Report - European Centre for Modern Languagesarchive.ecml.at/documents/reports/WS199906.pdf · educational innovation depends on manipulation of basic organisation variables - time,

European Centre for Modern Languages 1999 3

CC-ED/GRAZ(99)WORKSHOP 6

Report

WORKSHOP NO.6/99

INNOVATIVE APPROACHESTO THE ORGANISATION AND SET-UP OF LANGUAGE EDUCATION

Graz, 23-27 November 1999

Co-ordinator: Frank HEYWORTH

Animation : Eva MARQUARDT, Péter MEDGYES, Denise LUSSIER

1. Summary of workshop 4

2. Conclusions and evaluation of the workshop 9

3. Issues and comments from the workshop co-ordinator 9

Appendix 1The organisation of language education in Canada (Denise Lussier) 12

Appendix 2SWOT Analysis (Eva Marquardt) 19

Appendix 3Contributions from Péter Medgyes 22

Appendix 4Time Schedule of the workshop 37


1. Summary of workshop

There were 37 participants in the workshop including the co-ordinating team ofProfessor Denise Lussier from Montreal, Dr Eva Marquardt from Munich and Dr PéterMedgyes from Budapest. 28 different countries were represented and participants'backgrounds were almost evenly divided among (1) ministry of education officials andinspectors, (2) university teachers and (3) secondary school teachers and teacher trainers.

The theoretical background to the workshop is contained in a preparatory study with the sametitle as the workshop - Innovative Approaches to the Organisation and Set up of LanguageEducation - which is available on the ECML website, www.ecml.at. This describes issuesrelated to the successful organisation of language education and points out that mucheducational innovation depends on manipulation of basic organisation variables - time, place,channel, content, people and resources - and their success or failure depends on theapplication of the principles of organisational issues - feasibility, utility, economy,acceptability, measurability, sustainability, manageability and the opportunity cost in relationto other actions that could be chosen. The input in the first part of the workshop consisted ofillustrations of the way principled decisions had been taken and the organisational variablesapplied in the professional environments of the workshop facilitators - the development ofimmersion language learning and bilingual education in Canada: the design andimplementation of new curricula for the Goethe Institut schools in Germany; and thedevelopment of innovative approaches to teacher training in a time of profound social changein Budapest. Each of the presentations emphasised different aspects of the organisation ofinnovation - the need for systematic and valid evaluation of new approaches in the large scaleproject in Canada taking account of all the issues connected with public accountability; theuse of management techniques like SWOT analysis to define the areas of change and tocombine top-down initiatives with bottom-up involvement of staff in the Goethe Institut; andthe need to learn new skills in managing resources in the Centre for English Teacher Trainingin Budapest, where the success of winning projects and funds led to an increasingly heavyload on the staff concerned and the removal of opportunities for complementary earnings - atelling example of the principle of opportunity cost.

The workshop sessions invited participants to relate these examples of innovation to theirown professional situations, applying a formula for the calculation of readiness for change:

Formula of readiness for change:C = (abd) > x

C = change, a = level of dissatisfaction with the status quo, b = clear or understooddesired outcome, d = identified practical first steps to achieving the desired outcome,and x = the cost of changing

The application of SWOT analysis encouraged them to assess their level of need for changeand the attempt to define a clear and understood desired outcome led to a discussion of thenecessity of a "vision" of what is to be achieved in an innovatory process and the productionof "vision statements at the end of the first day. Examples included:

• "A Europe where everybody understands at least the language(s) of their directneighbour(s)"


• "incorporating inter-cultural communicative competence in teacher training requirementsso we bring up generations of language learners who can truly communicate regardless oftheir country of origin."and a word of warning about the dangers of optimistic visions:

• "je viens d'un pays qui dans son passé a vécu beaucoup de visions longtempsinaccomplies."

The next sequence of the workshop examined the processes of successful innovation, againwith illustrative examples from the team of facilitators to show the importance of key factorsin the implementation of change. Change always involves the adhesion and co-operation ofthose who will put it into practice and therefore the ways in which these can be achievedinclude:• motivation - including the ways in which not simply the desire to change can be

introduced, but how the motivation for sustained effort to achieving it• involvement - change doesn't happen without all those involved feeling ownership of part

of the project• communication - open clear communication - even of problems or failure - are needed• commitment - innovation requires both material resources - the commitment of time,

money etc. - but intellectual belief and often emotional commitment to seeing it through;more innovations fail than succeed

• realistic evaluation - evaluation processes need to be established from the outset and mustinclude the recognition of what is not working as well as what is successful

• institutionalisation - the steps by which an innovation is consolidated and adopted as partof the normal system are often neglected.

The whole of the process has been described by Argyris as being one of unfreezing - moving- refreezing of work processes.The steps in the change process were also described, as follows:

These terms need some explanation - "scouting" is the freewheeling, brainstorming elementof exploring the situation to see where innovation is needed and feasible; "entry" refers to the

SCOUTING

ENTRY

DIAGNOSIS

PLANNING

ACTION

EVALUATION

INSTITUTIONALISATION


identification of the point at which change can be introduced, and involves questions ofauthority and power - who has to be convinced to support the initiative and to allocateresources to it? "diagnosis" is a more systematic analysis of what is needed and wouldinclude factors like needs analysis in language education programme. The feedback loopsbetween planning and entry and between evaluation and planning illustrate how innovation isa flexible process, continuously adapting itself in the light of more information and moreexperience.

These features of the process of innovation were illustrated by further examples from theworkshop team and participants applied them to analyses of their own experiences. There wasa constant and creative tension in the workshop between the desire to explore the content ofthe different innovations proposed as illustrations and the focus on the processes which wasthe proposed theme.

