientist passing information to an-other. It suggests the use of computer animation for

the classroom.

One immediately thinks of a whole host ofphenomena and concepts that uniquely lend them-selves to illustration by computer movies. The ideaof a "limit" in the calculus, for example, is essentially

a dynamic one, as the standard terminology suggests"f (X) approaches f (Xa) as X - Xa approaches

zero." Other examples are Newton's laws of motion,kinetic theory in physics and chemistry, fluid flow inengineeringin fact, one can argue that a good deal

of the instruction in th ! physical sciences is in termsof "movies" of mathematical models of natureex-cept that the student does not normally see the movies;

he only hears verbal descriptions of them.

Perhaps more important is the opportunity com-puter animation gives to the scientist and engineerto make his own movies. As our examples haveshown, the user programmes computer animation

in the language of mathematics, a language in which

the physical scientist or engineer is proficient. More-

over, the scientist can make films with a minimumof dependence on directors, producers, and animators.

Much as in writing a book, where one submits amanuscript and receives back a proof in print readyfor reading, so can one now submit a programmeand receive back a proof film, ready for viewing. The

scientist can be master of his own house; if he wishes,

he can maintain complete creative control over thefilm he makes.

One might expect the professional science film-

maker to feel threatened by this development. Para-doxically, the opposite has been the case with thefew film-makers who have had a chance to try com-

puter animation and to appreciate its flexibility and

power. One professional animator told me that hehas always been envious of composers. All a com-poser needed was a piano to try out his latest crea-tion. The animator on the other hand could onlywith great labour try out his ideas. For example, ifthe action were too fast, cels would have to be re-drawn and the scene laboriously rephotographed. In

computer animation, such things as speed can be leftas a variable. The film-maker has much more freedomto experiment. He is free to bring his full artisticabilities to bear in his partnership with scientists infilm-making.

One of the few purely educational computeranimated films is Force, Mass and Motion, by F. W.Sinden of the Bell Telephone Laboratories. The filmillustrates Newton's laws in two dimensions. Orbits

are shown of two massive bodies under central forceaction for various laws, such as inverse cube, directcube, etc., as well as for the familiar inverse squarelaw. Figure 1 and Figures 7 and 8 are frames from

Sinden's movie.

Another educational movie by Roger N. Shepard

and the author is entitled A Pair of Paradoxes. Itcombines two psychological phenomena discovered

recently. One, due to L. S. and R. Penrose of theUniversity of London, is a winding stair case that

seems to go ever upward while at the same timeclosing upon itself after each circuit. The other, due

to Shepard, is a tone that seems to go ever upwardwhile at the same time remaining near the middleof the scale. Figure 9 is a frame from this movie.

The future

It is now several years since films were first ani-

mated by computer (some computer films are known

to have been made on the Whirlwind computer atMIT in 1951). However, they have made relatively

little impact, especially in science education wheretheir prospects are perhaps brightest. Probably thereason is the lack of a suitable champion. As I haveindicated above, most of the development has been inindustrial laboratories, where the interest has been

70

Figure 7Orbits of bodies with inverse square law interaction.The plus sign is the moving centre of mass. FromForce, Mass and Motion

Figure 8Orbits of two bodies with a direct cube force lawof interaction. From Force, Mass and Motion.

in straightforward technical applications as a com-puter output device. Very little work has been doneat universities, and that which has been done has alsobeen aimed at scientific rather than educational re-search.

To exploit the full educational potential of com-puter animation will require the partnership of threespecialties: computing, film-making, and the sub-ject-matter science or technology about which a filmis to be made. A central facility where these skillscould comes together would give the educational uses

71

Figure 9Ball bouncing along an impossible staircase. FromA Pair of Paradoxes, which combines the Penroseand Penrose visual illusion with the auditory illu-sion of R. N. Shepard.

of computers a great push forward. So far no suchfacility exists.

Another need is for higher-level computer lan-guages. We have already seen an example of a com-puter language in Fortran, which allowed us to writeformulas to programme in terms of symbols ratherthan numbers, and to name sequences of instructionsas subprogrammes.

Recently, a great deal of activity has gone intoimproving on Fortran, especially in the mechanismfor naming. In particular, computer languages incertain specialties have been written. These contain,built into the language, names for the concepts andoperations peculiar to that specialty. Such a languagefor movie-making would be very useful. It would con-tain convenient ways of specifying and moving ob-jects mathematically and ways of projecting the objectinto a picture plane; it would allow the programmerto imagine himself as a cameraman with commandsfor panning, zooming in or out, dissolving, fading, etc.

A big first step in the direction of a universalmovie language has already been made. K. C. Knowl-ton of the Bell Telephone Laboratories has writtena language for movie making called BEFLIX whichallows one to do many of the things mentioned.Figures 2 and 3 illustrating computer animation aretaken from a 17-minute movie made in BEFLIX en-titled A Computer Technique for the Production of

Animated Movies. The instructions BEFLIX look quitedifferent from those in Fortran. An example is:

PAINT, A, B, WRITE, 2

which says: "Paint the rectangular area specified bythe opposite diagonal points A and B. First erase whatis now in this area and then write in 2s." By fillingrectangular areas of the screen with various alpha-betical and numerical characters, Knowlton generatesthe different textures of grey shown in Figures 2 and3. Unlike the satellite and orbit examples of Figure 1and Figures 4-6, each frame of which was a linedrawing, a frame of a film in BEFLIX is completelyfilled with varying shades of grey. Thus, BEFLIX ismore akin to the scanning technique of television.BEFLIX can be easily learned in a few weeks by per-sons with no knowledge of mathematics or com-puting.

Special-purpose computer languages are attemptsto make easier the specifications of image inputs tothe computer. Another recent development in thisdirection is the light pen, the stylus-like device thatallows one to draw computer-recognizable pictures onthe face of a cathode ray tube. The combination ofthe light pen and special-purpose languages is per-haps the ultimate in a graphical man-machine com-

72

munication systemone which is still in its infancy.The future for computer animation is, in my opinion,very bright. It is, however, too early to tell exactlywhat its impact will be, especially in science educa-tion. Here, the computer does best the animationthat is couched in mathematicsprecisely the ani-mation that is hardest to do by hand. So hard, in fact,that only a few examples of it have been tried in theclassroom. We therefore have little experience withwhich to predict the future.

But all those who have tried computer animationso far are excited by its possibilities, I think theirexpectations will be more than fulfilled.

Author's noteSome of the films mentioned are available on loan

from the Technical Information Library, Bell Tele-phone Laboratories, Murray Hill, New Jersey, USA.These are all 16mm films:

Simulation of a Two-Gyro, Gravity-Gradient AttitudeControl System (4 min., sound)

Force, Mass and Motion (10 min., sound)

A Pair of Paradoxes (2 min., sound)

A Computer Technique for the Production ofAnimated Movies (17 min., silent)

Appendix C Producing a Film

THE STORYBOARD

Producing a film

"Storyboard" is the general term used to designate a sequenced collection of annotated

sketches, each representing a scene in a proposed film. The sketches may be treated in a

variety of ways. Some may be roughly done, several on a sheet of paper, while others

may be more carefully drawn, each scene on a specially designed card or page.

Although the pages or cards may be loosely assembled in book or pack form, they

are best arranged in sequenced rows in a specially designed board (see Figure 1). In this

way, they more nearly approach the visual continuity they will assume on a screen.

Below is the storyboard for the film Two Fluids in a Box made under simulated local

conditions by Kevin Smith, Executive Producer of Education Development Center's Film

Studio. The equipment used is described in his article on pages 26-29. The drawings are

Mr. Smith's; the text, which was originally hand printed, has been typed for clarity. The

drawings represent positions of the objects in the demonstration at relatively specific

moments and provide a guide to the demonstrator as he runs through his demonstration

during filming. Note that both descriptions and time limits for each scene are specific

75

I, TWO FLUIDS IN A 84Density lifferby 3%

Description: Hand enters R. Lifts

one end of tank creating gentle wave--

lowers tank. Hold for observation.

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Description: Hold full screen.

Action same as #2 except larger

to create turbulence.

Description: Action same as #2.

(non-turbulent). Note: fasten tanks

together with double-face tape.

Time: 20 seconds Time: 25 seconds

Description: Hand from R. lifts top

tank, places it behind bottom tank--

Lift and lower to make non-turbulent

wave. Zoom to fill frame (hold tanks

firmly with both hands. Time: 30 seconds.

Description: Hold full frame--lift

and lower for turbulent wave; tanks

side by side as in shot 16.

Description: Lift opposite ends equal

distances and lower--semi-turbulent.

Note: This requires two people. Rehearse.

Description: Start camera after tank

is lowered from a very high tilt, (Remove

hands before camera starts). Use +2

lens adapter for close up.

Time: 25 seconds

Run out film.

Total run: 200 seconds

-

PROCEDURE FOR TESTING CAMERA

1. Slate film: Name of camera, etc. (2 sec.)

2. Place tripod about 25 feet from a brick wall.Be sure camera is level. With zoom in full tele-photo position, focus on bricks. (Shoot 5 sec.)

3. Set zoom at midway point (13mm). (Shoot 5sec.)

4.. Set zoom at full wide angle position. (Shoot 5sec.)

5. Hang up sheet of newspaper in shaded area.Move camera to closest focussing distance. Besure camera is level. Check footage scale. Withzoom in full telephoto position, mark corners ofviewfinder area on newspaper. (5 sec.)

6. Set zoom at midway point (13mm). Mark cor-ners. (5 sec.)

7. Set zoom at full wide angle. Mark corners.(5 sec.)

8. From #7, position zoom to telephoto positionkeeping center of newspaper centered.

9. Find a scene that progresses from deep shade tofull sunlight. Set zoom on 13mm. Very slowlypan from shade to sunlight and back again.(15 sec.)

In this test, if possible, find shade that is darkenough to move viewfinder needle to the under-exposure reminder and sunlight bright enoughto move it to the overexposure reminder.

10. Perform same operations in 5 sec.

11. If camera's exposure meter as viewed in view-finder indicates iris f stops, check these againsta hand meter.

12. With sun at your back find a spot from whichyou get a well-lighted view of a building, forexample. Set zoom at wide angle. Slowly panfrom left to right. This should take at least15 seconds.

13. From the same shooting position frame an inter-esting part of the building with zoom set at fulltelephoto. Do not pan. (Shoot 5 sec.)

14. Move camera toward building and shoot series of5 close-up details. (Average time: 5 seconds)

15. With camera close to building, set zoom at fullwide angle position. Aim upward and slowly pandown to level position. Allow at least 10 seconds.

16. Pan upward and at the same time slowly zoomto full telephoto position.

17. Move indoors. Tape or pin sheet of colored con-struction paper to a vertical surface. Light itevenly with two photofloods. Place camera atclosest focussing distance. Set zoom so view-finder and paper edge coincide. (Shoot 3 sec.)Do not move camera.

18. Pin a small contrasting geometric figure to paper.(Shoot 3 sec.) Repeat this with four otherfigures of varying colors.

19. Repeat the above using the single frame setting.Vary the number of frames for each interval.

20. With rest of film practice pan, following mov-ing figures.

SHOOTING NOTES

1. Focussing eyepieces:If camera has adjustable eye lens, be sure it isproducing a sharp image at infinity.

2. Close-up shooting:Do close-up work (about 5 feet or less) onlywith those cameras that frame reasonably welland remain sharply in focus.

3. Panning and tilting:Do not pan or tilt unless absolutely necessaryto follow action or to move a relatively shortdistance.

4. Size of image:Due to the inherent physical weakness of 8mmfilm (a low definition medium), fine detail isoften lost. Therefore, films will be more success-ful if the material is large and relatively freefrom fine printing, small detail in infinity shots,etc.

80

5. Lettering:a. Style: In general all lettering should be bold

gothic (Lower case letters, due to the patternscaused by the heights, are more legible thanall upper case letters).

b. Height: They should be about vertical image

height.

c. Spacing: Distance between letters should beoptically measured. This means that spacing

will vary from letter to letter. Think of thespaces as representing total special areas thatmust be equated. Spaces between wordsshould be about one letter wide. Spaces be-

tween lines should be no more than theheight of a line of letters.

d. Contrast: Black letters on pastel colored back-grounds give good results. Paper color shouldnot be too dark or white or almost white.The latter may work with manual control

cameras but may turn gray when filmed bysome of the automatic exposure types. Black

on yellow generally produces acceptable re-sults.

Verbal material should appear on the screentwice as long as it takes an average reader toread it. This can be reduced in loop films to the

actual reading time.

The motion picture camera's ability to makethings magically appear and disappear works toadvantage in calling attention to important items.

Letters and words can be made to appear serially,

to "flash" on and off, to change color, or to move

over the image surface via animation. Effectscan be precisely timed by counting the numberof single frame shots per projection second.

Conventional shooting technique establishes the

environment of any specific action through the

use of a long, medium, and close-up shot. Thezoom lens can tie these three into a smooth, un-broken sequence, thereby permitting the viewer

to maintain a continuous orientation with theaction. This often is necessary in instructional

skill films. For example, conventional filming

may show a medium shot of a projector andthen cut to a close-up of its sound drum. Onlyknowledgeable viewers may be able to relate thezwo.

81

If the camera has no mom, a high degree oforientation can still be maintained by matchingaction directed toward a point of interest. Forexample, returning to the medium shot of theprojector, it is desirable to cut to the sound drum

but before that is done, point to the sound drum,

and then cut to the close-up of the fingers indi-cating the drum. If the action is% matched rea-sonably well, most viewers will make the transi-

tion without difficulty.

6. Exposure:If there is difficulty in measuring reflected light

from a variety of light and dark objects, learn

to use a gray card. Place it over the material to?hotographed and take your readings from it.

TITLING AND ANIMATION'

TitlingWell-planned, informative titles are essential to

a good educational film. Because they differ so dis-tinctly from the frame-by-frame progression of theaction, titles can serve to emphasize segments of afilm. They can reduce filming time by explainingpreliminaries or providing specifications not showndirectly and they can help avoid misinterpretation ofthe action. More obviously, titles are used for creditson a finished film and for presenting the subject ofthe film.

The film maker must choose the wording for histitles and their positions in the film carefully. This isparticularly true in a short film of the 8mtn cartridgedvariety, where action is relatively compact and film-

ing time scarce. After having decided how manytitles he wishes to incorporate into his film and wherethey should appear, the film maker can begin to write.The title should be concise, clear, and should conveyinformation to the viewer which enhances his under-standing of the action. Titles can convey, for instance,

a mathematical or physical relationship, identify

equipment or phenomena, provide background in-formation, or alert the viewer to an aspect or aspectsof the action in scenes past or to come. Before decid-

1Much of the information for this section was provided bythe booklet, Basic Titling and Animation, published byEastman Kodak. The entire booklet, which provides muchmore detailed information on both aspects of filming, isavailable from photographic supply stores or from EastmanKodak for $1.00.

ing on a title, the film maker should read it aloudor flash it before a colleague. Words and phrases oftenhave different connotations to different people.

Titles must be carefully lettered. The eye respondsmuch more favorably to artistic presentation than tomakeshift, haphazard work. Hand-lettered titles canbe effective, but they require extreme skill andpatience and are therefore best left to the experts,which makes them an expensive undertaking. Thephysicist interested in doing his own titling workwould do best to use one of a number of letteringsystems described below:

1. Hand-set type, such as Fototype, is availablein most art supply stores. It can be placedagainst a suitable background and photo-graphed with fine grain positive film fromwhich either a positive or negative inter-mediate can then be made. The intermediatecan be enlarged as desired.

2. Hand-lettering systems are available whichwork by a number of methodsstencil trac-ing, either directly through a stencil,2 or us-ing a template with tracing arm,3 gummedletters,4 or three-dimensional letters in sev-eral styles and sizes.5 The plastic letters sold

at bookstores for name plates can also beused. They come as a strip of injectionmoldings; the letters are easily separable andcan be cemented with acetone to any smoothsurface. Any of these hand-set titles can bemounted on glass and superimposed on ascene to reduce the time required to presentscene and title. Finally, ordinary typewritertype blackened with a bold pen will providesufficient, although less professional-looking,titles.

Some thought should go into the color of bothletters and background. Generally dark letters on lightbacking photograph best, although there are obviously

exceptions. To avoid visual monotony, the background

can be varied by using textured paper, material, orsimple borders or ornaments. If three-dimensionalletters are used, titles can be filmed from a slight

2Wrico Lettering Systems3LeRoy Lettering System or the Varigraph System

4Art Type5Mitten's Title Letters

82

angle or colored lights may be used to achieve decora-

tive effects.

When laying the title out for photographing, thefilm maker should use title cards large enough to work

on conveniently, yet small enough too for easy storage

10" x 12" is a satisfactory size for most purposes.