The theme of innovation was taken further by a seminar on project management. This wasdistinguished from more general organisational change as follows:OrganisationWhat you do to make things happenProjectsWhat you do to make things change

They require:• An analysis of needs• A defined outcome• A plan• Resources• A timescale• A product• Evaluation• A result

There was discussion of the nature of "products" in projects - what does "product" mean werethey necessary? It was stressed that projects exist only in the minds of the participants unlessthere is some concrete, material result which can contribute towards its multiplication andreplication - a written report being the minimum level of product.

This session led to the last day and a half of the workshop being devoted to group andindividual work applying a systematic approach to individual or group project plans. In somecases they were "real" projects, including some which will form part of the ECML'sprogramme in the years 2000 - 2002; others were virtual projects carried out to exemplify andpractise the processes of project planning. It was emphasised that an important part ofsuccessful project management is convincing others to accept and support them, so anattractive presentation is essential. The participants in the workshop produced a very creativeand originally produced set of project plans for presentation on the final day of the workshop.


Project Products Participants1. A tandem learningapproach to diversifylanguage learning

Manual for tandemlearning

Derk Sassen /KristiMere/Eva Jönsson /Elisabeth Jantscher

2. Ouverture culturelledans les manuels scolaireset les stratégiesd‘enseignement deslangues vivantes

Recueil derecommandations à l'usagede concepteurs de manuelsscolaires et de formateursde l'enseignement delangues vivantes

Catherine Berger / AnnieFayolle-Dietle /DoreanaHristova / Alena Bousková/ Norbert Biscons / AnnaKarp / Ursula Decreuse-Schober

3. L'éveil aux Langues Matériel didactique pourl'éveil aux langues

Mercedes Bernaus /Maritxell PalmitjavilaNaudi

4. Incorporatingintercultural competencein teacher training

Textbook for teachertrainersWorkshops / courses

Ildikó Lazar /GabrielaSperanta Matei / AngelikiPsaltou-Joycey / JohannaKapitanffy / Maria Loizou/ Katarina Bockanicova /Elisaveta Dobreva / VinetaErzen

5. Distance Learning forSaami

Video-conferencingnetwork for distanceteaching of Saami

Jaakko Kalevi Laksonen/Magga Porsanger / MayaLisdal

6. Oral Skills in DistanceLearning

A course guide &materials for teaching ofDanish

Cecilia Garrido / ElisabetValtysdottir

7. Teachers' guidelines forteaching languageawareness

Guidelines for teachers onlanguage awareness

Zoya Semerikova / RupertDeppe / Iveta Vitola /Audrone-AlbinaRazmantiené / GregorzKamarz

8. A „scribe“ approach tocreating a portfolio ofchildren's writing

Portfolio of children'swriting

Tarcisio Zarb

9. Encouraging classroomobservation

Guidelines for classroomobservationWorkshops

Vineta Erzen

10. Development ofexternal evaluation inBulgarian schools

Programme evaluation Elissaveta Dobreva

It can be seen that the projects ranged from very individual micro-projects to majorenterprises having an effect on a national or international level.

During the workshop the need to avoid re-inventing the wheel was emphasised. The adoptionof existing concepts and instruments can save time, promote co-operation and enable thosecarrying out innovation to focus on the essential organisational features of change. The workof the Council of Europe's Modern Language Division and the European Centre for ModernLanguages is an important source of developed concepts and instruments.


The European Common Framework provides a coherent description of the field of languagelearning, teaching and evaluation and the work on European Language Portfolios can be abasis both for stimulating enthusiasm for language learning and for transparency in the fixingof objectives and evaluating outcomes.

The role of the participants in propagating the work of the Graz Centre and the follow-up anddevelopment of the results of workshops is vital to their long-term success and usefulness. Toachieve this an effective policy for dissemination and the commitment of participants toimplement this are both needed.

It was suggested that the following framework might be used for dissemination:Spreading the good news - How you can disseminate the experience of the workshop

Ways to dissemination• presentation

- informally to colleagues- in a staff meeting- to a professional association- in In-Service Training sessions

• publication- in a staff journal- in a local newspaper- in a professional journal

Developing the ideas• Writing up your project plan• Finding partners to develop it• Getting local / regional support• Organising a follow-up workshop• Carrying out the project• Writing a project report

Keeping in touch• Internet discussion forums

- on the organisation of language education- on project management

• E-mail informal contacts• A regular e-mail bulletin• Internet chat pages• Fax / letters / phone• Local / regional meetings• Follow up regional workshops

A discussion forum will be set up in January 2000 on the themes discussed during theworkshop and it is planned to use the experiences in the implementation of projects as part ofcollections of case studies on good practice.


2. Conclusions and evaluation of the workshop

The workshop was different from many ECML workshops, in concentrating on the processesby which language education can be organised and innovations implemented, rather than byone content area of language education. There was nevertheless a great deal of discussionabout content issues - the ways in which teacher training institutes can be organised, thedefinition and evaluation of cultural understanding in national curricula, the nature and usesof tandem learning. Participants were not in general familiar with thinking of issues inorganisational terms and found the application of systematic analyses of processes difficultand, in some cases, contrary to educational values. This meant that in the first stage of theworkshop there was considerable cognitive confusion which did not really get clarified untilthe practical group work in relation to participants' own projects began. The way in whichthese were achieved did, however, show a considerable degree of assimilation of theapproach the workshop was trying to inculcate and - with suitable follow-up - it can be hopedthat it will have communicated a useful process-oriented attitude to the carrying out oflanguage education projects.The evaluation questionnaire indicated a high level of satisfaction with both the content andthe methodology of the workshop and there was deserved praise for the professionalism andinformed experience of the facilitating team of Denise Lussier, Eva Marquardt andPéter Medgyes.

3. Issues and comments from the workshop co-ordinator

A number of issues were raised - they are personal, rather than the result of discussion withthe workshop team - by the experience of the workshop. They include:

I. The unfamiliarity of process-based approaches to the majority of the participants,even though many of them are in positions of considerable influence. There seems tobe a considerable gap between those who take the basic organisational decisions inrelation to language education and those who provide the educational stimuli. Thismay be a good thing, as the last change one would want is to make language teachinga minor branch of management studies; nevertheless, the background reading to thepreparatory study gave so many glaring examples of the way in which scarceresources have been used in innovations which have not been carried through, that theECML's decision to make the organisation of change a major focus in the next threeyears is clearly an important one.A handbook for the management of change would be a useful contribution, but itwould have to be formulated in terms which make sense to educators and with enoughdown-to earth examples to convince them that it isn't jargon. The questionnaires fromthe preliminary study might be a useful starting point to be applied to the innovationsintroduced in the context of the ECML programme. If data was collectedsystematically it would provide a good test of how more systematic approaches mightbe applied:


A. An organisation

Description of the innovation

Desired impact

Organisational variable to be applied Description of applicationOrganisation of learning time

Location of teaching and learning activitiesChannels of communication

Content of the language learning activitiesPeople involved in the language learningactivities

Organisation and use of learning resources

B. On the analysis of processes

Analysis of change processesWere the desired outcomes of the change defined?What were they?What kind of changes were sought - in awareness,attitude, methods, syllabus, resources etc.?Were the assessment / evaluation proceduresdecided on at the outset of the project? Were theyto be carried out after the event or during theproject?What was done to make sure that the goals of theproject were communicated clearly to allconcerned? What was done to organise feedbackand action taken as a result of it?What steps were taken to involve all thestakeholders in the project?What steps were taken to assure the commitmentof those involved in the process?Were the resources required for the innovationclearly defined? Were they available?What was undertaken to get the support ofauthorities and the institutions concerned? Wasthis support received?What part of the project was "top-down"? Whatwas "bottom-up"?What was the actual outcome of the innovation?Was it adopted and institutionalised?What organisational elements were involved inthe innovation? How well were they managed?


II. The participants' view of priorities for innovation in the development of languageeducation were in many cases linked to the development of approaches to stimulatinginter- and cross-cultural awareness. Although the sample of 33 people is a small one,the breadth of interest in this area and its geographical spread is not withoutsignificance. The approaches to organisational change proposed in the study andworkshop can do something towards creating an environment in which culturalinterchange can happen - by varying the place of learning through exchangeprogrammes and tandem learning, by arranging more encounters with other culturesthrough the use of different channels of communication, by encouraging morecontent-based learning. There is, however, major progress to be made to createconsensus on a cross-cultural curriculum, on the definition of competences, onevaluation and its place in language education systems. It is exciting to see a majornew area of development opening up in an area where the ECML can make a majorcontribution.

III. The format of workshops at the ECML - a relatively small group of people doingconcentrated focussed work with a facilitating team - is an extremely enriching andproductive one. It allows an in-depth look at problems and the development of alearning experience rather than simply a series of presentations. It does, however,pose problems if the aim is to promote innovatory projects rather than just awarenessof issues. A single representative of one country frequently does not have theknowledge or the entry point to implement change. For this reason, the strategychosen for the medium-term plan, which already foresees regional follow-up activitiestogether with publications and development work, seems an excellent way ofattempting to remedy this. In both workshops I have co-ordinated there has been agreat deal of enthusiasm for continued follow-up and contact, but unless time andresources are specifically allocated for making sure it goes beyond an initial contact,there is likely to be dispersion of effort and attention.

IV. The issue of tension between systematic management of change and the creative,affective approaches was raised by a number of participants and is a real one whichneeds to be acknowledged. The dichotomy between the two lists below was founduseful as an illustration of this:

Organisation Values

Systems Creativity

Standards Relationships

Efficiency "Savoir-être"

Teaching Learning

Institutions Individuals

Doing Being

It is important not to think that organisational factors and variables apply only to the left handlist; both take place in a context which is affected by the way in which the available variablesare managed.


Appendix 1

THE ORGANIZATION OF LANGUAGE EDUCATION IN CANADAProf. Denise Lussier, McGill University

The case study below is significant in the way it describes the issues involved in a large-scaleapplication of innovation in a national or regional system. It illustrates well the fact that aninitial political vision and will is the starting point and that commitment is needed at a macro-level to make sure that policy is clearly defined and resources made available. At the sametime it shows that real innovation requires the involvement of all concerned and that thisincludes research into the basic concepts and the methodologies which will facilitate theimplementation; it needs consistent long-term action in teacher training and in in-serviceeducation for existing teachers. The organisational impact is important, too, as it affects thetimetable and organisation of entire school systems.The issues raised by the ambition to develop a pluricultural and multilingual Europe and bythe goals this sets for language education in Europe are equally important and will require thesame kind of political will commitment at all levels. We are very grateful to the Departmentof Canadian Heritage and its Official Language Support Programs for sponsoring the studyand making it available.

CONTEXT

Canada is a bilingual country. French and English have been Canada’s two official languagessince 1969 when the federal government passed the Official Languages Act. The Act is astatement about the legal status of these two languages. It does not necessarily mean that anyand every individual in the country is ‘bilingual’, i.e., is proficient in both languages. Itsuggests the full equality of both languages in the political and economic life of the nation.When learning English or French as a language other than the mother tongue, we refer to thelearning of a second language rather than the learning of a foreign language, since bothlanguages are official languages.