Care should be taken to allow for the dimensions ofthe 8mm frame when projected:' Letters themselvesshould be proportional in size to the height of thescreen: as a rule, the smallest letters on the title cardshould measure 1/25th of the total projected height.

The filming of titles follows most rules for close.

up photography. The surface must be evenly illumi-nated and lighting must be of a proper color tempera-ture if the filming is done in color. The title can beshot either horizontally by positioning the card be-tween the legs of the tripod (see page 28) or ver-tically by photographing cards positioned on a wall.

In either case, lights should be carefully positioned;

exposure can be determined with an incident-lightmeter held at the plane of the title and facing thecamera. The most troublesome part of filming thetitle is proper centering and framing. The title mustbe centered accurately to avoid causing the title toappear off - center.? For this a focusing alignmentgauge, or "rackover," is available for cameras withoutreflex viewing. The gauge shifts the camera so thatthe viewfinder is in the lens position while setting upand framing the shot. The setting of the camerashould be tested before final title shot, are made.

AnimationAnimation is a means of creating an illusion of

motion by photographing a series of still pictures insuccession. Like the frames of a motion picture, each

sequence is a slight variation of the one preceding;when projected in rapid succession, the film seemingly

recreates the motion of the object filmed. This is theresult of persistence of vision which causes the eyeto retain for a brief instant each image presented toit, and to fuse each image with the one preceding,creating the illusion of motion.

6Templates marked with projection areas for slides, T.V.

and film are available for $1.00 from Eastman Kodak.70f ten the fact that projectors and cameras do not haveidentical edge guiding makes a title appear off-centerwhen projected. Film also tends to shrink with age whichcauses the title to move off-center.

The advantages of animation over live action ininstructional films may be briefly summarized asfollows: 8

1. Animated sequences can treat specific pointsthat require special analysis or clarification;

2. A moving diagram can be superimposed onan actual image allowing the film maker tosimplify and analyze working principles notat all clear in the filmed presentation;

3. Animation allows sectionalizing of a com-plex moving process; layer after layer of thetotal image can be stripped down so that thewhole can clearly be seen to be the sum ofthe parts;

4. Aesthetically, animated sequences can intro-duce a variety of graphic styles and presenta-dons to illuminate physical principles;

5. Animation can more flexibly and conven-iently reduce or increase the speed of aprocess being demonstratedimportant ele-ments can be presented emphatically in slowmotion while unimportant events can bespeeded up or merely flashed by.

6. Animation allows the film maker to rotate athree-dimensional object.

The most compelling type of animation for thephysicist-film maker will undoubtedly be animationof graphs, charts, etc. It is through this techniquethat processes can be simplified graphically or thatarrows can be superimposed on live action to focusthe viewer's attention or to lead him through a proc-ess. Much more complex and tedious is "cell" anima-tion, a process which involves photographing a seriesof drawings on acetate sheets, one frame at a time,changing cells between frames. This is the techniqueperfected by Walt Disney. It allows the film makerthe possibility of showing complex actions in slow,simplified form, as well as of stripping a machine ora process layer by layer to its very core. Because of theskill and patience required for cell animation, littleuse will probably be made of it by the physicist.

Moving lines that seem to draw themselves on agraph can be animated by placing a sheet of acetateover the graph and inking the line in, one segment at

8\147e are indebted here to John Ha las of Ha las & BatchelorCartoon Films, and Roger Manvell whose article, "TheNew Instructional Film" (The Science Teacher, 5, 1962)provided some of the information which follows.

a time, shooting the scene frame by frame betweensegments. If the line is complex in shape or direc-tion, the motion can be reversed by placing the film

so that it is upside down with reference to the camera.The line is then drawn in completely on the top sheetof acetate with water-soluble ink or paint. To animatethe line, portions are wiped away with a damp clothand the scene recorded, again frame by frame. Turn-ing the film right side up for projection reverses theaction and causes the line to draw itself as desired.

This technique is useful also for creating movingarrows. Arrows need not be drawn individually. Onearrow can be photographed and reproduced in enoughcopies for all frames. These are then cut out andpasted with rubber cement to regular blank anima-tion cells. Starting with the position for the be-ginning of the scene, the initial cell is then used asa guide for affixing the arrows for subsequent framesin their proper order. Cells should be numberedwith a wax pencil so that they can be kept in order.

Equipment for Animation1. Camera

Any camera used for animation should beequipped for single-frame exposures (specialmotors can be attached to some cameras to al-low this capability but the cost of such an in.stallation is often greater than the cost of thecamera itself ). Ideally, the single-frame releaseshould give uniform exposures from frame toframe. Most spring-wound cameras do not meetthis requirement exactly; differences in springtension at various stages of winding, plus vary-ing amounts of friction within the mechanism,preclude absolute accuracy. Also, the manner inwhich the release lever or button is depressedseems to affect the shutter timing in single-framework. Employing a solenoid to trip the releaselever yields better results than hand releasing.

Reflex viewing is of prime importance forcritical focusing and framing at the short dis-tances involved in most animation work. Abackwind that enables the film to be rewoundin the camera for multiple exposure work isparticularly useful. A variable shutter that en-ables in-camera fades will give still greater scopeand variety. When used in conjunction with thebackwind, it permits camera dissolves as scenetransitions.

2. Animation stand

Professional animation stands are extremelycostly. Filming of animated sequences can beaccomplished either between the legs of the tri-pod or by positioning the sequence on the wall.Generally the instructions for shooting animatedsequences and titles are similar (see p. 81).

84

3. Lighting

Because of the relatively limited areas filmed,lighting problems are minimal. Even when film-ing in color, No. 2 photoflood lights in clamp-onreflectors are ample, although care must be takento use lamps compatible with the film stockbeing used.

,

Appendix D Equipment

8MM CAME AS

Equipment

The charts which follow list all 8mm camera modelsRegular 8, Super 8, and Single 8for which information was available as of summer 1967. They are listed alphabetically

by manufacturer and then by model name and/or number. The specifications on camera

features correspond in category to those designated as important by Franklin Miller inhis article "Cameras and Accessories for Amateur Scientific Film Makers," pages 39-41.

Further information is availabmentioned on page 125.

le from manufacturers or from the buying guides

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; 9 f

t. ru

n.

10-4

0C

artr

idge

-loa

ding

; 9 f

t. ru

n.

10-4

0C

artr

idge

-loa

ding

; 15

ft. r

un.

3.25

0R

oll-

load

ing;

acc

epts

car

-tr

idge

s; e

xpos

ure

beac

on in

view

find

er.

Rol

l-lo

adin

g; 2

5 ft

. cap

acity

,do

uble

-wid

th; r

otat

ing

shut

ter,

166

0 an

gle.

Rol

l-lo

adin

g, 2

5 ft

. cap

acity

;va

riab

le s

hutte

r; f

ilm r

ewin

d;au

dibl

e fr

ame

coun

ter.

10.4

00 R

oll-

load

ing,

25

ft. c

apac

ity;

expo

sure

war

ning

; rot

atin

gey

epie

ce a

djus

tabl

e fr

om 5

to +

5 di

opte

rs; v

aria

ble

shut

ter,

film

rew

ind;

aud

ible

fram

e co

unte

r.

Rol

l-lo

adin

g, 1

00 f

t. ca

paci

ty;

tri-

lens

turr

et; a

djus

tabl

e ey

e-pi

ece;

aut

omat

ic f

ram

e m

um-

ter

film

rew

ind;

one

-fr

ame

shaf

t; va

riab

le s

hutte

r; a

uto-

mat

ic f

ade

-tim

ed a

udib

lesc

ene

leng

th in

dica

tor.

H 8

Rex

Aut

omat

ic $

740.

00 8

-36,

36

EE

zoo

m;

stop

s do

wn

tof/

16

yes

auto

mat

ic e

lect

ric

12-2

4ey

e w

ith m

anua

lov

erri

de

yes

elec

tric

no10

-400

Sam

e as

H 8

Rex

.

BO

LSE

YU

nise

t $ 4

9.50

10,

f/1

.8no

man

ual

CA

ME

XC

RM

$25

9.00

12.

5, q

i.9ye

sm

anua

l

CA

RE

NA

Zoo

mex

S $

429.

506.

5-52

, f/1

.8zo

om; s

tops

dow

nto

f/1

6

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic w

ithm

anua

l ove

rrid

e

CIN

EM

AX

GA

F

8 H

$15

0.00

9-3

0, g

1.8

zoom

;ye

sfu

lly a

utom

atic

stop

s do

wn

to f

/22

Ans

co T

itan

$ 69

.95

13, f

/1.8

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic

Ans

co T

itan

II $

89.

95 1

3, f

11.8

zoo

mye

sfu

lly a

utom

atic

Ans

co T

itan

IV $

129.

95 1

0-30

, g1.

8 zo

omye

sfu

lly a

utom

atic

with

man

ual o

verr

ide

GM

Mod

el Z

E $

69.

95 9

.5-2

0, f

/1.8

zoom

nofu

lly a

utom

atic

HO

NE

YW

EL

LFI

LM

AT

IC84

-A $

299.

50 7

.5-3

5, f

/1.8

zoom

; sto

ps d

own

to f

116

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic w

ithm

anua

l ove

rrid

e; b

e-hi

nd th

e le

ns m

eter

84-B

$34

9.50

9-3

6, f

/1.4

zoo

m;

stop

s do

wn

tof/

16

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic w

ithm

anua

l ove

rrid

e; b

e-hi

nd th

e le

ns m

eter

84-C

$39

9.50

7.5

-45,

f/1

.8zo

om; s

tops

dow

n to

f /1

6

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic w

ithm

anua

l ove

rrid

e; b

e-hi

nd th

e le

ns m

eter

KO

DA

KB

row

nie

Fun

Save

r $

18.9

5 f/

2.7

nom

anua

l

16no

no z

oom

no

8-32

yes

no z

oom

no

8-32

yes

man

ual

no

12,

16, 2

4ye

sm

anua

lye

s

16no

no z

oom

yes

16no

man

ual

yes

16no

man

ual

yes

16no

man

ual

yes

12,

16, 2

4,32

yes

man

ual

yes

12,

16, 2

4,32

yes

man

ual

yes

12,

16, 2

4,32

yes

man

ual

yes

16no

no z

oom

no

25 f

t. ca

rtri

dge.

Rol

l-lo

adin

g, 2

5 ft

. cap

acity

;do

uble

-wid

th; r

ever

se w

ind;

audi

ble

soun

d af

ter

ever

y 20

inch

es o

f fi

lm; a

djus

tabl

eey

epie

ce*

10-1

00 R

oll-

load

ing,

25

ft. c

apac

ity;

auto

mat

ic th

read

ing;

f/s

top,

expo

sure

war

ning

in v

iew

-fi

nder

.

10-4

00 R

oll-

load

ing.

10-6

4R

oll-

load

ing,

25

ft. c

apac

ity;

war

ning

sig

nal i

n vi

ewfi

nder

.

10-6

4Sa

me

as a

bove

.

10-4

00 S

ame

as a

bove

plu

s pr

ovis

ion

for

rem

ote

cont

rol.

10-4

0R

oll-

load

ing,

25

ft.,

doub

le8

capa

city

.

10-3

20 R

oll-

load

ing,

25

ft. c

apac

ity(1

00 f

t. w

ith a

cces

sory

mag

-az

ine)

; sel

f-th

read

ing;

rang

efin

der

focu

sing

; pro

vi-

sion

for

rem

ote

cont

rol;

full

pow

er r

ewin

d; f

ram

e co

unte

r.

10-3

20 S

ame

as a

bove

.

10-3

20 S

ame

as a

bove

.

40R

oll-

load

ing,

25

ft. c

apac

ity;

7 ft

. run

.

Esc

ort 8

Zoo

m $

91.

95 1

9-27

, f/1

.6 z

oom

nofu

lly a

utom

atic

KO

PIL

-C

ASP

EC

OR

efle

x Z

oom

$ 6

9.95

9-3

0, f

/1.8

zoo

m;

stop

s do

wn

tof/

22

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic,

thro

ugh

the

lens

NE

OPT

AA

dmir

e 8

G $

59.

95 1

2.5,

f/2

.8; s

tops

dow

n to

f/1

6no

sem

i-au

tom

atic

16no

man

ual

no

16no

man

ual

yes

16ye

sno

zoo

mno

10-4

0R

oll-

load

ing,

25

ft. c

apac

ity;

low

ligh

t ind

icat

or; 3

5 se

c-on

d ru

n pe

r w

indi

ng.

5-40

0R

oll-

load

ing,

25

ft. c

apac

ity;

prov

isio

n fo

r re

mot

e co

n-tr

ol; e

xpos

ure

scal

e in

vie

w-

find

er, f

ram

e co

unte

r.

12-2

00 R

oll-

load

ing,

25

ft. c

apac

ity;

8 ft

. run

.

CA

ME

RA

LIS

TPR

ICE

SIN

GL

E

LE

NS

(mm

) A

ND

RE

FLE

XC

AM

ER

AFR

AM

E

FOC

AL

LE

NG

TH

FIN

DE

RE

XPO

SUR

E C

ON

TR

OL

SPE

ED

S (f

ps)

EX

POSU

RE

ZO

OM

EL

EC

TR

ICFI

LM

DR

IVE

ASA

OT

HE

R F

EA

TU

RE

S

PAT

HE

Impe

rial

8 $

299.

95 8

-40,

f/1

.9 z

oom

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic w

ith8-

64m

anua

l ove

rrid

e;th

roug

h th

e le

ns

yes

elec

tric

no10

-400

Rol

l-lo

adin

g, 2

5 ft

. cap

acity

;83

i ft.

run;

film

rew

ind;

fra

me

coun

ter;

adj

usta

ble

eyep

iece

;fa

ding

and

dis

solv

ing

devi

ce;

rubb

er e

yecu

p; f

ilter

-hol

ding

lens

sha

de.

Roy

al 8

$19

9.95

9-3

6, f

/1.8

zoo

mye

sfu

lly a

utom

atic

with

8-64

man

ual o

verr

ide;

thro

ugh

the

lens

SAIM

IC-8

SED

IC 8

ZE

-25

$ 49

.95

12-3

0, f

/1.8

zoo

mye

sfu

lly a

utom

atic

with

12, 1

6, 2

4, 3

2m

anua

l ove

rrid

e

Ref

lex

Zoo

m $

65.

85 f

/1.8

zoo

mye

sfu

lly a

utom

atic

,th

roug

h th

e le

ns16

Supe

r 8

Cam

era

Mod

els

yes

elec

tric

no10

-400

Sam

e as

abo

ve.

yes

man

ual

no10

-320

Rol

l-lo

adin

g, 2

5 ft

.cap

acity

;5

ft. r

un.

nom

anua

lye

s10

-320

Rol

l-lo

adin

g, 2

5 ft

.cap

acity

;ad

just

able

eye

piec

e; f

ram

eco

unte

r.

CA

ME

RA

LIS

TPR

ICE

LE

NS

(mm

) A

ND

RE

FLE

XFO

CA

L L

EN

GT

HFI

ND

ER

EX

POSU

RE

CO

NT

RO

L

AR

GU

S81

0 Su

per

Eig

ht $

70.

00 1

3,f/

1.8;

sto

psdo

wn

to f

/22

nofu

lly a

utom

atic

812

Supe

r E

ight

$13

0.00

10-

30,f

/1.8

zoom

yes

dully

aut

omat

ic

814

Supe

r E

ight

$16

5.00

8-3

5,f/

1.8

zoom

yes

fully

aut

omat

icw

ith m

anua

l ove

rrid

e

Show

mas

ter

820

$160

.00

8.5-

35, f

/1.8

zoom

yes

fully

aut

omat

icw

ith m

anua

l ove

rrid

e

Show

mas

ter

822

$200

.00

8.5-

35, f

/1.8

zoom

yes

fully

aut

omat

icw

ith m

anua

l ove

rrid

e

BA

UE

RC

-/ $

195.

95 9

-36,

f/1

.8zo

omye

sfu

lly a

utom

atic

with

man

ual o

verr

ide

C-2

$25

9.95

8-4

0, z

oom

yes

fully

aut

omat

icw

ith m

anua

l ove

rrid

e

CA

ME

RA

SPE

ED

S (f

ps)

SIN

GL

EFR

AM

EE

XPO

SUR

E

EL

EC

TR

ICFI

LM

ZO

OM

DR

IVE

ASA

OT

HE

R F

EA

TU

RE

S

18no

no z

oom

yes

25-4

0

18ye

sm

anua

lye

s25

-400

18,

32ye

sel

ectr

ic a

ndm

anua

lye

s25

-400

18ye

sm

anua

lye

s25

-250

Rem

ote

cont

rol u

p to

15

ft.