A year later, in 1970, the Secretary of State implemented the Official Languages in EducationPrograms. Bilingual education or teaching is referred to in Canada as ‘immersion programs’.

The Canadian population is 29 millions. There are seven million Francophones, the majorityof whom live in the province of Quebec (nearly six millions or 82% of Quebec’s population).One million Francophones live outside Quebec and represent 5% of Canada’s population.The exception is New Brunswick, where Francophones represent 34% of the province’spopulation. The English language is the primary language spoken in other provinces and inthe three territories.

INTRODUCTION

This document presents organizational issues at a macro-level and at a micro-level. At themacro-level, there is a description of four organizational models well implemented inCanada. The document also discusses initial and in-service training of teachers. At the micro-level, it gives examples of innovative projects. It also describes projects linked to schoolexchanges and the use of Internet resources.


A. AT A MACRO-LEVEL

The organization of language education in Canada can differ more or less on how languageeducation is viewed in relation to the learning of French or English. But the same issues andfundamental concepts were being raised across the country. Their implementation variedfrom one province to another, mostly relating to time, and place and it has produced differentorganizational models for the teaching of French and English.

1. Fundamental concepts

We could consider that three major concepts have contributed to developing three differentorganizational programs in Canada from the 1970s until now. They are :

From around 1975, the term language acquisition has been contrasted with languagelearning by the American linguist Krashen (1978, 1981). The reason for this was that theprocess of language ‘acquisition’ in the child was viewed by some theorists as a biologicalprocess of growth and maturation rather than as one of social learning or deliberate teaching.

Since that time, the distinction has been questionable, but language learning in the targetlanguage environment and outside the classroom, that is, language learning under ‘naturalconditions’, ‘informal’, ‘free’ or ‘naturalistic learning’ seems to give more opportunities forconstant and varied language use, situations in which the learner must cope day-by-day withthe new language. The two conditions can be visualized as a continuum. In Canada, it led toimmersion programs and also to school exchange programs (Lussier, 1984).

1.1 Bilingual education

There used to be a general belief that the more time learners spend in a language - English,French or any other language - the more they would learn. This belief derives from aconceptualization of bilingualism that represented the two languages as separate, independentcompartments, with no transfer between languages. Since then, Cummins (1981) and Krashen(1996) have argued that the two languages of a bilingual student are highly interdependent incognitive functions with possible exceptions of certain children.‘The attention paid communicatively (in both oral and written language) to one languagesignificantly affects what happens in the other. This is especially important in the context ofthe classroom learning. Consider the well-established finding with respect to theinterdependence of literacy: children who learn to read and write in their native language canreadily transfer these abilities to the other language (Edelsky, 1982; Faltis,1986; Hudelson &Serna, 1994; Krashen, 1996). The principle holds for mathematics, science, and otheracademic concepts as well (Henderson & Landesman, 1992; Minucucci, 1996). Cummins’perspective is that the two languages of a bilingual person are noticeably separate only at thesurface level. Below the surface, the two languages function through a single operatingsystem that is responsible for cognitive processing of language’ (Faltis & Hudelson,1990:18).

Many researchers, such as Faltis & Hudelson (1990), posit that a bilingual person’sproficiency in two languages is as much a matter of socially shared interaction as it is amatter of underlying cognitive processes presumed to drive two languages.


1.2 Language education at the primary or secondary level

The question of age in relation to second language learning has been a debated issue inlanguage learning. There has been a general belief for centuries that young children seem tolearn a second language more easily than adults. Even then, second or foreign languageteaching was assigned to an advanced secondary education. The relative lack of success ofthis late start in schooling prompted demands for language teaching at an earlier age in thecurriculum (Stern, 1967,1983 : 361). In Canada, the writings of the neurophysiologist wereinfluential. Penfield’s argument that the early years of life before puberty were crucial forlearning was derived from his observations on the effect of brain damage on speech inchildren and adults. He suggested that use should be made of the plasticity of the young brainfor its educational development (1965). Other researchers have favored this theory(Lenneberg, 1967; Krashen, 1973, 1975,1981; Schumann, 1975; Rosansky, 1975). Sincethen, many authors refer to age as a ‘myth’, corroborating evidence for greater emphasis onadequate time for language learning rather than on the age issue per se (Stern, 1983 : 365).On educational, political and philosophical grounds, Canada still maintains that it is desirableto introduce younger children to second languages. The teaching of a second language variesfrom one province to another province. It may start in kindergarten, but it usually starts inGrade 1, in Grade 3 or Grade 4.

2. Canada’s most important organizational models

2.1. Immersion Programs (Models offering other subjects in French)

The definition varies according to the political, social and linguistic context. It is a form ofbilingual education in which students enter a school where a second language becomes thelanguage of instruction for all pupils, offering different subjects in that language.

In Canada, schools offer early immersion or late immersion programs. In ‘early immersion ‘,intensification of instruction in French begins in kindergarten (age 5) or Grade 1. In lateimmersion programs, French instruction is concentrated in the first cycle of secondary school,but students still take one or two other courses in French in the second cycle.

Different types of immersion programs are also available. The most frequent programs aretotal immersion (100% in French) and partial immersion (50% in French and 50% inEnglish), but we also find variations to these. For example, over the six years of elementaryschool, the number of subjects offered in French can vary from year to year depending on theorganizational model. The subjects most often offered are Arts, Social Studies, NaturalScience, Physical Education and Mathematics. Students can be enrolled in early partialimmersion, early total immersion or late immersion.

Contrary to some research before the 1960s, results from research by Peal and Lambert(1962) showed that with ten-year-old students who attended French schools in Montreal,those who were bilingual obtained better results on verbal and non-verbal tests (Hakuta1986 : 34) than those students who were unilingual. It led to bilingual teaching and theteaching of school subjects in a language other than the mother tongue. This was thebeginning of immersion programs in Canada. In 1965, the first French immersionkindergarten class started in an Anglophone elementary school on the initiative of an English


parent group. Penfield and Tucker from McGill University were mandated to evaluate theprogram.

In 1975, fifty-two different immersion programs were offered in nine provinces. In ten years,18 500 students in the province of Quebec were enrolled in immersion programs. Nowadays,all provinces offer immersion programs and more than 300 000 students are registered inthese programs.

2.2 Core French Programs offering a multidimensional curriculum

The National Core French Study was a four-year curriculum project, sponsored by theCanadian Association of Second Language Teachers, funded by the Department of theSecretary of State, and supported through provincial activities undertaken by the ministries ofeducation and school boards across Canada. It put forth a multidimensional curriculum modelbased on a communicative/experiential approach.

The conceptual framework was elaborated by H.H. Stern, a well-known authority on secondlanguage teaching and one of Canada’s most distinguished educators (1962, 1983, 1992). Itis based on the relationship between ‘theory’ and ‘practice’. Language teaching isrepresented on three levels. The first level, in reference to fundamental concepts, identifies atleast five major fields of study, i.e. historical, linguistic, sociological, psychological, andeducational studies. The second level is that of applied or educational linguistics, i.e.language, learning, teaching and social context. It develops theories and undertakes research.Its particular function is to provide the scholarly basis for practical language tasks. The thirdlevel, linked to practice, is divided into two cells, methodology/pedagogy (practicalconcepts, classroom behavior and observation) and organization (mandate of the institutionsto provide opportunities for such teaching and learning). It led to a multidimensionalcurriculum composed of four syllabuses (Stern, 1992 : 27) :

- The language syllabus represents the objective and analytic study of the second language.It includes phonology, grammar, lexicology, and discourse. It can approach the languagefrom formal, semantic, or sociolinguistic perspectives. The main point is that languagecannot be taught in isolation from the other content categories.

- The culture syllabus found its basis in anthropology and sociology. It refers to a way oflife in which the behaviours and beliefs of a community of people may be expresseddifferently from other groups. Underlying this second content area is the belief thatlanguage and culture interact. It intends to go beyond what is generally defined in othermodels as a sociolinguistic component.

- The communicative/experiential syllabus contains topics, interests, and activities whichlearners pursue in order to establish personal contact with the target language communityin real-life situations involving the use of the second language. The focus is on themessage, on content, or on the activity itself rather than on language aspects. This is anexperiential approach for the students who have to hand in a project linked to theirinterests and a predetermined topic, at the end of a sequence of learning. When languageis emphasized, it is subordinated to the purpose of the message.

- The general language education syllabus reaches beyond the particular second language.It is composed of topics on language, culture, society and language learning in general. Itencourages the learner to stand back from his immediate work with the new language andto make observations about language or culture in general, and to reflect about his own


language learning experience. It is predicated upon the development of awareness ofnumerous aspects relevant to language (Language Awareness) and culture (CultureAwareness) as well as to the strategies used in learning (Strategic Awareness).

2.3. Intensive teaching in English as a Second Language (ESL)

Intensive teaching is a recent organizational model (mid-1980s) that has been implemented inthe province of Quebec to compensate for the lack of immersion programs available toFrench- speaking students. Subject-matter instruction in English in French-medium schools isnot permitted as it is for French in English-medium schools. This model often replaces CoreEnglish Programs. Instead of providing students with the regular program of 120 minutes ofESL instruction per week at the elementary level, i.e. from Grade 3 to Grade 6 and spreadingESL teaching over a three-year period, some school boards concentrate ESL teachingaccording to different time arrangements, such as :

- regular subjects other than ESL are offered in the mornings and ESL teaching takes placeduring afternoons of one school year;

- the school year is divided in two, i.e. in such a way that students get their regular subjectsduring the first semester. They do not have ESL during that semester. ESL teaching takesplace during the second semester and the time that should have been allotted to thatsubject during the first semester is added to the time allotted for the second semester.Students get five hours of instruction per day for five months;

- Students may not have any ESL teaching in Grade 3 and the time that should have beenallotted to that subject that year is added to the time allotted the next year in order to offerintensive teaching and learning.

B. AT A MICRO-LEVEL

We present some aspects of the organization of language teaching at the level of schoolboards or classroom practices. We provide some information on teacher training as offered byuniversities to future teachers (initial training) and in-service teachers. We also refer toexchange programs that were initiated in the 1970s by Canadian Heritage as an extension ofclassroom learning.

1. Teacher training

1.1 Initial training

Most recent training programs offer a four-year Baccalaureate in Second LanguageEducation. In most cases, it is an integrated 120-credit program which consists of academicand professional components. The academic components provide students with opportunitiesto develop a broad liberal education and to study language and language learning fromlinguistic, social, cultural and psychological perspectives. The professional componentsrevolve around school-based field experiences and professional seminars which are supportedby studies in pedagogy and educational foundations.


Teachers at the university level focus their teaching on new pedagogy issues such as :co-operative learning, the integration of multimedia technology and the Internet in theclassroom, the development of cultural competence as one component of the communicativecompetence approach, and teaching multicultural class.

1.2 In-service training

Many universities used to offer a Certificate in the Teaching of a Second Language forin-service teachers. This was considered an undergraduate program. This CertificateProgram tends to be replaced by a Diploma in the Teaching of a Second Language, Which isa graduate program for a master’s degree.