18,

32ye

sel

ectr

icye

s25

-250

Rem

ote

cont

rol u

p to

15

ft.

12,

18,

24ye

sel

ectr

icye

s6-

125

12,

18,

24ye

sel

ectr

icye

s6-

125

Bui

lt-in

fad

er, i

ndep

ende

ntof

shu

tter

and

diap

hrag

m.

BE

AU

LIE

U20

08 $

695.

00 8

-64,

f/1

.9; z

oom

stop

s do

wn

toF-

22

yes

auto

mat

ic, s

emi-

auto

-m

atic

, thr

ough

the

lens

, with

man

ual

over

ride

BE

LL

& H

OW

EL

L43

0 $1

60.0

0 11

-35,

fil.

9zo

om; s

tops

dow

n to

f/2

2

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic

431

5220

.00

11-3

5, f

/1.9

zoom

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic

432

$270

.00

9-45

, f/1

.9zo

om; s

tops

dow

n to

f/6

4

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic;

man

ual o

verr

ide

CA

NO

N84

C $

169.

95 1

0-30

, f/1

.8;

stop

s do

wn

tof/

16

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic,

thro

ugh

the

lens

85C

$19

9.95

9.5

-47.

5, f

/1.8

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic,

thro

ugh

the

lens

2-50

yes

man

ual a

ndel

ectr

icye

s10

-400

18ye

sm

anua

lye

s10

-400

18, 3

6ye

sel

ectr

icye

s10

-400

18, 3

6ye

sel

ectr

icye

s10

-400

18ye

sm

anua

lye

s25

-160

18ye

sm

anua

lye

s25

-160

Rem

ote

cont

rol;

radi

o co

n-tr

ol u

p to

2 m

iles.

Und

erex

posu

re in

dica

tor;

illum

inat

ion

sens

ed a

t film

plan

e.

Sam

e as

430

.

Prov

isio

ns f

or r

emot

e co

n-tr

ol; f

ocus

sing

eye

piec

e; e

x-po

sure

war

ning

; pow

erfo

cuss

ing.

Rem

ote

cont

rol u

p to

25

ft.;

adju

stab

le e

yepi

ece.

Sam

e as

84C

.

CR

EST

LIN

EC

RS-

I $

54.9

5 15

, f/1

.8no

fully

aut

omat

ic

CR

S-II

$ 7

4.95

10-

25, f

/1.8

nofu

lly a

utom

atic

DE

JUR

Ele

ctra

V $

170.

00 1

0-30

, f/1

.8;

stop

s do

wn

tof/

22

yes

fully

aut

omat

icw

ith m

anua

l ove

rrid

e

Ele

ctra

VI

$199

.95

10-3

0, f

/1.8

;st

ops

dow

n to

f/22

yes

fully

aut

omat

icw

ith m

anua

l ove

rrid

e

Ele

ctra

VII

$21

9.95

8.5

-35,

f/1

.8zo

omye

sfu

lly a

utom

atic

with

man

ual o

verr

ide

EU

MIG

Supe

r 8

Vie

nnet

te $

179.

95 9

-27,

f/1

.9Z

OO

Mye

sfu

lly a

utom

atic

with

man

ual o

verr

ide

GA

FA

nsco

mat

ic S

/84

$ 95

.00

f/1.

7 zo

om; s

tops

dow

n to

f/2

2ye

sfu

lly a

utom

atic

with

man

ual o

verr

ide

Ans

com

atic

SI8

5 $1

30.0

0 8.

5-35

, f/1

.7zo

om; s

tops

dow

n to

f/2

2

yes

fully

aut

omat

icw

ith m

anua

l ove

rrid

e

Ans

com

atic

S/8

6 $1

75.0

0 8.

5-42

, f/1

.7zo

om s

tops

dow

n to

f/2

2

yes

fully

aut

omat

icw

ith m

anua

l ove

rrid

e

HO

NE

YW

EL

LD

ual-

$20

9.50

9-3

6, f

/1.9

zoo

m;

Film

atic

stop

s do

wn

tof/

22

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic,

thro

ugh

the

lens

,w

ith m

anua

l ove

rrid

e

18no

no z

oom

yes

18no

man

ual

yes

16, 3

2no

elec

tric

16, 3

2no

elec

tric

yes

16, 3

2no

elec

tric

yes

18, 2

4ye

sel

ectr

icye

s

18no

man

ual

yes

18ye

sm

anua

lye

s

18, 3

2ye

sm

anua

lye

s

18, 2

4ye

sel

ectr

ic a

ndm

anua

lye

s

25-4

0

25-4

0

25-3

00 A

djus

tabl

e ey

epie

ce; a

uto-

mat

ic e

xpos

ure

com

pens

atio

nin

slo

w m

otio

n; r

emot

eco

ntro

l to

15 f

t.

25-3

00 S

ame

as E

lect

ra V

, onl

y zo

omfo

cuse

s fr

om 4

ft.

25-3

00 S

ame

as E

lect

ra V

.

25-1

00 R

emot

e co

ntro

l.

25-1

00 R

emot

e co

ntro

l up

to 9

ft.

25-1

00 S

ame

as S

/84.

25-1

00 S

ame

as S

/84.

10-1

00 A

ccep

ts S

uper

and

Sin

gle

8;sp

lit-i

mag

e fo

cusi

ng; r

emot

eco

ntro

l to

15 f

t.; S

ingl

e 8

can

be r

ever

sed.

CA

ME

RA

LIS

TL

EN

S (m

m)

AN

DR

EFL

EX

PRIC

EFO

CA

L L

EN

GT

HFI

ND

ER

SIN

GL

EC

AM

ER

AFR

AM

E

EX

POSU

RE

CO

NT

RO

LSP

EE

DS

(fps

)E

XPO

SUR

E

EL

EC

TR

ICFI

LM

ZO

OM

DR

IVE

ASA

OT

HE

R F

EA

TU

RE

S

Tri

- Fi

lmat

ic $

279.

50Sa

me

as D

ual-

Film

atic

but

acce

pts

Reg

ular

8 a

sw

ell.

KA

LIM

AR

$100

.00

f/1.

8ye

sfu

lly a

utom

atic

,18

thro

ugh

the

lens

,w

ith m

anua

l ove

rrid

e

nono

zoo

mye

s25

-100

Rem

ote

cont

rol.

KE

YST

ON

EK

-610

H $

69.

95 1

5, f

/1.8

K-6

15H

$12

9.95

9.5

-30,

f/1

.8zo

om

nofu

lly a

utom

atic

18no

no z

oom

yes

25-4

0E

xpos

ure

war

ning

sig

nals

.

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic,

16th

roug

h th

e le

nsno

man

ual

yes

25-6

4

K-6

20H

$16

5.00

11-

33, f

/1.8

zoom

; sto

psdo

wn

to f

/16

nofu

lly a

utom

atic

18ye

sm

anua

lye

s10

-40

Rem

ote

cont

rol.

K-6

25H

$20

5.00

8.5

-35,

f/1

.8zo

omye

sfu

lly a

utom

atic

18ye

sm

anua

lye

s10

-40

Rem

ote

cont

rol.

K-6

22H

$13

9.95

10-

30, f

/1.8

zoom

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic,

18th

roug

h th

e le

nsno

elec

tric

yes

25-4

0Fo

cusi

ng e

yepi

ece;

exp

osur

ew

arni

ng.

K-6

23H

$19

9.95

9-3

6, f

/1.8

zoom

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic,

thro

ugh

the

lens

,w

ith m

anua

l ove

rrid

e

18no

elec

tric

yes

25-1

00 F

ocus

ing

eyep

iece

.

KO

BE

NA

121

$ 59

.95

13, f

/1.8

; sto

psdo

wn

to f

/22

nofu

lly a

utom

atic

18no

no z

oom

yes

25-4

0R

emot

e co

ntro

l to

15 f

t.;bu

ilt-i

n fr

ame

coun

ter.

221

$ 89

.95

10.5

-21,

f/1

.8;

zoom

sto

ps d

own

f/22

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic18

nom

anua

lye

s25

-400

Dio

pter

vis

ual c

orre

ctio

n to

refl

ex f

inde

r; r

emot

e co

ntro

lto

15

ft.;

built

-in

fram

eco

unte

r.

321

$119

.50

10-3

0, f

/1.8

zoom

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic18

with

man

ual o

verr

ide

nom

anua

lye

s25

-400

Sam

e as

221

.

421

$159

.50

8.5-

35, f

/1.8

zoom

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic12

, 18,

24

with

man

ual o

verr

ide

noel

ectr

icye

s25

-400

Sam

e as

221

.

KO

DA

KIn

stam

atic

M2

$ 39

.95

f/1.

8; s

tops

dow

n to

f/2

3no

man

ual

18no

no z

oom

no

Inst

amat

ic M

4 $

69.9

5 f/

1.8,

sto

psno

fully

aut

omat

ic18

nono

zoo

mno

16, 2

5,64

(da

y-lig

ht);

25, 4

0,10

0(p

hoto

-fl

ood)

Inst

amat

ic M

5 $1

19.9

5 13

-28,

f/1

.9zo

omye

sfu

lly a

utom

atic

Inst

amat

ic M

6 $1

59.9

5 12

-36,

f/1

.8zo

om; s

tops

dow

n to

f/2

7

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic

MIN

OL

TA

Aut

opac

k -K

3 $1

49.5

0 12

-28,

f/1

.8zo

omye

sfu

lly a

utom

atic

,th

roug

h th

e le

ns

Aut

opac

k -K

5 $1

89.5

0 9.

5-30

, f/1

.8zo

omye

sfu

lly a

utom

atic

thro

ugh

the

lens

NIK

ON

Zoo

mSuper

8 $2

69.5

0 8.

8-45

, f/1

.8zo

omye

sfu

lly a

utom

atic

,th

roug

h th

e le

ns,

with

man

ual o

verr

ide

NIZ

OS8

$26

9.50

8-4

0, f

/1.8

zoom

, sto

psdo

wn

to f

/22

S8-T

$35

9.50

7-5

6, f

/1.8

zoom

yes

full

auto

mat

icw

ith m

anua

l ove

rrid

e

yes

fully

aut

omat

icw

ith m

anua

l ove

rrid

e\ 14

4PE

TR

ISuper

88.

5-34

, f/1

.7zo

omye

sfu

lly a

utom

atic

with

man

ual o

verr

ide

RA

INB

OW

-$

99.5

0 12

-30,

f/1

.8zo

omye

sfu

lly a

utom

atic

,th

roug

h th

e le

ns,

with

man

ual o

verr

ide

RE

VE

RE

Aut

omat

ic S

1 $

29.9

5 16

, f/2

.5no

man

ual

RIC

HM

ON

DSuper

100

$ 59

.95

f/1.

8no

fully

aut

omat

ic

Super

200

$ 79

.95

f/1.

8 zo

omno

fully

aut

omat

icSA

NK

YO

Super

CM

$13

9.95

10-

30, f

/1.7

ZO

OM

yes

fully

aut

omat

icw

ith m

anua

l ove

rrid

eSE

AR

SE

asi-

Loa

d C

115

$ 49

.95

f/1.

8,st

ops

Eas

i-L

oad

C11

6

Eas

i-L

oad

C16

0

Eas

i-L

oad

C16

1

dow

n to

f/2

2no

fully

aut

omat

ic

$ 69

.95

10-2

0, f

/1.8

zoom

nofu

lly a

utom

atic

with

man

ual o

verr

ide

$129

.95

11-3

5, f

/1.9

5,zo

om s

tops

dow

n to

f/6

4

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic

$169

.95

11-3

5, f

/ 1.9

5zo

om s

tops

dow

n to

f/6

4

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic

18no

man

ual

yes

18ye

sm

anua

lye

s

18ye

sm

anua

lye

s

12, 1

8,24

yes

man

ual

yes

12, 1

8,24

yes

man

ual o

rel

ectr

icye

s

18, 2

4ye

sel

ectr

icye

s

18, 2

4ye

sel

ectr

icye

s

18, 2

4ye

sm

anua

lye

s

18no

man

ual

yes

16no

no z

oom

yes

18no

no z

oom

yes

18no

man

ual

yes

18ye

sm

anua

lye

s

18no

no z

oom

yes

18no

man

ual

yes

18, 3

6ye

sm

anua

lye

s

18, 3

6ye

sel

ectr

ic a

ndm

anua

lye

s

16-1

00 A

djus

tabl

e ey

epie

ce.

sam

eA

djus

tabl

e ey

epie

ce.

as M

-4

16-1

00 A

pert

ure

scal

e, e

xpos

ure

war

ning

, film

rem

aini

ngsh

own

in v

iew

find

er.

10-2

50 R

emot

e co

ntro

l to

10 f

t.Sa

me

as K

3.

10-1

60 S

plit

imag

e fo

cusi

ng; r

emot

eco

ntro

l; m

eter

nee

dle,

ape

r-tu

re s

cale

, exp

osur

e w

arni

ngsh

own

in v

iew

find

er; a

djus

t-ab

le e

yepi

ece.

16-8

00 R

emot

e co

ntro

l to

75 f

t., ±

2di

opte

r ad

just

able

eye

piec

e.

16-8

00 S

ame

as S

8 ex

cept

red

ligh

tfl

ashe

s at

film

end

.

Rem

ote

cont

rol;

low

-lig

htex

posu

re in

dica

tor.

16-2

50 R

emot

e co

ntro

l: fi

lm r

ewin

d;bu

ilt-i

n fr

ame

coun

ter.

40 40 25-2

50 L

ow-l

ight

sig

nal i

n vi

ew-

find

er.

25-4

0

25-6

4

6-40

0A

djus

tabl

e ey

epie

ce; u

nder

-ex

posu

re m

eter

in v

iew

find

er.

6-40

0 R

emot

e co

ntro

l soc

ket.

0

CA

ME

RA

LIS

TL

EN

S (m

m)

AN

D R

EFL

EX

PRIC

EFO

CA

L L

EN

GT

HFI

ND

ER

EX

POSU

RE

CO

NT

RO

L

SEA

RS

(cow

.)9150 $

99.9

5 11

-35,

f/1

.95

zoom

, sto

psdo

wn

to f

/64

9162

$219

.95

9-45

, f/1

.8zo

om

nofu

lly a

utom

atic

,th

roug

h th

e le

ns

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic,

thro

ugh

the

lens

9166

$189

.95

8.5-

42.5

,f/

1.8

zoom

yes

fully

aut

omat

icw

ith m

anua

l ove

rrid

e

VE

RN

ON

4XR

$11

9.95

8.5

-35,

f/1

.8zo

om; s

tops

dow

n to

f/2

2

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic

Super 707 $

54.9

5 3.

5', f

/1.8

;st

ops

dow

n to

f/22

Super 708

nofu

lly a

utom

atic

$ 79

.95

10-2

5, 0

1.8

zoom

nofu

lly a

utom

atic

VIC

ER

OY

CRS III-Zoom

Reflex

$119

.95

9-25

, f/1

.8zo

om; s

tops

dow

nto

f/2

2

yes

fully

aut

omat

icw

ith m

anua

l ove

rrid

e

CRS-IV Power

Zoom Reflex

$159

.95

9-36

, f11

.8zo

omye

sfu

lly a

utom

atic

,th

roug

h th

e le

ns,

with

man

ual o

verr

ide

CRS VI-Zoom $

74.9

5 9-

25, f

/1.8

CD

Szo

om; s

tops

dow

n to

f/2

2

nofu

lly a

utom

atic

WA

RD

S70

3 $

43.9

5 13

; f/1

.8; s

tops

dow

n to

f/1

6no

fully

aut

omat

ic

704 $

64.9

5 12

.5-2

5, f

/1.8

zoom

nofu

lly a

utom

atic

705 $

88.9

5 11

-27.

5, f

/1.8

zoom

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic

YA

SHIC

ASuper-8 25

$110

.00

12-3

0,5/

1.8

zoom

yes

fully

aut

omat

icw

ith m

anua

l ove

rrid

e

Super-10 $

69.9

5 15

, f/1

.7; s

tops

dow

n to

f/1

6no

fully

aut

omat

ic

Super-25

$114

.95

12-3

0, f

/1.8

yes

fully

aut

omat

iczo

om

CA

ME

RA

SPE

ED

S (f

ps)

SIN

GL

EFR

AM

EE

XPO

SUR

E

EL

EC

TR

ICFI

LM

ZO

OM

DR

IVE

18no

man

ual

no

18, 3

6ye

sel

ectr

icye

s

18ye

sel

ectr

ic a

ndm

anua

lye

s

18no

man

ual

yes

1sno

no z

oom

yes

18no

man

ual

yes

18, 2

4no

man

ual

yes

12, 1

8,24

yes

elec

tric

yes

18no

man

ual

yes

18no

no z

oom

yes

18no

man

ual

yes

18, 2

4no

man

ual

yes

18ye

sm

anua

lye

s

18ye

sno

zoo

mye

s

18ye

sm

anua

lye

s

ASA

OT

HE

R F

EA

TU

RE

S

6-40

0

10-4

00 A

djus

tabl

e ey

epie

ce; s

plit-

imag

e ra

nge

find

er; r

emot

eco

ntro

l.