This type of Diploma of Graduate Studies generates courses such as : Multicultural LanguagePedagogy; Computer and Media Language Education (Teaching in the third millennium);Design and Issues in Curriculum Development and Evaluation of Learning Outcomes;Teaching Adults; Training and Supervising Teachers; Field Projects; Literacy/Reading;Literacy/Writing; Advanced Methodology /Strategies and Reflective Practices (e.g. McGill,Second Language Education, Project for the year 2000).

2. Specific projects

New classroom practices are put forward at the school board or individual teacher levels.Teachers tend to facilitate the ‘pédagogie du projet’ and to integrate co-operative learningand the use of the Internet. Here are some examples :

- ‘Se lancer en affaires avec un jeu’, material developed for the multidimensionalcurriculum ( Tremblay et LeBlanc, 1990 :133).

- ‘Initiation au voyage’ produced as a teaching unit for the Communicative/ExperientialSyllabus (Tremblay, 1996).

- Classroom of 2000 : Co-operative Learning, Multimedia and Internet. It encourages ESLstudents to work in groups to investigate and solve problems. The topic was ‘RMSTitanic’. It was presented by Isabelle Lussier and Denis Fortin at the SPEAQ Convention,in October 1998.

- Murder in an apartment building. Who was killed? Who is the killer? What would be thereasons for the killing? New project in ESL by Isabelle Lussier.

- Recueil d’activités culturelles : L’immersion et l’interculturalisme. Ouverture à lafrancophonie et aux autres cultures. Association canadienne des professeurs d’immersionet le Ministère du Patrimoine Canadien/Department of Canadian Heritage, Ottawa, 1995.

3. School exchanges

The exchange programs are intended to be interlinguistic and intercultural activities betweenstudent groups of different linguistic and cultural backgrounds, generally French-speaking


and English-speaking students. The objective is to allow students to live in a different culturalmilieu, to communicate in school activities and cultural, sport or family situations where theyuse the second language (Lussier, 1984). There are different types of programs: the mostcurrent are :

- School exchange programs, also called ‘intensive individual learning’, where a secondarystudent (15-17 years of age) is immersed in a different linguistic and cultural milieu for along period of time, usually a full semester. He attends regular school in that milieuduring that time and lives in a family where he is paired with a student of the same age.

- Classroom exchange programs, which are considered as the extension of secondlanguage teaching. They usually last from five to ten days during the school year. Theyinclude the welcoming of the other group of students in their school and travel in theother group milieu.

- Out of school exchange programs are offered during the summer. Students are paired andtravel from one family to the other for two weeks.

SEVEC (Society for Educational Visits and Exchanges in Canada/ Société des visisteséducatives et des échanges au Canada) is a national association with more than 55 years ofexperience. It is funded from the federal government and ministries of education fromdifferent provinces. Its mission is to develop mutual respect and understanding throughprograms of exploration in language and culture. It administers most of these programs.Some private institutions other than SEVEC also offer some of these programs, mostly theout of school exchange program offered during the summer.

CONCLUSION

The organization of language education never ends. In Canada, we are looking at improvingteaching programs in order to integrate the new developments in cognitive psychology, i.e. tointegrate learning processes in the teaching of a second language, to have a macro-vision oflanguage learning in developing programs that could take into consideration cross-competencies, to put forward the development of the cultural component as an essentialelement of language competence, to improve learning strategies that have been introduced inteaching materials, and finally, to increase formative practices in the evaluation of learningoutcomes in the second language.

At this point readers may wish to consider the relevance of this description of educationaldevelopment in Canada.

What points in the way the developments have been organised would be of particularimportance in your own environment?

What practical steps could you propose to combine macro and micro issues in innovatoryprojects you know?


Appendix 2SWOT Analysis (Eva Marquardt)

After an introduction of innovation and organisation in the language education a next logicalstep was to give information on how to analyse the participants own situation. Innovationshould be planned and carried out on this concrete basis and should not be oriented onarbitraryly chosen solutions. The aim was to get to know different tools to carry out anAnalysis of Strength and Weaknesses.

During the process of innovation a SWOT Analysis can be an instrument especially in thephases of „diagnosis“ of change processes. Among other tools that can be used, a SWOTAnalysis allows the identification of internal strengths and weaknesses as well as externalopportunities or threats. According to the purpose, the defined outcome and resourcesavailable one has to decide to either apply this tool in a limited time e.g. during a conference,or to set up a project with external guidance. In this case SWOT Analysis is a project whereall relevant characteristics of project management should be respected.

In the beginning the focus of the analysis, the specific questions and appropriate methodshave to be agreed. Among the applied methods, desk research, inspection of schools,interviews with keyplayers as well as focus groups with students, teachers, customers orparents should be mentioned. This is complemented by a comparison with competitors orcomparable institutions. Interviews with experts in the field should be included as anotherimportant perspective.

By doing this type of analysis the institution has to take into consideration importantprinciples of the innovatory process like communication and involvement. During the phasewhere you actually decide on the consequences of the analysis one should take care to ensuretransparency and participation, and make an appropriate timetable with clear priorities.Concentration only on the weaknesses often leads to frustration and gives away the chance todevelop strengths into Unique Selling Points.

Vision of Innovation: Quality Management and School Development

After the analysis and the definition of possible deficits a session of developing visions andideas was planned. Without a motivating vision and the confidence to have a real chance toreach this no innovation is achievable.

A coherent and well accepted system of self-evaluation, internal audits and external qualityinspection were described. This system should be a driving force in the process of schooldevelopment. Teachers, administrative staff, directors and the staff in the headquarters shouldsee the advantages of such a system in their work. They should feel responsible for theirparticular field and know at the same time that they contribute to the success of the wholeprocess.A coherent evaluation system is one module in a system where we can learn from each other.