25-2

50 F

ocus

ing

eyep

iece

; low

-lig

htsi

gnal

and

f/s

top

show

n in

view

find

er.

25-4

00

16-1

00

16-1

00

10-4

00 R

emot

e co

ntro

l; bu

ilt-i

nfr

ame

coun

ter.

10-4

00 V

aria

ble

shut

ter.

10-2

00

25-4

0

25-4

0

10-4

00

25-4

0A

pert

ure

scal

e, e

xpos

ure

war

ning

sho

wn

on v

iew

find

er

25-5

0F/

stop

exp

osur

e w

arni

ng o

nvi

ewfi

nder

.

25-5

0Sa

me

as S

uper

-10.

Supe

r-30

$12

9.95

10-

30, f

/1.7

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic,

18ye

sm

anua

lye

s25

-100

F/s

top,

exp

osur

e w

arni

ng in

zoom

; sto

psth

roug

h th

e le

nsvi

ewfi

nder

; aer

ial i

mag

e, s

cale

dow

n to

f/2

2fo

cusi

ng.

Supe

r-50

$15

9.95

8.5

-42.

5,f/

1.8

thro

ugh

the

lens

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic,

18ye

sel

ectr

icye

s25

-100

Sam

e as

Sup

er 3

0, b

ut r

emot

eco

ntro

l to

15 f

t.

Sing

le8

Cam

era

Mod

els

CA

ME

RA

LIS

TL

EN

S (m

m)

AN

D R

EFL

EX

PRIC

EFO

CA

L L

EN

GT

HFI

ND

ER

EX

POSU

RE

CO

NT

RO

L

FUJI

CA

Sing

le 8

P-1

$ 7

9.95

11.

5, f

/1.8

;st

ops

dow

n to

f/16

nofu

lly a

utom

atic

Sing

le 8

Z-1

$15

9.50

9.5

-29,

f11

.6ye

sfu

lly a

utom

atic

zoom

; sto

psw

ith m

anua

l ove

rrid

e0 vt

dow

n to

f/1

6

Sing

le 8

Z-2

8.5-

34, f

/1.8

yes

fully

aut

omat

iczo

omw

ith m

anua

l ove

rrid

e

HO

NE

YW

EL

LD

ual-

$20

9.50

9-3

6, f

/1.9

;ye

sfu

lly a

utom

atic

,Fi

lmat

icst

ops

dow

n to

thro

ugh

the

lens

f/22

with

man

ual o

verr

ide

Tri

- $2

79.5

0Fi

lmat

ic

CA

ME

RA

SPE

ED

S (f

ps)

SIN

GL

EFR

AM

EE

XPO

SUR

EZ

OO

M

EL

EC

TR

ICFI

LM

DR

IVE

ASA

OT

HE

R F

EA

TU

RE

S

18no

no z

oom

yes

16-4

00 F

/sto

p sh

own

on v

iew

find

er.

18, 2

4ye

sm

anua

lye

s16

-400

Rem

ote

cont

rol.

18, 2

4ye

sm

anua

lye

s16

-400

Pro

visi

on f

or in

tent

iona

ldo

uble

exp

osur

e, f

ades

and

diss

olve

s.

18, 2

4ye

sel

ectr

ic a

ndm

anua

lye

s10

-100

Acc

epts

Sup

er a

nd S

ingl

e 8

split

-im

age

focu

sing

; rem

ote

cont

rol t

o 15

ft.;

Sin

gle

8 ca

nbe

rev

erse

d.

Sam

e as

Dua

l-Fi

lmat

ic b

utac

cept

s R

egul

ar 8

as

wel

l.

8MM

SO

UN

D C

AM

ER

A

FAIR

CH

ILD

900

$785

.00

9-30

, f/1

.8 z

oom

yes

fully

aut

omat

ic w

ith16

, 24

yes

10-4

00 8

mm

mag

netic

sou

nd-o

n-fi

lmm

anua

l ove

rrid

ere

cord

ing;

aut

omat

ic lo

ad-

ing,

50

ft. d

oubl

e 8

rolls

(pre

stri

ped)

, 200

ft.

(sta

nd-

ard

sile

nt);

und

erex

posu

rew

arni

ng; p

rovi

sion

for

re-

mot

e co

ntro

l; 56

fra

me

pic-

ture

/sou

nd s

epar

atio

n; a

uto-

mat

ic v

olum

e co

ntro

l with

man

ual o

verr

ide.

Sint PROJECTORS

Below in chart form are specifications for 8mm projectors available on the market asof June 1967. The list includes Regular 8 and Super 8 models (which also accept Single 8film), both sound and silent, and is ordered alphabetically by manufacturer and then bymodel name and/or number. Further Information is available from the manufacturer orfrom the buying guides referred ro on page 125.

97

Sile

nt P

roje

ctor

s

1. R

egul

ar 8

mod

els

PRO

JEC

TO

RL

IST

PRIC

EPR

OJE

CT

OR

SPE

ED

S (f

ps)

LE

NS

(mm

) A

ND

FOC

AL

LE

NG

TH

RE

EL

CA

PAC

ITY

TY

PE O

F L

AM

PE

XT

RA

SA

RG

US

Show

mas

ter

462

Show

mas

ter

500

$115

.00

vari

able

14, 5

-25,

f/1

.5 z

oom

400

feet

150

wat

t, D

FA; b

uilt-

in r

efle

ctor

Rev

erse

and

sin

gle

fram

e pr

ojec

tion;

sel

f-th

read

ing.

$ 75

.00

1822

, f/1

.540

0 fe

et15

0 w

att,

DFA

; bui

lt-in

ref

lect

orR

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

e fr

ame

proj

ectio

n.

BE

LL

do HO

WE

LL

Aut

oloa

d 24

5 B

ay

Aut

oloa

d 25

6

Aut

oloa

d 26

6

Aut

oloa

d 26

6Y

$ 99

.95

1817

-27,

f/1

.6 z

oom

400

feet

DFC

, bui

lt-in

ref

lect

orR

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

e fr

ame

proj

ectio

n;se

lf-t

hrea

ding

.$

79.9

518

1', (

11.6

400

feet

DFC

, bui

lt-in

ref

lect

orSa

me

as A

utol

oad

245

Bay

$144

.95

vari

able

1', f

/1.6

400

feet

DE

FSa

me

as A

utol

oad

245

Bay

but

has

7-10

fps

slo

w m

otio

n.$1

64.9

5va

riab

le17

-27,

f/1

.6 z

oom

400

feet

DE

FSa

me

as A

utol

oad

245

Bay

but

has

7-10

fps

slo

w m

otio

n.B

OL

EX

18-5

Aut

omat

ic$1

69.9

5$1

99.9

5va

riab

le15

or

20, f

/1.3

12, 5

-25,

f/1

.3 z

oom

400

feet

Aut

omat

ic o

r m

anua

l thr

eadi

ng; 5

fps

slow

mot

ion;

fra

min

g co

ntro

l.B

RU

MB

ER

GE

R15

03

1500

$ 39

.95

18Y

e, f

/1.6

with

slid

ing

focu

s20

0 fe

et30

0 w

att,

refl

ecto

r

$ 29

.95

1820

0 fe

et15

0 w

att

Sim

ilar

to 1

503

with

dif

fere

nt le

ns.

CA

VA

LIE

R$

59.9

5va

riab

le15

-25,

f/1

.5 z

oom

400

feet

150

wat

t, D

FAdi

rect

ligh

ting

Rev

erse

and

sin

gle

fram

e pr

ojec

tion;

self

-thr

eadi

ng.

DA

LIA

Zoo

m A

uto

Del

uxe

$ 79

.50

vari

able

15-2

5, f

/1.6

zoo

m40

0 fe

et50

wat

t, 8

volt

Self

-thr

eadi

ng; r

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

e fr

ame

proj

ectio

n.G

AF

Ans

covi

sion

180

Ans

covi

sion

280

$ 74

.95

18Y

i° f

/1.5

400

feet

150

wat

t, di

rect

light

ing,

DFA

Self

-thr

eadi

ng.

$ 99

.95

vari

able

15-2

5, f

/1.5

zoo

m40

0 fe

et15

0 w

att,

dire

ctlig

htin

g, D

FASi

mila

r to

Ans

covi

sion

180

but

has

reve

rse

and

sing

le f

ram

e pr

ojec

tion;

slo

w m

otio

nto

8 f

ps.

KO

DA

KB

row

nie

8 M

odel

A15

Che

vron

8M

odel

10

$ 54

.95

18Y

e, f

/1.6

200

feet

150

wat

t, T

rufl

ecto

rD

EN

Aut

omat

ic th

read

ing.

$204

.50

vari

able

22, f

/140

0 fe

etdi

chro

ic D

KR

Aut

omat

ic th

read

ing;

hig

h sp

eed

rew

ind;

still

and

rev

erse

cap

abili

ty; a

ir je

t coo

ling.

OL

YM

PIC

Mod

el 5

00$

39.9

518

Ye,

f/5

400

feet

150

wat

t, di

rect

light

ing

LIE

SEG

AN

GS1

Syn

chro

$199

.50

$219

.00

vari

able

20 o

r 16

, f/1

.315

-25,

f/1

.640

0 fe

etA

utom

atic

thre

adin

g; s

low

mot

ion;

reve

rse

and

still

pro

ject

ion.

RIC

HM

ON

DA

uror

a I

$ 69

.95

18Y

e. f

/1.5

400

feet

150

wat

tD

FA T

rufl

ecto

rA

ccep

ts s

trip

ed f

ilm; r

ecor

der/

play

back

atta

chm

ent;

auto

mat

ic th

read

ing.

Aur

ora

II$

89.9

518

Ye,

f11

.540

0 fe

et15

0 w

att,

DFA

Tru

flec

tor

Sim

ilar

to A

uror

a 1,

but

has

1-9

fps

slow

mot

ion;

rev

erse

and

sin

gle

fram

epr

ojec

tion.

Mid

el 6

00$

59.9

518

Ve.

f/1

.540

0 fe

etD

CH

Tru

flec

tor,

150

wat

t; bu

ilt-i

n re

flec

tor;

dire

ct li

ghtin

g

Acc

epts

str

iped

film

; rec

orde

r/pl

ayba

ckat

tach

men

t.

Mod

el 8

00$

79.9

518

15-2

5, f

/1.5

zoo

m40

0 fe

etD

CH

Tru

flec

tor,

150

-w

att;

built

-in

refl

ecto

r;di

rect

ligh

ting

7-9

fps

slow

mot

ion.

SEA

RS

Aut

omat

ic 9

270

$ 89

.95

vari

able

1', f

/1.6

400

feet

150

line-

volta

ge, D

FCSe

lf-t

hrea

ding

; slo

w m

otio

n; s

till a

nd r

ever

sepr

ojec

tion.

9288

Sup

er A

utom

atic

$114

.95

vari

able

23, f

/1.2

400

feet

150

wat

t, Su

per

Tru

-fl

ecto

r; T

14; 2

1.5

volt;

dich

roic

ref

lect

or

Aut

omat

ic th

read

ing;

slo

w m

otio

n; r

ever

sean

d st

ill p

roje

ctio

n.

2. S

uper

8 (

Sing

le 8

) M

odel

s

PRO

JEC

TO

RL

IST

PRIC

EPR

OJE

CT

OR

SPE

ED

S (f

ps)

LE

NS

(mm

) A

ND

FOC

AL

LE

NG

TH

RE

EL

CA

PAC

ITY

AR

GU

SSh

owm

aste

r 87

0$

80.0

018

23, q

i.540

0 fe

et

Show

mas

ter

871

$105

.00

1823

, f/1

.540

0 fe

et

Show

mas

ter

872

$130

.00

1818

, 5-3

2,f/

1.5

zoom

400

feet

AG

FA-G

EV

AE

RT

Mov

ecto

r B

S$1

19.9

518

15-2

5, f

/1.3

zoo

m40

0 fe

et

Ti -

S$1

79.9

518

18-3

0, f

/1.3

zoo

m40

0 fe

et

T3

$ 79

.95

9, 1

820

, f/1

.3 o

r20

0 fe

et$

99.9

518

-30,

f/1

.4 z

oom

TY

PE O

F L

AM

PE

XT

RA

S

150

wat

t, di

rect

-lig

htin

g D

FGR

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

e fr

ame

proj

ectio

n.

Rev

erse

and

sin

gle

fram

e pr

ojec

tion;

self

-thr

eadi

ng.

Self

-thr

eadi

ng; r

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

e fr

ame

proj

ectio

n.

8 vo

lt, 5

0 w

att

Aut

omat

ic lo

adin

g; r

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

efr

ame

proj

ectio

n.

100

wat

t, 12

vol

t,qu

artz

-iod

ine

high

inte

nsity

, (eq

uiva

lent

to 7

50 w

atts

)

Self

-thr

eadi

ng; c

an b

e op

erat

ed in

sync

hron

izat

ion

with

tape

rec

orde

ran

d bu

ilt-i

n sy

nchr

oniz

er a

t 31/

4 ip

s.

8 vo

lt, 5

0 w

att

Aut

omat

ic lo

adin

g.

PRO

JEC

TO

R

LIS

TPR

ICE

PRO

JEC

TO

RSP

EE

DS

(fps

)L

EN

S (m

m)

AN

DFO

CA

L L

EN

GT

HR

EE

LC

APA

CIT

Y

BE

LL

& H

OW

EL

L

BE

LL

& H

OW

EL

L

356

3572 482

482Z 483

483Z

466Z

$ 94

.95

1825

,f1

1.6

400

feet

$114

.95

1817

-27,

f/1

.640

0 fe

et

$149

.95

6-22

17-2

7, f

/1.6

400

feet

$169

.95

6-22

17-2

7, f

/1.6

zoo

m40

0 fe

et

$189

.95

6-22

17-2

7, (

/1.2

400

feet

$214

.95

6-2.

219

-32,

( /1

.2 z

oom

feet

$189

.95

6-22

19-2

3, f

/1.2

zoo

m40

0 fe

et

BO

LE

X18

-5 S

uper

18-5

Sup

er

$179

.50

1815

, 20,

or

25,

f/1.

340

0 fe

et

$209

.50

1817

-28,

f/1

.3 z

oom

400

feet

CA

SPE

CO

P-2

00$1

19.9

5va

riab

le20

-30

, f/1

.4 z

oom

400

feet

DE

JUR

Dua

l PT

-90

Dua

l PT

-90M

V

Dua

l PT

-99

Dua

l PT

-99M

V

Eld

orad

o I

PT-8

0

Eld

orad

o I

PT-8

0 M

V

Eld

orad

o II

PT

-88

$219

.95

6-22

15-2

5, f

/1.4

zoo

m40

0 fe

et

$234

.95

6-22

15-2

5, E

/1.4

zoo

m40

0 fe

et

$244

.95

6-22

15-2

5, y

1.4

zoom

400

feet

$259

.95

6-22

15-2

5, (

/1.4

zoo

m40

0 fe

et

$159

.95

6-22

15-2

5, f

/1.5

zoo

m40

0 fe

et

$174

.95

400

feet

$194

.95

400

feet

TY

PE O

F L

AM

PE

XT

RA

S

150

wan

, dir

ect-

light

ing

DJL

Self

-thr

eadi

ng; r

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

efr

ame

proj

ectio

n.

150

wan

, dir

ect-

light

ing

DJL

Self

-thr

eadi

ng; r

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

efr

ame

proj

ectio

n; d

ial f

ocus

ing.

250

wat

t, di

rect

-lig

htin

g; D

LH

Self

-thr

eadi

ng; r

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

efr

ame

proj

ectio

n; d

ial f

ocus

ing;

slow

mot

ion.

Self

-thr

eadi

ng; r

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

efr

ame

proj

ectio

n; d

ial f

ocus

ing;

slow

mot

ion.

200

wan

, dir

ect-

light

ing

DSW

low

vol

tage

Self

-thr

eadi

ng; r

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

eE

rode

pro

ject

ion;

dia

l foc

usin

g;sl

ow m

otio

n.

200

wan

, dir

ect-

light

ing

DSW

low

vol

tage

Self

-thr

eadi

ng; r

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

efr

ame

proj

ectio

n; d

ial f

ocus

ing;

slow

mot

ion.

120

volt,

250

wan

DL

HSe

lf-t

hrea

ding

; fiic

kede

sssl

ow m

otio

n; s

ingl

e fr

ame

proj

ectio

n.

Rev

erse

pro

ject

ion;

slo

w m

otio

n.

Rev

erse

pro

ject

ion;

slo

w m

otio

n.

8 vo

lt, 5

0 w

anA

utom

atic

load

ing;

rev

erse

and

sin

gle

fram

e pr

ojec

tion.

high

inte

nsity

dich

roic

lam

pB

oth

8 an

d Su

per

8; a

utom

atic

thre

adin

g.

high

inte

nsity

dich

roic

lam

pB

oth

8 an

d Su

per

8; a

utom

atic

thre

adin

g; m

ultip

le v

olta

ge c

ontr

ol.

high

inte

nsity

dich

roic

lam

pB

oth

8 an

d Su

per

8; a

utom

atic

thre

adin

g; b

uilt-

in v

iew

er.

high

inte

nsity

dich

roic

lam

pB

oth

8 an

d Su

per

.8; a

utom

atic

thre

adin

g; m

ultip

le v

olta

ge c

ontr

ol.

Rev

erse

and

sin

gle

fram

e pr

ojec

tion;

slow

mot

ion;

fas

t rew

ind.

Rev

erse

and

sin

gle

fram

e pr

ojec

tion;

slow

mot

ion;

fas

t rew

ind.

Rev

erse

and

sin

gle

fram

e pr

ojec

tion;

slow

mot

ion;

fas

t rew

ind;

bui

lt-in

vie

wer

.

8

Eld

orad

o II

PT

-88

MV

$209

.95

DP-

77$1

39.9

56-

22

DP-

808

$149

.95

6-22

DP-

888

$179

.95

6-22

EU

MIG

Mar

k M

$179

.95

18, 2

4

VII

$159

.95

18, 2

4

FUJI

CA

M3

$159

.50

12-2

4

SM2

$149

.50

16-2

6$1

62.5

0

GA

FA

nsco

visi

on 3

80$

84.9

518

Ans

covi

sion

480

$114

.95

vari

able

Ans

covi

sion

388

$ 74

.95

18

Ans

covi

sion

488

$ 89

.95

vari

able

Ans

covi

sion

588

$ 99

.95

vari

able

GO

LD

CR

EST

88$

74.9

5va

riab

le

HE

UR

TIE

RP.

6-2

4$1

89.5

018

, 24

$209

.50

$410

.00

18, 2

4

HO

NE

YW

EL

LFP

8-C

$169

.50

12-2

2$1

89.5

0

400

feet

Rev

erse

and

sin

gle

fram

e pr

ojec

tion;

slow

mot

ion;

fas

t rew

ind;

bui

lt in

vie

wer

;m

ultip

le v

olta

ge c

ontr

ol.

15-2

5, f

/1.

400

feet

Self

-thr

eadi

ng; 8

and

Sup

er 8

.

15-2

5, f

/1.4

zoo

m40

0 fe

et12

0 vo

lt, 1

50 w

att

DFG

Self

-thr

eadi

ng; a

utom

atic

sw

itch

turn

son

pro

ject

or la

mp

as f

ilm e

nter

s;8

and

Supe

r 8.

15-2

5, f

/1.4

zoo

m40

0 fe

et12

0 vo

lt, 1

50 w

att,

DFG

Sam

e as

DP-

808;

bui

lt -i

n vi

ewer

;8

and

Supe

r 8.

15-2

5, (

/1.3

400

feet

12 v

olt q

uart

z-io

dine

(75

0 w

atts

)R

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

e fr

ame

proj

ectio

n;se

lf-t

hrea

ding

.

20, f

/1.3

400

feet

12 v

olt;

quar

tz-i

odin

e(7

50 w

atts

)R

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

e fr

ame

proj

ectio

n;se

lf-t

hrea

ding

.

15-2

5, f

/1.3

zoo

m40

0 fe

et8

volt;

50

wat

t8,

Sup

er 8

, Sin

gle

8; r

ever

sean

d si

ngle

fra

me

proj

ectio

n; s

elf-

thre

adin

g; s

low

mot

ion;

take

s di

ffer

ent

form

ats

on s

ame

reel

.

25, f

/1.4

19-3

2, f

/1.4

zoo

m40

0 fe

et15

0 w

att,

built

-in

refl

ecto

rSi

ngle

fra

me

proj

ectio

n; S

uper

and

sin

gle

8, a

utom

atic

thre

adin

g.

%",

f/1

.5,

2540

0 fe

et15

0 w

att,

dire

ct-

light

ing,

DFA

Self

-thr

eadi

ng.

15-2

5, f

/1.5

zoom

400

feet

150

wat

t, di

rect

-lig

htin

g, D

FAR

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

e fr

ame

proj

ectio

n.

f/1.

440

0 fe

et12

0 vo

lt, 1

50 w

att

DFP

Self

thre

adin

g; 8

and

Sup

er 8

.

f/1.

440

0 fe

et12

0 vo

lt, 1

50 w

att

DFP

Self

-thr

eadi

ng; 8

and

Sup

er 8

;re

vers

e an

d si

ngle

fra

me

proj

ectio

n.;

f/1.

5 zo

om40

0 fe

et12

0 vo

lt, 1

50 w

att

DFP

Self

-thr

eadi

ng; 8

and

Sup

er 8

;re

vers

e an

d si

ngle

fra

me

proj

ectio

n.

20-3

2, f

/1.5

zoo

m40

0 fe

et8

volt,

50

wat

tre

flec

tor

Self

-thr

eadi

ng; r

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

e fr

ame

proj

ectio

n; 8

and

Sup

er 8

.

20 o

r 25

, f/1

.515

-25,

f/1

.5 z

oom

400

feet

low

vol

tage

, hig

hin

tens

ity la

mp

Bot

h Su

per

8 an

d 8

mm

; 6 o

r 8

fps

slow

mot

ion;

rev

erse

and

sin

gle

fram

e pr

o-je

ctio

n; a

utom

atic

thre

adin

g; a

ccep

tsst

ripe

d fi

lm s

ound

atta

chm

ent.

Soun

d ba

se c

ompl

ete

with

mic

roph

one

and

spea

ker.

25, f

/1.3

20-3

2, f

/1.3

zoo

m40

0 fe

et21

.5 v

olt,

built

-in

refl

ecto

r8

and

Supe

r 8;

aut

omat

ic th

read

ing;

reve

rse

and

sing

le f

ram

e pr

ojec

tion;

high

spe

ed r

ewin

d.

PRO

JEC

TO

R

LIS

TPR

ICE

PRO

JEC

TO

RSP

EE

DS

(fps

)L

EN

S (m

m)

AN

DFO

CA

L L

EN

GT

HR

EE

LC

APA

CIT

YT

YPE

OF

LA

MP

HO

NE

YW

EL

L(c

ont.)

Elm

o FP

8-C

$209

.50

12-2

240

0 fe

etha

loge

n la

mp

IMA

CSu

per

8$1

09.9

5va

riab

le20

-32,

f/1

.5 z

oom

400

feet

8 vo

lt, 5

0 w

att

INT

ER

-8 S

UPE

R$

89.9

5va

riab

le20

-30,

f/1

.4 z

oom

400

feet

50 w

att,

8 vo

ltdi

rect

-lig

htin

g

KE

YST

ON

EK

-519

M

K-5

20

K-5

25 M

K-5

30 M

K-5

40 Z

K-5

50 Z

$ 70

.00

1815

, f/1

.320

0 fe

et15

0 w

att D

JAT

rufl

ecto

r

$ 85

.00

1820

, f/1

.320

0 fe

et15

0 w

att D

JAre

flec

ted

light

lam

p

$ 85

.00

1820

, f/1

.340

0 fe

et15

0 w

att D

FG la

mp

$105

.00

1820

, f/1

.340

0 fe

et15

0 w

att D

FGdi

rect

ligh

ting

$130

.00

vari

able

18-3

0, f

/1.4

zoo

m40

0 fe

et15

0 w

att D

FGdi

rect

ligh

ting

$149

.95

5-26

18-3

0, f

/1.4

zoo

m40

0 fe

et15

0 w

att D

EG

dire

ct li

ghtin

g

KO

DA

KIn

stam

atic

M50

Inst

amat

ic M

W

Inst

amat

ic M

70

Inst

amat

ic M

80

Inst

amat

ic M

90

Inst

amat

ic M

95

Inst

amat

ic M

65

$ 69

.95

1828

, f/1

.520

0 fe

et15

0 w

att D

FN w

ithre

flec

ted

light

ing

$ 84

.95

1828

, f/1

.520

0 fe

et15

0 w

att D

FN w

ithre

flec

ted

light

ing

$149

.50

$169

.50

6, 1

8, 5

428

, f/1

.5 o

r20

-30,

f/1

.5 z

oom

400

feet

150

wat

t DN

Edi

rect

ligh

ting

$199

.50

$219

.50

9-26

20-3

2, f

/1.5

or

20-3

2, f

/1.5

zoo

m40

0 fe

et15

0 w

att D

NE

dire

ct li

ghtin

g

$189

.50

$195

.00

6, 1

8, 5

428

, f/1

20-3

2, f

/1.5

zoo

m40

0 fe

et21

vol

t, 15

0 w

att

DN

F di

rect

ligh

ting

$224

.95

$209

.95

$229

.95

6, 1

8, 5

428

, f/1

.0 o

r22

, f/1

.5 o

r20

-30,

f/.5

zoo

m

400

feet

21 v

olt,

150

wat

tT

rube

am

$ 99

.95

1822

, f/1

.540

0 fe

et15

0 w

att D

FN

LA

GR

AN

GE

Dan

y 8

Del

uxe

$199

.00

vari

able

15-2

5, f

/1.4

zoo

m40

0 fe

et21

.5 v

olt,

150

wat

t

EX

TR

AS

Supe

r 8

and

8; b

righ

ter

vers

ion

of F

P8-C

.

Aut

omat

ic lo

adin

g, r

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

e&

aux

proj

ectio

n; r

ear

pres

sure

pla

te.

Rev

erse

and

sin

gle

fram

e pr

ojec

tion;

self

-

thre

adin

g.

Spro

cket

less

tran

spor

t; se

lf-t

hrea

ding

.

Rev

erse

and

sin

gle

fram

e pr

ojec

tion;

spro

cked

ess

tran

spor

t; se

lf-t

hrea

ding

.

Rev

erse

pro

ject

ion.

Rev

erse

and

sin

gle

fram

e pr

ojec

tion;

self

-thr

eadi

ng.

Rev

erse

and

sin

gle

fram

e pr

ojec

tion;

self

-thr

eadi

ng.

Rev

erse

and

sin

gle

fran

proj

ectio

n;se

lf-t

hrea

ding

: slo

w-m

otio

n.

Self

-thr

eadi

ng; s

proc

kede

ss tr

ansp

ort.

Aut

omat

ic s

peed

rew

ind,

bui

lt-in

prev

iew

scr

een;

oth

erw

ise

sam

e as

M50

;

Self

-thr

eadi

ng; s

ingl

e fr

ame

proj

ectio

n;sp

rock

edes

s tr

ansp

ort;

can

be o

pera

ted

in c

onju

nctio

n w

ith a

tape

rec

orde

r.

8mm

and

Sup

er 8

; oth

erw

ise

sam

eas

M70

.

Sim

ilar

to M

70.

8 an

d Su

per

8; r

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

efr

ame

proj

ectio

n; a

utom

atic

thre

adin

g.

8 an

d Su

per

8; a

utom

atic

thre

adin

g;pr

evie

w s

cree

n.

Bui

lt-in

scr

een

with

wal

l scr

een

capa

bilit

y;au

tom

atic

thre

adin

g; r

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

e fr

ame

proj

ectio

n; p

rovi

sion

for

tape

rec

orde

rsy

nchr

oniz

atio

n.

MIN

OL

TA

NIZ

O

AP-

85$1

59.5

0va

riab

le17

-30,

f/1

.4 z

oom

400

feet

150-

wat

t, bu

ilt-i

nre

flec

tor

Rev

erse

and

sin

gle

fram

e pr

ojec

tion;

self

-thr

eadi

ng.

FP

1S$2

19.5

018

15, f

/1.4

or15

-25,

f/1

.5 z

oom

400

feet

100-

wat

t, 12

vol

tdi

rect

-lig

htin

g io

dine

Rev

erse

and

sin

gle

fram

e pr

ojec

tion;

self

-thr

eadi

ng; b

uilt-

in s

igna

l gen

erat

oren

able

s ad

ditio

n of

sou

nd.

FP

3$1

69.5

0$1

89.5

0va

riab

le20

, f/1

.3or

18-3

6, f

/1.4

zoo

m40

0 fe

et10

0 w

att,

12 v

olt

Saxe

as

FP 1

S, b

ut n

o so

und

capa

bilit

y.

NO

RR

ISSu

per

8 83

0$1

79.9

5$1

99.9

5va

riab

le25

, f/1

.3or

19-3

0, f

/1.6

zoo

m40

0 fe

etha

loge

nA

utom

atic

load

ing;

rev

erse

and

sin

gle

fram

e pr

ojec

tion;

bui

lt-in

tape

coup

ler

avai

labl

e ($

209.

95, $

229.

95).

RIC

HM

ON

DD

ual E

ight

$119

.95

22, f

/1.5

400

feet

120

volt,

150

wat

tD

FGSu

per

8 an

d 8;

rev

erse

and

sin

gle

fram

epr

ojec

tion.

Aur

ora

I-Super

$84

.95

183/4"

wid

e an

gle,

f/1.

540

0 fe

et15

0-w

att d

irec

tlig

htin

g D

FGSe

lf-t

hrea

ding

.

Aur

oraII-Super

$97

.95

9-20

3/4"

wid

e an

gle

f/1.

540

0 fe

et15

0-w

att,

dire

ctlig

htin

g D

FGR

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

e fr

ame

proj

ectio

n;se

lf-t

hrea

ding

.

Aur

ora

II-Z

Super

$104

.95

9-20

15-2

5, f

/1.5

zoo

m40

0 fe

et15

0-w

att,

dire

ctlig

htin

g D

FGR

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

e fr

ame

proj

ectio

n;se

lf-t

hrea

ding

.

600-Super

$69

.95

183/4'

wid

e an

gle

f/1.

540

0 fe

et15

0-w

att,

dire

ctlig

htin

g D

FGSa

me

as A

uror

a I

exce

pt n

ose

lf-t

hrea

ding

.

800-WA-Super

$79

.95

vari

able

34'

wid

e an

gle,

f/1.

540

0 fe

et15

0-w

att,

dire

ctlig

htin

g D

FGR

ever

se p

roje

ctio

n; s

elf-

thre

adin

g.

800-2-Super

$89

.95

vari

able

15-2

5, f

/1.5

zoo

m40

0 fe

et15

0-w

att,

dire

ct-

light

ing

DFG

Rev

erse

pro

ject

ion.

RA

INB

OW

JP-5

$ 99

.50

vari

able

15-2

5, f

/1.4

400

feet

50-w

att,

8 vo

ltA

utom

atic

load

ing.

SAN

KY

OD

mak

x 8s

$169

.95

vari

able

400

feet

Supe

r an

d re

gula

r 8.

Sel

f-th

read

ing;

reve

rse

and

sing

le f

ram

epr

ojec

tion.

Supe

r L

M$1

39.9

5va

riab

le20

, f/1

.340

0 fe

et8

volt,

50-

wat

tdi

rect

-lig

htin

gR

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

e fr

ame

proj

ectio

n.

SEA

RS

Eas

i-L

oad

9200

$109

.95

1825

, f/1

.640

0 fe

et15

0 w

att,

dire

ct-

lihgt

ing

DJI

.Sl

ow m

otio

n; r

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

e fr

ame

proj

ectio

n; s

elf-

thre

adin

g; c

an ta

ke s

ound

.

Eas

i-L

oad

9201

$122

.95

1815

-25,

f/1

.6 z

oom

400

feet

150

wat

t, di

rect

-lig

htin

gDP.

Sim

ilar

to 9

200.

Eas

i-L

oad

9202

$139

.95

vari

able

25, f

/1.2

400

feet

21 v

olt,

150

wat

tdi

rect

-lig

htin

g D

HX

Sim

ilar

to 9

200

plus

spl

icer

..

Eas

i-L

oad

9203

$159

.95

vari

able

19-3

3, f

/1.2

zoo

m40

0 fe

et21

vol

t, 15

0 w

att

dire

ct-l

ight

ing

DH

XSi

mila

r to

920

0.

VE

RN

ON

Ray

nox

5-50

0$

99.9

5va

riab

le20

-32,

f/1

.5 z

oom

400

feet

50 w

att,

8 vo

ltdi

rect

-lig

htin

gR

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

e fr

ame

proj

ectio

n.