Managing Curriculum Reform – A Case Study

In order to point out the principles of identification and organisation of innovative projectsthe Curriculum Project was given as one example. It was necessary to include detours,mistakes and errors as well as successful solutions and examples of good practice.

The development and implementation of curriculum at the Goethe-Institut served as anexample about how to organise innovation within a network of 18 institutes in Germany.At the start you need to be aware of the actual forces promoting change and should base thedevelopment on the analysis of the actual situation before the reform. Desired outcomesshould be defined as clearly as possible, in terms of product and as a result of the innovatoryprocess. Although projects are not bound to stick to an original plan and objectives you set inthe beginning you should evaluate the results on the basis of your initial aims. The sourcesfor input were both internal (questionnaires for teachers, academic managers and students)and external such as relevant research and the Common European Framework.In order to achieve the best possible results and to stimulate motivation, involvement andparticipation of a great number of staff we used questionnaires, regular feedback andorganised local as well as central workshops.The project had high priority and got endorsement from the board; this helped in gainingcommitment. Although the decision was actually top-down, the measures to ensureinvolvement assured staff identification with the final result.Right from the beginning the project team planned and facilitated the implementation of theCurriculum. One step to implementation is good communication: during the process theschools were kept informed, sceptical letters even protest notes received a careful anddetailed response, interim results were supplied regularly. Evaluation should not be left to thevery end of the process but carried out in well defined steps during the process. The finalevaluation showed that quite a number of papers, such as syllabus checklists, end of coursecertification and material had to be revised.

Language Tandem Learning – A Change of Organisational Variables

Innovation in language education has to do with change of organisational variables. The aimof this session was to outline these variables. The example of Language Tandems was chosenbecause of its clear contrast to traditional language learning.In comparison with traditional language teaching in classrooms the learning in languagetandems was described as a radical change of all important organisational variables such astime, place, channel, content, resources and people.

The concept of language tandems vary from individual and spontaneous, privately organisedtandems to programmes which can be booked at language schools specialised in tandemlearning.

Tandem learning allows a different use of time: both partners are free to agree on allquestions concerning time: frequency, length of learning hours, time of day and so on. Thereare no missed lessons and no extra costs involved to work on bank holidays or weekends.Complete freedom and flexibility applies to place as well, as long as both partners agreewhere they would like to learn. It is possible and very often useful to meet in public placeslike exhibitions, etc. Tandem Learning is therefore very suitable for project work.


The main difference from traditional language learning where teachers control the learningprocess is that in Tandem Learning both partners are learners and teachers at the same time.There is no delegation of responsibility possible, the learners have to define the content andhave to choose the material. If there are teachers involved they should supervise the learningprocess rather than organise it.

Munich, 15th of December 1999

SWOT Analysis

Strength Weaknesses

Opportunities Threats


Appendix 3Contributions from Péter Medgyes

In the following, I shall only focus on those parts of the workshop in which my personalcontribution was specifically asked for and disregard those in which I acted as one of theanimators.

What is vision in language education?

Vision is a buzzword in our days and its meaning is usually taken for granted. Challengingthis uncritical attitude, I defined vision as a concept which occupies a place between a dreamand a plan. As opposed to a dream which is rife with irrational elements and a plan which isrooted in the concrete, a vision may be characterised as capability of seeing into the distanceor putting things in a perspective. Whereas a dreamer makes his or her escape into phantasyworld and a realist has a tendency to get bogged down in small details, a (wo)man of visionpossesses imaginative power and the ability to view the future with reflection, wisdom anddepth. Vision in education is of paramount importance and, to quote Toffler, “All educationis a vision of the future, and unless one has such a vision one betrays the nation’s youth.”

At the Centre for English Teacher Training in Budapest, we resort to various strategies tomaintain our vision of what constitutes good teacher education. At the beginning of eachacademic year, we go on “staff away days” for review purposes, which, in addition tostrengthening bonding among the staff, allow physical distance as well as that of time. Weare also in the habit of inviting facilitators from Britain, who are destined to play a catalyticrole by furnishing us with their more distant perspective. Similarly, conference attendanceand networking with colleagues from other institutions are useful ways of triggeringreflection upon past activities and opening new avenues of looking ahead.

Changing perspectives in teacher education - a case study of the Centre for EnglishTraining in Budapest

I began my presentation by quoting Einstein, who once said that the only constant in ouruniverse is change. Change cannot be stopped, albeit its speed may be slowed down. It vergeson the platitude to state that in our contemporary world the rate of change is faster than ever.In language education as well as in teacher education, new skills and awarenesses are neededwhich require teachers and teacher educators to keep abreast of innovations. The success ofany reform depends upon the extent to which teachers perceive to be involved or, to usePrabhu’s term, upon their sense of plausability. Unfortunately, in many countries the validityof this statement is not recognised, and teachers are often treated like underpaid andundervalued workers rather than like professionals endowed with creative power. This sorrystate of affairs inevitably decreases the level of teacher involvement, and hence manyeducational reforms are doomed to failure.

Educational reforms may be initiated in two directions: top-down and bottom-up. Top-downdecisions, in Kaplan’s view, are taken at two levels. The major decisions which largelydetermine language education are made at government level (language planning), and theseare shaped into implementation plans at ministry level (language-in-education planning),


only to percolate down to the level of experts including needs analysts, curriculum designers,materials writers and test specialists. Although all these experts make their specificcontributions, the ultimate success of the language teaching operation hinges on those whooccupy the lowest rung of the ladder, the classroom teachers. This explains why bottom-upinitiatives, in our view, should be given far more heed than is customary today.