0

PRO

JEC

TO

RL

IST

PRIC

EPR

OJE

CT

OR

SPE

ED

S (f

ps)

LE

NS

(mm

) A

ND

FOC

AL

LE

NG

TH

RE

EL

CA

PAC

ITY

TY

PE O

F L

AM

PE

XT

RA

S

ZR

S Sl

im li

ne$1

19.9

5va

riab

le20

-32,

f/1

.5 z

oom

400

feet

8 vo

lt, 5

0 w

att

refl

ecto

rSi

mila

r to

Ray

nox

5-50

0, b

ut is

self

-thr

eadi

ng.

VIC

ER

OY

801

802

803

$ 64

.95

1820

, f/1

.440

0 fe

et50

0 w

att e

quiv

alen

tR

ever

se p

roje

ctio

n; s

elf-

thre

adin

g; .

spro

cked

ess

tran

spor

t; au

tom

atic

rew

ind.

$ 79

.95

1820

, f/1

.440

0 fe

et50

0 w

att e

quiv

alen

tFo

rwar

d, r

ever

se, s

till,

and

fast

for

war

dco

ntro

ls. S

imila

r to

801

.

$ 89

.95

1820

, f/1

.440

0 fe

et50

0 w

att e

quiv

alen

tFo

rwar

d, r

ever

se, s

till,

and

fast

for

war

dco

ntro

ls, s

imila

r to

801

.

WA

RD

S86

6

886

$ 62

.95

1820

, f/1

.5 z

oom

300

feet

150

wat

t, di

rect

-lig

htin

g D

JAR

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

e fr

ame

proj

ectio

n;sp

rock

edes

s tr

ansp

ort;

self

-thr

eadi

ng.

$ 87

.50

1820

, f/1

.5 z

oom

400

feet

500

wat

t, di

rect

-lig

htin

g, D

JAR

ever

se p

roje

ctio

n; s

elf-

thre

adin

g.

ZE

ISS-

IKO

NM

oviL

ux 5

8$1

99.9

5$2

29.0

018

,24

18, f

/1.2

or15

-25,

f/1

.4 z

oom

400

feet

12 v

olt,

100

wat

tha

loge

nR

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

e fr

ame

proj

ectio

n.

Soun

d pr

ojec

tors

1. R

egul

ar 8

mod

els

PRO

JEC

TO

RL

IST

PRO

JEC

TO

RL

EN

S (m

m)

AN

DR

EE

LSO

UN

D

PRIC

ESP

EE

DS

(fps

)FO

CA

L L

EN

GT

HT

YPE

OF

LA

MP

CA

PAC

ITY

TR

AC

KE

XT

RA

S

EU

MIG

Mar

i S$3

19.5

016

, 18,

24

13-2

5, f

/1.3

100

wat

t, 12

vol

t,40

0 fe

etm

agne

ticA

utom

atic

thre

adin

g; f

orw

ard

and

reve

rse

quar

tz-i

odin

epr

ojec

tion;

4-w

att a

mpl

ifie

r; b

uilt-

in s

peak

er;

soun

dwith

soun

d,so

undo

vers

ound

reco

rdin

g.

HO

NE

YW

EL

LE

lmo

TP-

8$4

95.0

016

, 24

150

wat

t DC

A40

0 fe

etm

agne

ticR

ecor

d an

d pl

ayba

ck; r

ever

se p

roje

ctio

n; 1

0w

att a

mpl

ifie

r; 5

' spe

aker

.

INT

ER

NA

TIO

NA

LM

V-8

$396

.00

16, 2

415

0 w

att

600

feet

mag

netic

Rec

ord

and

play

back

; rev

erse

pro

ject

ion;

10

AU

DIO

-VIS

UA

L&

opt

ical

wat

t tra

nsis

tori

zed

ampl

ifie

r; 7

' spe

aker

.

IAV

Xen

on 8

$1,4

96.

16, 2

4X

enon

, 150

wat

t60

0 fe

etm

agne

ticR

ecor

d an

d pl

ayba

ck; r

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

e&

opt

ical

spee

d pr

ojec

tion;

slo

w m

otio

n; 1

0 w

att

tran

sist

oriz

ed a

mpl

ifie

r; 7

' spe

aker

.

PAT

HE

Nor

ris

8-Z

oom

$199

.95

8-26

15-2

5, f

/1.6

zoom

12 v

olt,

100

wat

t40

0 fe

et

SEA

RS

Soun

dsta

ge 9

258

Soun

dsta

ge 9

259

$199

.95

18, 2

41'

, f/1

.215

0 w

att D

FP40

0 fe

etm

agne

tic

$214

.95

18, 2

41'

, f/1

.2 z

oom

150

wat

t DFP

400

feet

mag

netic

TO

EK

Tal

kie

8

Tal

kie

8M

on r

eque

st25

, f/1

.521

vol

t, 15

0 w

att

Tru

flec

tor

600

feet

optic

al

on r

eque

st25

, f/1

.521

vol

t, 15

0 w

att

Tru

flec

tor

600

feet

optic

al&

mag

netic

VIE

WL

EX

VO

S-/

$350

.00

16, 2

420

, f/1

.415

0 w

att,

21.5

vol

tD

CA

600

feet

optic

al&

mag

netic

VIS

CO

UN

T-

CH

UK

OH

Mod

el 8

T-1

$249

.50

16, 2

415

-25,

f/1

.4zo

om15

0 w

att,

21.5

vol

t40

0 fe

etm

agne

tic&

opt

ical

Self

-thr

eadi

ng; r

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

e fr

ame

proj

-ec

tion;

ope

rate

s w

ith a

ny ta

pe r

ecor

der

at31

/4 ip

s.

Soun

d, r

ecor

d, p

layb

ack;

2 w

att a

mpl

ifie

r;bu

ilt-i

n sp

eake

r; r

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

e fr

ame

proj

ectio

n; a

utom

atic

thre

adin

g.

Sim

ilar

to S

ound

stag

e 92

58.

5 x

8' o

val s

peak

er.

Sim

ilar

to T

alki

e 8.

8mm

and

for

mat

M; 8

wat

t am

plif

icat

ion;

5 x

7' s

peak

er; r

ever

se p

roje

ctio

n; s

emi-

auto

-m

atic

thre

adin

g; r

ecor

d an

d pl

ayba

ck.

Rec

ord

and

play

back

; 5 x

734

" sp

eake

r;re

vers

e an

d si

ngle

fra

me

proj

ectio

n; a

uto-

mat

ic th

read

ing.

2. S

uper

8 (

Sing

le 8

) m

odel

s

PRO

JEC

TO

RL

IST

PRIC

EPR

OJE

CT

OR

SPE

ED

S (f

ps)

LE

NS

(mm

) A

ND

FOC

AL

LE

NG

TH

TY

PE O

F L

AM

PR

EE

LC

APA

CIT

YSO

UN

DT

RA

CK

BO

LE

X18

-5$3

60.0

0$3

90.0

018

, 24

15, f

/1.2

or14

-25,

f/1

.380

0 fe

etm

agne

tic

CA

RE

NA

858

$559

.50

18, 2

420

, f/1

.212

vol

t, 10

0 w

att

400

feet

mag

netic

DU

KA

NE

2848

$550

.00

18, 2

428

, f/1

.4D

NF

halo

gen

600

feet

mag

netic

& o

ptic

al

EU

MIG

Mar

k S

Supe

r 8

$349

.95

18, 2

415

-25,

f/1

.3zo

omqu

artz

-iod

ine

400

feet

mag

netic

HE

UR

TIE

RP

6-24

$599

.50

6, 1

8,8,

24

20 o

r 25

, f/1

.5lo

w-v

olta

ge, h

igh

inte

nsity

400

feet

mag

netic

EX

TR

AS

Aut

omat

ic th

read

ing;

bui

lt-in

fra

me

coun

ter;

soun

d ov

er s

ound

.

For

8 an

d Su

per

8; r

ecor

d an

d pl

ayba

ck; 3

wat

tam

plif

ier;

2 in

puts

; 3 x

6' d

etac

habl

e sp

eake

r;re

vers

e an

d si

ngle

fra

me

proj

ectio

n; a

uto-

mat

ic th

read

ing;

sou

nd o

n so

und

reco

rdin

gan

d m

ixin

g; e

cho

cont

rol;

slow

mot

ion.

Self

-thr

eadi

ng; r

ecor

d an

d pl

ayba

ck.

Rec

ord

and

play

back

; aut

omat

ic th

read

ing;

reve

rse

proj

ectio

n; 4

wat

t am

plif

ier;

bui

lt-in

oval

spe

aker

, sou

nd w

ith s

ound

; sou

nd o

ver

soun

d re

cord

ing.

Rec

ord

and

play

back

; 6 w

att a

mpl

ifie

r; 1

1 x

10' s

peak

er; r

ever

se a

nd s

ingl

e fr

ame

proj

ec-

tion;

aut

omat

ic th

read

ing;

slo

w m

otio

n at

6 fp

s.

PRO

JEC

TO

R

LIS

TPR

ICE

PRO

JEC

TO

RL

EN

S (m

m)

AN

DSP

EE

DS

(fps

)FO

CA

L L

EN

GT

HT

YPE

OF

LA

MP

RE

EL

SOU

ND

CA

PAC

ITY

TR

AC

KE

XT

RA

S

KO

DA

KE

ktag

raph

ic$1

99.5

018

, 24

Soun

d 8

Inst

amat

ic M

i00

$575

.95

18, 2

428

, f/1

.0

200

feet

mag

netic

Aut

omat

ic th

read

ing;

lim

ited

avai

labi

lity

in19

67.

21 v

olt,

150

wat

t12

00 f

eet m

agne

ticR

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DK

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bui

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x12

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aker

, sel

f-th

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rev

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gle

fram

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ojec

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NIZ

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SM-8

$389

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18, 2

418

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f/1

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150

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0 fe

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agne

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; rec

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ack;

tran

s-is

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att a

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G.

Below is a comprehensive listing of color and black and white film stocks corn-

merc?ally available for use in all three 8mm formatsRegular 8, Super 8, and Single 8.Double 8 refers to double width of Regular 8mm stock which is later sliced down themiddle to give two strips of film. Film stocks on the chart are listed by manufacturers

in alphabetical order. This chart is reprinted by permission of Popular Photographymagazine from its 1967 Annual Buying Guide issue.

Film

ti

FIL

MW

IDT

H(m

m)

FIL

M N

AM

ET

YPE

EX

POSU

RE

IN

DE

X(A

SA o

req

uiva

lent

)D

ayT

ung.

LE

NG

TH

S in

FE

ET

AN

D P

AC

KIN

G(D

.L. =

Day

light

Loa

ding

; Mag

. = M

agaz

ines

B =

Bul

k; L

.P. =

Lab

orat

ory

Pack

ed)

SPE

CIA

L C

HA

RA

CT

ER

IST

ICS

FEA

TU

RE

S. A

ND

USE

S

Agf

a-G

evae

rt, I

nc.

8A

gfac

hrom

e C

T 1

3 S

Col

or8

Agf

achr

ome

Cr

17S

Col

or

Bol

sey

Kul

Sgl.

8D

aylig

ht T

ype

Col

orSg

l. 8

Typ

e A

Col

or

Cin

epho

nic

Dbl

. 8C

inep

honi

c, T

ype

AC

olor

Dbl

. 8C

inep

honi

c B

& W

Pan

Col

orca

deD

bl. 8

Col

orca

deC

olor

Dbl

. 8C

olor

cade

Col

or

Dyn

achr

ome

Dbl

. 8D

ynac

hrom

e 25

Col

orD

bl. 8

Dyn

achr

ome

40C

olor

Dbl

. 8N

atur

al C

olor

, Day

light

Typ

e .

Col

orD

bl. 8

Nat

ural

Col

or, T

ype

AC

olor

ooSu

per

8 D

ynac

hrom

e Su

per

8C

olor

Eso

-S

Supe

r 8

Dur

achr

ome

Col

orD

bl. 8

Dur

achr

ome

Col

orD

b1.8

Mir

acle

Col

orC

olor

Supe

r 8

Mir

acle

Col

orC

olor

Dbl

. 8D

elux

e Se

pia.

.Pa

nD

bl. 8

Mir

acle

Hi-

Spee

dPa

nSu

per

8 M

irac

le H

i-Sp

eed

Pan

Supe

r 8

4-S

Hig

h Sp

eed

Pan

Dbl

. 84-

S H

igh

Spee

dPa

n

Dbl

. 8Su

per

Panc

hro

Pan

Sgl.

8Su

per

Panc

hro

Pan

8St

anda

rdO

rtho

Dbl

. 8H

i-Sp

eed

Col

orC

olor

Dbl

. 8T

ripl

e Sp

eed

Pan

Supe

r 8

Tri

ple

Spee

dPa

nD

bl. 8

Eco

nom

y Pl

usO

rtho

Dbl

. 8F-

G P

ositi

veO

rtho

1625

ft.,

100

ft.

D.L

.25

(a)

4025

ft.,

100

ft:D

.L.

Fine

-gra

in, v

ery

thin

em

ulsi

onFi

ne-g

rain

, ver

y th

in e

mul

sion

2540

25 f

t. D

.L. m

agaz

ine

for

Bol

sey

8 ca

mer

a .

.

As

abov

e

10(a

)16

0 10 10 (

a)

25 25(a

)10 10

(a)

40 25 10 25(a

)25 40 25

025

0

1250

ft.

D.L

. rol

lsB

alan

ced

for

3200

K p

hoto

floo

d12

050

ft.

D.L

. rol

ls

10(a

)50

ft.

D.L

1650

ft.

DI.

12 (

a)25

ft.

D.L

. rol

ls40

25 f

t. D

.L. r

olls

5 (a

)25

ft.

DI,

rol

ls16

25 f

t. D

.L. r

olls

50 f

t. co

ntin

uous

car

trid

ge

40 16 40 40 25 200

200

800

25 f

t. D

.L.,

200

ft. B

25 f

t. m

ag.;

25 f

t. D

.L.;

100

ft. H

-8B

olex

.25

ft.

cass

ette

25 f

t. D

.L25

ft.

D.L

.; 25

ft.

mag

.

Rev

ersa

l, fi

ne-g

rain

Rev

ersa

l, fi

ne-g

rain

Rev

ersa

lR

ever

sal

Hig

h-re

solu

tion,

fin

e-gr

ain

Hig

h-re

solu

tion,

fin

e gr

ain

Hig

h se

nsiti

vity

Hig

h se

nsiti

vity

Hig

h se

nsiti

vity

Rec

omm

ende

d fo

r ve

ry p

oor

light

con

-di

tions

800

25 f

t. m

ag.

Rec

omm

ende

d fo

r ve

ry p

oor

light

con

-di

tions

4025

25 f

t. m

ag40

2525

ft.

mag

208m

m: 2

5 ft

. D.L

.; 16

mm

:8

and

16 m

m m

ag12

58m

m: 2

5 ft

. D.L

.; 16

mm

: 100

ft.

D.L

.;50

ft.

mag

.16

008m

m: 2

5 ft

. mag

.; 16

mm

: 100

ft.

D.L

.;50

ft.

mag

.16

0025

ft.

mag

.5

..

25 f

t. D

.L5

2

All-

purp

ose

All-

purp

ose

100

ft. D

.L.;

For

outd

oors

For

avai

labl

e-lig

ht c

ondi

tions

For

low

-lig

ht s

ituat

ions

Fine

-gra

inSu

itabl

e fo

r ne

gativ

e or

rev

ersa

l pro

cess

ing;

no a

nti-

hala

tion

back

ing

Dbl

. 8H

i-Sp

eed

Sepi

aPa

n25

0Su

per

8 H

i-Sp

eed

Sepi

aPa

n25

0D

bl. 8

Pion

eer

Col

orC

olor

40

Foto

chro

me

Dbl

. 8Fo

toch

rom

eC

olor

Gen

eral

Ani

line

& F

ilm C

orp.

Dbl

. 8M

ovie

chro

me

Day

light

Col

orD

bl. 8

Mov

iech

rom

e, T

ype

AC

olor

Kin

-O.L

axD

bl. 8

Kin

-O-L

ux T

X (

Rev

.)Pa

nD

bl. 8

New

Gol

d Se

alPa

n

Kod

akD

bl. 8

Kod

achr

ome

II, D

aylig

ht T

ype.

...C

olor

Dbl

. 8K

odac

hrom

e II

, Typ

e A

(Ph

otof

lood

) C

olor

Supe

r 8

Kod

achr

ome

II, T

ype

A .

,C

olor

Dbl

. 8Fi

ne G

rain

Pos

itive

Bl.

Sens

.

Perf

ect P

hoto

, Inc

.D

bl. 8

Perf

ect 8

Hi-

Spee

dC

olor

200

200

100

25 f

t. m

ag.

200

ft. B

1624

25 f

t. sp

ool l

oad

2010

(a)

25 f

t. ro

lls

Sepi

a co

lor,

for

low

-lig

ht s

ituat

ions

Sepi

a co

lor;

for

low

-lig

htsi

tuat

ions

Hig

h-sp

eed,

fin

e gr

ain

10(a

)16

25 f

t. ro

lls.

Hig

h-sp

eed,

fin

e gr

ain

6450

25, 1

00 f

t. D

.L. R

olls

Med

ium

spe

ed; f

ine

grai

n

200

160

25, 1

00 f

t. D

.L. R

olls

Use

und

er p

oor

light

or

tung

sten

2512

(a)

25, 1

00 f

t. D

.L. r

olls

; 25

ft. m

ag25

(a)

40Sa

me

as a

bove

25(a

)40

50 f

t. ca

rtri

dge

.2

100

ft. o

n co

reFo

r pr

intin

g fr

om n

egat

ives

, titl

e m

akin

g

2540

Peru

tz1-

-,D

bl. 8

Peru

tz P

erki

ne U

15Pa

n25

16o ..o

Dbl

. 8Pe

rutz

Per

kine

U21

...Pa

n10

080

Dbl

. 8Pe

rutz

Per

kine

U27

Pan

400

320

Sear

s8

Sear

s C

olor

727

0, D

aylig

htC

olor

258

Sear

s C

olor

727

1 In

door

Typ

e A

Col

or25

(a)

40

Supe

rior

Bul

k Fi

lm C

o.D

bl. 8

Supe

rior

Col

or, D

aylig

ht T

ype

Col

or10

3

Dbl

. 8Su

peri

or C

olor

, Tun

gste

n T

ype

AC

olor

10(a

)16

Dbl

. 8Sp

eed

XX

(s)

Pan

200

Dbl

. 8Su

peri

or 4

0(s

) Pa

n32

20

Dbl

. 8Su

perp

anex

64.

Pan

6440

Dbl

. 8Su

per

500

Pan

650

500

Dbl

. 8E

astm

an T

ri-X

Rev

ersa

lPa

n20

016

0

Dbl

. 8Pl

usO

rtho

163

Dbl

. 8Po

sitiv

eB

l. Se

ns.

5

25 f

t. D

.L. r

olls

25 f

t. D

.L25

ft.

D.L

25 f

t. D

.L

Rev

ersa

lR

ever

sal

Rev

ersa

l

25 f

t. D

.L. r

olls

Soun

d tr

acki

ng a

vaila

ble

25 f

t. D

.L. r

olls

25 f

t. D

.L25

ft.

D.L

.25

ft.

D.L

.: 20

0, 4

00, 1

000

ft. B

25 f

t. D

.L.;

200,

400

, 100

0 ft

. B

25 f

t. D

.L.;

200,

400

, 100

0 ft

. B

25 f

t. D

.L.

25 f

t. D

.L.;

100

ft. B

25 f

t. D

.L.;

200,

400

, 100

0 ft

. B

400,

120

0 ft

. B

Subt

ract

ive

dyed

imag

e ty

pe; s

cree

nles

sSu

btra

ctiv

e dy

ed im

age

type

Fine

gra

in, s

oft c

ontr

ast.

Har

dene

d em

ul-

sion

for

hig

h sp

eed

proc

essi

ng a

t hig

hte

mpe

ratu

res.

For

hom

e pr

oces

sing

.Fi

ne g

rain

, wid

e la

titud

e, n

on-h

alo

base

,go

od c

ontr

ast;

for

hom

e pr

oces

sing

.Fi

ne g

rain

, wid

e la

titud

e; g

ood

cont

rast

.Sp

ecia

lly h

arde

ned

emul

sion

for

pro

c-es

sing

at h

igh

tem

pera

ture

s ...

....

Gra

y no

n-ha

lo b

ase;

fin

e gr

ain

cons

ider

ing

spee

d; w

ide

latit

ude

Wid

e ex

posu

re a

nd d

evel

opm

ent l

atitu

de.

For

hom

e pr

oces

sing

Ext

rem

e fi

ne g

rain

; med

ium

latit

ude;

blu

eno

n-ha

lo b

ase;

hig

h co

ntra

stfo

r co

pyin

g.C

an b

e pr

oces

sed

unde

r re

d sa

fe li

ght

Fine

gra

in r

elea

se p

ositi

ve f

or p

rint

ing.

Can

be r

ever

sed.

Cle

ar b

ase

0

FIL

MW

IDT

H(m

m)

FIL

M N

AM

ET

YPE

EX

POSU

RE

IN

DE

X(A

SA o

req

uiva

lent

)D

ayT

ung.

LE

NG

TH

S in

FE

ET

AN

D P

AC

KIN

G(D

.L. =

Day

light

Loa

ding

; Mag

. = M

agaz

ines

B=

Bul

k; L

.P.=

Lab

orat

ory

Pack

ed)

SPE

CIA

L C

HA

RA

CT

ER

IST

ICS

FEA

TU

RE

S, A

ND

USE

S

Dbl

. 8Su

peri

or 3

6Pa

n32

525

08m

m: 2

5, 1

00 f

t., D

.L.;

16m

m: 1

00 f

t. D

.L.;

Rev

erse

d-ty

pe;h

igh-

spee

d;op

aque

bac

king

.bo

th 1

00, 2

00, 4

00, 1

200

ft. B

.

Dbl

. 8Su

peri

or 3

0Pa

n80

648m

m: 2

5, 1

00 f

t., D

.L.;

16m

m: 1

00ft

. D.L

.;bo

th 1

00, 2

00, 4

00, 1

200

ft. B

Rev

ersa

l-ty

pe; m

ediu

m-s

peed

;fi

ne-g

rain

;ba

ckin

g op

aque

Wes

tern

Cin

e Se

rvic

eD

bl. 8

Ekt

achr

ome

ER

Typ

e B

Col

or80

(a)

125

25 f

t. D

.L. M

ag.;

16m

m: 1

00ft

. D.L

.R

ever

sal t

ype

Dbl

. 8Pl

us-X

Rev

ersa

lPa

n50

3225

,100

ft.

D.L

. rol

ls; 2

5 ft

. Mag

.; 40

0,12

00 f

t. .B

Sam

e as

abo

ve

Dbl

. 8T

ri-X

Rev

ersa

lPa

n20

016

025

,100

ft.

D.L

. rol

ls; 2

5 ft

. Mag

; 400

,120

0 ft

. BSa

me

as a

bove

.

Dbl

. 8Su

pers

peed

Pan

600

500

8mm

: 25

ft.,

100

ft. D

.L.;

16m

m:

100

ft. D

.L.

Rev

ersa

l typ

e; a

lso

avai

labl

e in

pres

trip

edm

agne

tic

NO

TE

S:*F

ree

proc

essi

ng o

n D

.L. a

nd m

agaz

ines

onl

y.(a

) W

ith f

ilter

rec

omm

ende

d by

the

man

ufac

ture

r.(b

) A

s re

vers

al f

ilm.

(n)

Not

rec

omm

ende

d fo

r us

e w

ith il

lum

inat

ion.

(s)

Als

o av

aila

ble

perf

orat

ed o

ne e

dge

for

soun

d,ro

lls o

nly.

(w)

Tri

al e

xpos

ure

on w

hite

car

d w

ith n

o le

tteri

ng.

Audio Visual Instolction at Thitatle

S

4

S

Audio visual instruction at Purdue University'

The system used to teach freshman botany at Pur-

due was first conceived by Dr. S. N. Postlethwait six

years ago. He was confronted with the age-old prob-

lem of presenting an interesting and motivating lec-

ture to a group of students with a wide range ofbackground preparation and ability. In order to allow

the ill-prepared student to compete more effectively

in the class, Dr. Postlethwait decided to prepare aspecial lecture on audio tape, file it with the tapelibrary, and invite any student who felt he could use

this extra help to do so. Of course the taped lecture

was specifically for the student with a poor back-ground who needed to hear the information given in

a normal lecture hour either at a slower pace, or sev-eral times, in order to fully comprehend the material.

But it wasn't long before two very exciting things be-

came apparent to Dr. Postlethwait: First, the moreadequately prepared students were willing to listen

to the tapes and seemed to learn as much even thoughthey were excused from coming to lecture; second,

it seemed logical to provide the students with relatedmaterials so that when an object is studied, the stu-

dent can see and hold the object in his hand as he is

being told about it. Consequently, the students were

asked to bring their text and lab books, and various

other materials were provided, such as microscopes,

prepared slides, charts, photographs, living plants,2x2 slides, and any other material which aided thestudent in his learning the lesson. The tapes wereprepared with all of these aids sitting before Dr.Postlethwait, and he pretended to be guiding an indi-

vidual student through the week's lessonthus thestudent-teacher ratio was reduced to 1:1, and thesystem has become known as the Audio-tutorial Ap-proach to Teaching.

This is an excerpt from an unpublished paper by David D.Husband of the Department of Biological Sciences titled

"A Challenge to Educators."

113

In the last five years much as been done in an effort

to improve the system. I would like to describe theway the method is presently operating, and concludewith a discussion of how the method is utilizing what

is known about the learning process.

The course structure involves three major study

sessions:

1. A General Assembly Session (GAS), one hour

per week2. An Integrated Quiz Session (IQS), one half

hour per week3. An Independent Study Session (ISS), approxi-

mately four hours per week.

GENERAL ASSEMBLY SESSION (GAS)

All students in the course assemble in a large audi-

torium one hour per week. The instructor in chargeof the course directs the study during this session.

It includes the giving of general directions and an-nouncements, movies, guest lectures, and items ofthis nature; but most importantly, it is the occasionfor integrating and orienting the subject matter so

that the student may appreciate its significance. Themain objective in this session is to project to the stu-

dent a personality for the course and to set an intellec-

tual tone. The major effort is directed toward motivat-

ing the student.

INDEPENDENT STUDY SESSION (ISS)

The independent study session is done in a learn-ing center which is open from 7:30 a.m. to 10:30

p.m. each week day. A teacher is on duty at all timesto give directions and personal assistance to studentsas they may require it. The student may report to thelearning center at his convenience and study as long

as he wishes. He is welcome to repeat each sessionas many times as he feels necessary and to the depthhe , ay desire. Thus the student is allowed to makeadjustments to suit the pressures of other campusactivities. The ISS involves a variety of study activities,including study of specimens, photographs, charts,slides, reading of text, performing laboratory exer-cises, observing experiments and demonstrations lo-cated on a centrally located table, conducting minorresearch problems, reading original research papers,conferring with students and teachers, and solvingspecific study problems related to the week's lesson.Students check into the learning center by signing acard and placing it in a slot on a "Booth AssignmentFile." This assigns them to a study carrel. All carrelsare set up identically and contain material appropriatefor the week's lesson. This may include a tape playerwith the week's tape, a microscope, clean slides andcover slips, prepared slides, materials for experimenta-tion, plant specimens, excerpts from original researchliterature, diagrams, charts, 8mm movie projectors andloop films. Materials too bulky for inclusion in eachcarrel are placed on a demonstration table in the cen-ter of the laboratory.

The tape is prepared in a conversational tone bythe senior instructor and tutors the students through

a variety of learning events. The crux of the wholesystem depends upon the proper sequencing of thematerial to be presented. The first thing the student

may hear when he listens to the tape is a brief lectureintroducing the subject for the week and outliningthe major objectives the instructor hopes the studentwill achieve in his study. The student may then beasked to read appropriate passages in his text or

another source, and subsequently directed to performan experiment or observe a demonstration which en-forces that which he has just read. Once this pieceof information has been mastered, the student is

invited to pursue his study further. Each time he feelshe has learned what is expected of him, he will go onto the next item. Each item builds upon the previousinformation, and when difficulty occurs the studentis free to backtrack and review until he is no longerconfused. An instructor is always available for specialassistance.

Although there is some similarity between thisprocedure and "programmed learning" advanced withteaching machines, there is at least one extremely

important difference. Programmed learning involvesdividing subject matter into tiny, discrete segments,and the student is allowed to progress one segmentat a timeall segments being approximately equalin terms of difficulty and quantity of subject matter.In our course., the week's lesson is divisible, surely,

but the student is the person who decides when todivide itthe decision being based on the individual's

ability and prior knowledge. Therefore a student with

a poor understanding of the laws of genetics mayhave to divide that week's lesson into rather small,

discrete segments, whereas during the lesson on ec-ology this same student, having had an ecologically

oriented high school course in biology, may safely

perform the week's lesson by leaps and bounds! Allactivities which can be done under the conventionalsystem can also be done under this system with theadded feature of self-pacing by the students whilebeing tutored by the senior staff member in the course.

Carrels are fully equipped with projectors, taperecorders, and specimens. (Courtesy of S. N. Post-lethwait)

-

Laboratory allows students to study at their ownpace and to avail themselves of assistance. (Courtesyof S. N. Postlethwait)

114

INTEGRATED QUIZ SESSION (IQS)

For this session students are scheduled in the con-ventional pattern for a one-hour recitation. A groupof 16 students is divided into two groups of eight and

are assigned to an instructor to meet one-half houreach week. Although an oral quiz is given in thissession, there is an informal atmosphere, with students

and instructor seated around a table. Various itemswhich were included in the Independent Study Session

the preceding week are placed on the table and eachstudent in turn is handed one item and proceeds to

talk about it in a specified pattern. He begins byidentifying the item, then he tells the role the item

played in the week's lesson, and finally he discusses

how it fulfilled that role by giving specific details

about the item and the objective it satisfied. Forexample, if a student is handed a 3 week-old kidneybean seedling at the end of the first lesson his discus-

sion might be as follows: "This is a 3 week-old kidney

bean seedling. One of the objectives this week wasfor us to learn the structures of a young seedling offour different kinds of plants, and to be able to relatethese parts to the structures of the correspondingseed." (Now, pointing to the structures, he begins to

name them). "This is the hypocotyl, this is the coty-ledonary node, these are the cotyledons, . . . etc." In

addition to simply identifying the structures, the stu-

dent would be expected to tell what he has learnedabout them as well, i.e. when he points to the hypo-cotyl he may add "since the hypocotyl has elongated

and brought the cotyledons above the soil surface, this

plant has epigeal germination."

The instructor evaluates each student on the basis

of 0 to 10 by placing him into one of three categories.

If the instructor is satisfied that the student haslearned and understands well all the informationwhich was expected of him, then the student is placed

in the category of excellent and receives a score of

nine. If the response was somewhat incomplete but

yet it was obvious that the student had acquired some

meaningful knowledge about the object, the student

is placed in the mediocre category and is awarded

seven points. If the instructor is sure that little learn-

ing has taken place on the part of the student, he isplaced in the poor category and receives five points

or less. Six points is passing. During the progress of

the half-hour discussion, any student may alter his

score upward by contributing information concerning

115

the item under discussion when the student who isbeing quizzed is unable to provide all the answers.

Admittedly, this evaluation system is highly sub-

jective. However, its virtues far outweigh its draw-

backs. In the first place, I have found in actual ex-perience that there is little question in my mind asto which category a student belongs after hearinghis oral presentation. I have much more difficulty in

evaluating an essay type question, even though Imay have specific points I am looking for in thewritten answer. Secondly, this system of quizzing hasbeen extremely rewarding in terms of feedback both

to the students and the instructor. The instructoroften becomes aware of those points which willenable him to restructure an improved program. But

most importantly, the IQS gives the instructor anopportunity to reinforce the learned material bysimply emphasizing the sequential pattern in which

the material was presented to the student. This iswhy the session is called Integrated Quiz Session.

This, very briefly, is how botany is taught at Pur-due University. The reaction from the students isthat they highly favor the A-T Approach over theconventional method. Dr. Postlethwait has estimatedthat it has been possible to include 50% more subject

matter without increasing the hours spent by thestudent in learning the material. Personal contact has

been enhanced, interest has improved, and more stu-dents have been accommodated in less space and at

a lower operating cost.

The critical reader will already have formulated

several ways in which our system takes into consid-

eration the learning process. Educational psycholo-gists have known for many years that certain activi-ties enhance the learning process. The Audio-TutorialApproach to teaching utilizes every suggestion madeby recent investigators. Listed below are a few ofthese activities.

REPETITIONWhereas it is unlikely that a student in a class

of 300 will repeatedly raise his hand to ask questions

on a particularly difficult area to him, he will hesitatelittle before rewinding the tape to hear somethingrepeated. Thus the A-T Approach allows the indi-vidual to determine his own needs for repetition ofsubject matter and he can get the amount of repeti-tion he needs with a simple turn of a button.

CONCENTRATIONEach student, being isolated in a carrel with ear-

phones on, is less apt to be distracted with the move-

ments and talking of other students.

ASSOCIATIONMeaningful learning is enhanced if the material

being presented can be subsumed into the cognitive

structure of the brain. Subsumption is enhanced if,when the material is presented, associations can be

made which are meaningful. It is logical, then, that

the learning about plants should be done whereplants are available for observations. The A-T Ap-proach provides the opportunity for the student tohave a plant available at the time he reads about it.

APPROPRIATE SIZED UNITS OFSUBJECT MATTER

With the A-T Approach to teaching, the student

is allowed to decide for himself the size of the indi-vidual units of subject matter he can comprehend.Thus, the student can move at his own pace, com-

mensurate with his ability and background. This isalso a great psychological aid to the student, for he

does not get a defeated complex if he is a slowlearner, and, if he is especially proficient in one area,

he is not forced to waste his time sitting in a lecture

or laboratory as would be required in the convention-

al system.

ADAPT THE NATURE OF THE COMMUNICATIONVEHICLE TO THE NATURE OF THE OBJECTIVE

Since botany is a complex of subject matter, itrequires a great variety of learning experiences. "It

is logical then that no single vehicle such as lecturing

or a text book can achieve the full spectrum of ob-

116

jectives for this subject," says Dr. Postlethwait. He

goes on to say, "A properly structured course, there-

fore, would carefully define objectives and not try to

mold objectives to fit a favorite medium (lecture,

for example) but instead would use the medium best

adapted to the nature of the objective. The Audio-

Tutorial system permits this kind of student partici-pation and enables one to bring to bear the correctmedium commensurate with the objective."

THE USE OF MULTI-MEDIA

Since a student may learn best via reading, orhearing, or seeing, or doing, or any combination of

these activities, the A-T system is advantageous to

the student since it provides the opportunity forsubject matter to be covered in a great variety of

ways. The student is free to exploit the mediumwhich best suits him as an individual.

THE PROPER SEQUENCING OF SUBJECT MATTER

We have become increasingly aware of the im-portance of integrating the material such that thestudent is made aware of the relationships between

the principles being taught. When mastery of oneitem is necessary for understanding of a subsequentitem, it stands to reason that even the spatial prox-

imity of the items to one another is important inenabling students to subsume the relationships. In

the conventional system, many times such items areseparated in time as well as in space, and the rela-tionships are infinitely more difficult to decipher.The A-T system lends itself well to analyzing one's

sequencing of learning events. The method of eval-uating students (IQS) is a constant source of feed-

back in this regard.

CONCENTRATIONEach student, being isolated in a carrel with ear-

phones on, is less apt to be distracted with the move-

ments and talking of other students.

ASSOCIATIONMeaningful learning is enhanced if the material

being presented can be subsumed into the cognitive

structure of the brain. Subsumption is enhanced if,when the material is presented, associations can be

made which are meaningful. It is logical, then, that

the learning about plants should be done whereplants are available for observations. The A-T Ap-

proach provides the opportunity for the student tohave a plant available at the time he reads about it.

APPROPRIATE SIZED UNITS OFSUBJECT MATTER

With the A-T Approach to teaching, the student

is allowed to decide for himself the size of the indi-vidual units of subject matter he can comprehend.Thus, the student can move at his own pace, com-

mensurate with his ability and background. This isalso a great psychological aid to the student, for he

does not get a defeated complex i.f he is a slowlearner, and, if he is especially proficient in one area,

he is not forced to waste his time sitting in a lecture

or laboratory as would be required in the convention-

al system.

ADAPT THE NATURE OF THE COMMUNICATIONVEHICLE TO THE NATURE OF THE OBJECTIVE

Since botany is a complex of subject matter, itrequires a great variety of learning experiences. "Itis logical then that no single vehicle such as lecturing

or a text book can achieve the full spectrum of ob-

jectives for this subject," says Dr. Postlethwait. He

goes on to say, "A properly structured course, there-

fore, would carefully define objectives and not try to

mold objectives to fit a favorite medium (lecture,for example) but instead would use the medium best

adapted to the nature of the objective. The Audio-

Tutorial system permits this kind of student partici-

pation and enables one to bring to bear the correctmedium commensurate with the objective."

THE USE OF MULTI-MEDIA

Since a student may learn best via reading, orhearing, or seeing, or doing, or any combination of

these activities, the A-T system is advantageous to

the student since it provides the opportunity for

subject matter to be covered in a great variety of

ways. The student is free to exploit the medium

which best suits him as an individual.

THE PROPER SEQUENCING OF SUBJECT MATTER

We have become increasingly aware of the im-portance of integrating the material such that the

student is made aware of the relationships between

the principles being taught. When mastery of oneitem is necessary for understanding of a subsequentitem, it stands to reason that even the spatial prox-

imity of the items to one another is important inenabling students to subsume the relationships. In

the conventional system, many times such items areseparated in time as well as in space, and the rela-

tionships are infinitely more difficult to decipher.The A-T system lends itself well to analyzing one's

sequencing of learning events. The method of eval-uating students (IQS) is a constant source of feed-

back in this regard.

Appendix F List of Participants

NIL

+-..-

N

411%411r

Lb,

Phillip W. AlleyDepartment of PhysicsState University CollegeGeneseo, New York 14454

David G. Barry411 State StreetAlbany, New York 12203

James V. Bernardo, DirectorEducational Programs DivisionNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationWashington, D.C. 20546

Stephen BlucherTechnicolor CorporationNew York, New York

Ronald BlumDepartment of PhysicsUniversity of ChicagoChicago, Illinois 60637

Forrest I. BoleyDepartment of PhysicsDartmouth CollegeHanover, New Hampshire 03755

Joseph BowerDevelopment DivisionEncyclopedia Britannica Films, Inc.1159 Wilmette AvenueWilmette, Illinois 60091

Ludwig BraunComputing CenterPolytechnic Institute of BrooklynBrooklyn, New York 11201

Judith BregmanDepartment of PhysicsPolytechnic Institute of BrooklynBrooklyn, New York 12201

119

List of Participants

A. W. BurgerDepartment of AgronomyUniversity of IllinoisUrbana, Illinois 61801

James L. Burkhardt17 Centre StreetWatertown, Massachusetts 02172

George L. CarrDepartment of PhysicsLowell State CollegeLowell, Massachusetts 01854

Shirley ClarkeChelsea Hotel222 West 23rd StreetNew York, New York 10011

Harold A. DawHead, Department of PhysicsNew Mexico State UniversityUniversity Park, New Mexico 88070

Bruce A. Egan, Associate DirectorNational Committee for Fluid Mechanics FilmsEducation Development Center39 Chapel StreetNewton, Massachusetts 02158

Walter EppensteinDepartment of PhysicsRensselaer Polytechnic InstituteTroy, New York 12181

John FitchPhysical Sciences EditorThe Ealing Corporation2225 Massachusetts AvenueCambridge, Massachusetts 02140

Louis Forsdale31 Chapel LaneRiverside, Connecticut 06878

Anthony P. FrenchDepartment of PhysicsMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridge, Massachusetts 02139

Wheaton Galentine64 Perry StreetNew York, New York 10014

Richard E. Grove, ChairmanPhysics DepartmentRandolph-Macon CollegeAshland, Virginia 23005

Richard F. Hartzell, Executive ProducerInstructional Resources CenterState University of New York, Stony BrookStony Brook, Long Island, New York 11790

James E. HendersonDepartment of PhysicsHampden-Sydney, CollegeHampden-Sydney, Virginia 23943

Russell K. HobbieDepartment of PhysicsUniversity of MinnesotaMinneapolis, Minnesota 55414

Alan HoldenBell Telephone LaboratoriesMurray Hill, New Jersey 07971

Harald C. Jensen, ChairmanDepartment of PhysicsLake Forest CollegeLake Forest, Illinois 60045

E. Leonard Jossem, ChairmanDepartment of PhysicsThe Ohio State University164 West 18th AvenueColumbus, Ohio 43210

Robert Kreiman, General ManagerTechnicolor Corporation1985 Placentia AvenueCosta Mesa, California 92627

Alfred LeitnerDepartment of PhysicsMichigan State UniversityEast Lansing, Michigan 48823

Thomas LippincottDepartment of ChemistryThe Ohio State UniversityColumbus, Ohio 43210

120

Ralph A. LlewellynDepartment of PhysicsRose Polytechnic InstituteTerre Haute, Indiana 47803

David Lutyens, Film ManagerThe Ealing Corporation2225 Massachusetts AvenueCambridge, Massachusetts 02140

E. McNabbNational Film Board of CanadaPost Office Box 6100Montreal, P.Q., Canada

Harry F. MeinersDepartment of PhysicsRensselaer Polytechnic InstituteTroy, New York 12181

Elwood MillerInstructional Media CenterMichigan State UniversityEast Lansing, Michigan 48823

Nat C. Myers, Jr., DirectorCommunications Products and ServicesFairchild Industrial Products221 Fairchild AvenuePlainview, Long Island, New York 11803

Thomas NortonLinton High SchoolSchenectady, New York

Joseph NovakDepartment of Biological SciencesPurdue UniversityLafayette, Indiana 47907

Jacques Parent, Program ProducerNational Film Board of CanadaPost Office Box 6100Montreal, P.Q., Canada

Donald PerrinSpecial Media InstituteSchool of EducationUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos Angeles, California 90007

Robert ResnickDepartment of PhysicsRensselaer Polytechnic InstituteTroy, New York 12181

David Ridgway, Executive DirectorCHEM StudyLawrence Hall of ScienceUniversity of California, BerkeleyBerkeley, California 94720

William R. RileyDepartment of PhysicsThe Ohio State University174 West 18th AvenueColumbus, Ohio 43210

N. MacGregor RugheimerDepartment of PhysicsMontana State UniversityBozeman, Montana 59715

Philip Sattin, DirectorEothen Films, Limited70 Furzehill RoadBoreham Woods, Herts., England

Judah SchwartzCenter for Research in Teaching and LearningMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridge, Massachusetts 02139

Guenter Schwarz, DirectorCenter for Research in College Instruction of Science

and Mathematics212 Science BuildingFlorida State UniversityTallahassee, Florida 32306

Frank SindenBell Telephone LaboratoriesMurray Hill, New Jersey 07971

Wendell SlabaughDepartment of ChemistryOregon State UniversityCorvallis, Oregon 97331

Kevin Smith, Executive ProducerFilm StudioEducation Development Center39 Chapel StreetNewton, Massachusetts 02158

Malcolm SmithLowell Technological InstitutePhysics and Nuclear Science DepartmentLowell, Massachusetts 01854

Philip Stapp54 East 81st StreetNew York, New York 10003

121

Robert L. Stearns, ChairmanDepartment of Physics and AstronomyVassar CollegePoughkeepsie, New York 12601

Joseph W. StraleyDepartment of PhysicsUniversity of North CarolinaChapel Hill, North Carolina 27514

James StricklandFilm StudioEducation Development Center39 Chapel StreetNewton, Massachusetts 02158

John L. StullDepartment of PhysicsAlfred UniversityAlfred, New York 14802

Gordon H. Tubbs, DirectorEducational Market DevelopmentMotion Picture and EducationEastman Kodak Company343 State StreetRochester, New York 14650

F. W. Van Name, Jr., ChairmanDepartment of PhysicsPratt InstituteBrooklyn, New York 11205John P. Vergis, CoordinatorAudio Visual EducationCollege of EducationArizona State UniversityTempe, Arizona 85281

Fletcher G. Watson, Co-DirectorProject PhysicsHarvard UniversityCambridge, Massachusetts 02138

Walter E. WhitakerAudio-Visual OfficerEducational Programs DivisionNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationWashington, D. C. 20546

William J. WhitesellDepartment of PhysicsAntioch CollegeYellow Springs, Ohio 45387

Elizabeth A. WoodBell Telephone LaboratoriesMurray Hill, New Jersey 07971

Edward E. ZajacComputing CenterPolytechnic Institute of BrooklynBrooklyn, New York 11201

Frederick W. ZurheideFaculty of Physical ScienceSouthern Illinois UniversityAlton, Illinois 62025

National Science Foundation

Ross A. Gortner, Jr., DirectorScience Curriculum Improvement ProgramNational Science FoundationWashington, D C. 20550

Office of Education

Harold ZoltanBureau of ResearchRoom 30009U. S. Mice of EducationWashington, D. C 20201

Commission on College Physics

John M. FowlerDirector

W. Thomas JoynerStaff Physicist

Richard F. RothStaff Physicist

Barbara Z. BluestoneReports Editor

Appendix G Bibliography

General

Advisory Council on College Chemistry. Modern TeachingAids for College Chemistry. Palo Alto: ACCC, 1967.

"Teaching Aids Programs," Newsletter#10 (August 1967).

Commission on College Physics. Short Films for Physics

Teaching: A Catalog. Ann Arbor: CCP, 1967.

Educational Foundation for Visual Aids. Catalogue of 8mmCassette Loop Films. London: EFVA, 1966.

Forsda.le, Louis. "The Cartridge Loop . 8mm Made Easy,"School Library Journal (May 15, 1967), pp. 38-40.

(Ed.) 8mm Sound Film and Education.New York: Teachers College Bureau of Publications,

1962.

Groves, Peter D. (Ed.) Film in Higher Education. London:Pergamon Press, 1965.

Heileman, John. Three articles on use of film loops inphysics teaching. American Journal of Physics, vol. 20(1952), pp. 465 ff; vol. 23 (1955), pp. 555ff; vol. 26

(1958), pp. 50 ff.

Leitner, Alfred "Uses of Film for Demonstration in CollegePhysics," a preprint of an article for the AAPT Demon-stration Book Project.

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development.Catalogue of 8mm Cassette Loaded Science Films. (Firstedition) Paris: OECD, 1967.

Catalogue of Technical and ScientificFilms. (First edition) Paris: OECD, 1966.

Shapiro, Ascher H. "Educational Films in Fluid Mechanics,"

a preprint of a speech published by Institution of Mchan-ical Engineers (April 1964).

"The Single Concept Film." Journal of the University FilmProducers Association, Vol. 17, No. 2 (1965). An issue

devoted to the 8mm film.

Technicolor Corporation. Source Directory of Educational,Single-Concept Movie Loops in Instant Loading Magi-Cartridges. (4th Edition). Costa Mesta, California: Tech-nicolor, 1967.

UNESCO. Films in Physics. Paris UNESCO, 1965.

Weber, Robert L. Three articles comprising a list of physics

films for teaching. American Journal of Physics, vol. 29

(1961), pp. 222 ff; vol. 22 (1953), pp. 54 ff; vol. 17(1948), pp. 408 ff. A fourth list has been prepared andwill appear in the AJP during 1968.

125

Bibliography

Equipment

The Audio-Visual Equipment Directory: A Guide to Cur.rent Models of Audio-Visual Equipment (12th edition),1966. National Audio-Visual Association, Inc. (3150Spring Street, Fairfax, Virginia).

Edwards, E. A. and J. S, Chandler. "Format Factors Affecting8mm Sound Print Quality," Journal of the SMPTE, vol.

73 (July 1964), pp. 537-543./967 Industrial Photographic Catalog. Garrick Photo Supply

Incorporated (3166 Cass Avenue, Detroit, Michigan).Lovick, R. C. and W. L. Stockdale. "A Mass Production

Super 8 Print System," a paper presented to the 101stSMPTE Technical Conference (1967).

"Super 8 Movie Cameras," Consumers Reports ( June 1966),pages 269-275.

"Super 8/Single 8 Movie Projectors," Consumers Reports(September 1966), pages 437-441.

Computer Animation

"A Computer Technique for Producing Animated Movies,"American Federation of Information Processing Societies,Conference Proceedings, vol. 25 (1964), pages 67-87.

East, Douglas A. "Computer Animation," Industrial Photog-

raphy, vol. 16 (March 1967).

Zajac, E. E. "Computer Animation: A New Scientific andEducational Tool," Journal of the SMPTE, vol. 74 (No-vembti 1965), pages 1006-1008.

Zajac, E. E. "Computer-Made Perspective Movies as a

Scientific and Communication Tool," Communications ofthe Association for Computing Machinery, vol. 7 (1964),pages 169-170.

Film Making Techniques

Brodbeck, Emil E. Handbook of Basic Motion Picture Tech-niques. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1950.

Densham, D. The Construction of Research Films, London:Pergamon Press, 1959.

Eastman Kodak. Basic Titling and Animation. Rochester,New York: Eastman Kodak, 1961.

Halas, John. The Technique of Film Animation. New York:Hastings House, 1959.

Mascelli, Joseph. American Cinematographer Manual. Ameri-can Society of Cinematographers, 1961.

Monier, Pierre Albert. The Complete Technique of MakingFilms. New York: Macmillan, 1959.

Spottiswoode, Raymond. Film and Its Techniques. Berkeley:University of California Press, 1951.