In Kuhn’s classification, there are two kinds of change: evolution and revolution. While theformer implies incremental development, the latter involves paradigm shift, which impliesbreaking the relatively smooth progress of evolution. The fall of communism in Hungary, asin other Central and Eastern European countries, may be regarded as revolution by causingirreversible changes to occur in all spheres of life.

In language education, 1989 brought the end of compulsory Russian instruction at school anda free choice of foreign languages. This had two interrelated consequences: a redundancy ofRussian teachers and a shortage of all other foreign language teachers. The problems to beconfronted were clear at the level of both language planning and language-in-educationplanning: (a) Russian teacher would have to be retrained into teachers of other foreignlanguages, and (b) the scope of foreign language teacher education would have to bewidened. In more concrete terms, two parallel programmes were launched: the RetrainingProgramme for Russian Teachers and the Fast Track Preservice Training Programmes. Inmy presentation, I demonstrated the necessity for both types of programmes: the dramaticdecrease in the number of students studying Russian and, simultaneously, the rapid increasein the number of students studying English and German.

Figure 1: The distribution of foreign languages in the primary schoolFigure 2: The distribution of foreign languages in the secondary grammar school

The second part of my presentation focused on the Fast Track Preservice TrainingProgrammes in Hungary, more specifically, on the work of the Centre for English Training inBudapest (CETT). I argued that the success of CETT was largely due to a convergence oftop-down decisions and bottom-up initiatives. Put another way, the favourable historiccircumstance was opportuned by a long-standing need to reform the preservice training offoreign language teachers in Hungary.

I went on to supply some basic facts. Founded in 1990 within the Eötvös Loránd Universityin Budapest, CETT provides a BEd Diploma (ie not a full university degree). Most studentsare single majors who are expected to finish their studies in three years. Each year the intakeof students ranges between 100-120, and thus far approximately 700 students have graduatedfrom CETT. The number of trainers is around 20 and 25. Next, I spoke in some detail aboutthe differences between our programme and the traditional five-year programme, whichfeature both in terms of vision and curricula. The chief differences in their respectivecurricula are demonstrated in Figure 3.

Figure 3: The percentage of hours allocated to the main strands of the curriculum

Afterwards, I singled out a few of the major achievements of CETT as summarised inFigure 4.

Figure 4: Achievements of the Centre for English Teacher Training in Budapest


While listing the exceptionally favourable circumstances under which we had been able tooperate, I also pointed out some of the difficulties, such as the conflict between personalinterests and institutional interests:

Figure 5: Conflicting interests

I concluded my presentation by drawing attention to the documents I had put on display inthe workshop area. These included books, manuscripts and papers relating to foreignlanguage education in Hungary at a national level (eg The National Core Curriculum, EnglishLanguage Education in Hungary - a baseline study), as well as those written by the staff ofCETT, especially the title Changing Perspectives in Teacher Education (Heinemann, 1996),which is an account of CETT describing our successes and setbacks in the process ofinnovation.

Applications of organisational variables

In an attempt to interpret organisational variables, I decided to draw on my own experiences.Somewhat presumptuously perhaps, I conveyed messages which I had formulated on thebasis of my decade-long work at CETT. These messages contain issues (a) before setting upthe institute, (b) while designing the curriculum, (c) relating to staff learning, and end with(d) overall messages:

Figure 6: Brief messages

In analysing these points, I paid particular attention to the expectations of stakeholders, bothas consumers and suppliers:

Figure 7: Consumer and supplier stakeholders (after Ron White)

Furthermore, I argued against the separation of theory and practice in language teachereducation by applying a metaphor:

Figure 8: The theory/practice iceberg

I finished my presentation by stressing that each institution has its own natural rhythm, andwise managers try to work in tune with this rhythm. To illustrate my point, I quoted anextract from Kazantsakis’s novel, Zorba the Greek, and produced a drawing to match:

Figure 9: The butterfly metaphor

Resistance to change

In my next contribution, I examined the causes of resistance to change in education. Whydoes the self-defeating prophesy It won’t work � See, it isn’t working � I told you itwouldn’t work come true so often? The famous American educator Carl Rogers himself


admitted that the overwhelming majority of the humanistic innovations he had initiated hadnot eventually taken root in the everyday practice of teachers. What militates against change?

By way of introduction, I mentioned but a few factors, including conditioning (Lortie), tissuerejection (Holliday) and lamination (Claxton). Afterwards, I set up an activity consisting ofthree steps. In Step 1, the participants had to recall an initiative from their own experiencewhich, for whatever reasons, had gone awry, and prepare to describe the perceived causes offailure. In Step 2, they were put into groups to discuss their experiences in general, and theways in which the failures could have been averted and turned into success. In Step 3, themost interesting experiences were reported back to the whole group. As a follow-up activity,the main causes of failure were pooled and posted on the wall.

Resources

In preparation for the final project to be produced by the participants, I briefly explained themultiple meanings of resource by classifying them into four main categories: human,physical, material, and organisational. As the individual and group projects were beingpresented, I was glad to see the ways in which the participants had incorporated into theirwork concerns relating to various resources.

Guidelines for the presentation of the projects

It was my task to alert the participants to the fact that, although this would be no more than anacademic exercise, the projects to be designed and presented should have the semblance ofreal ones. In explaining the “rules of the game”, I pointed out that the presentations should be(a) explicit (especially by dint of clarifying the problem and the title), (b) persuasive(sponsors should be talked into buying them, as it were), and (c) concise (no presentationshould take longer than ten minutes). I mentioned that every group member should beinvolved in the presentation phase, and any facility available at ECML including OHT,whiteboard, photocopying, computers, flipcharts and posters might be used. The quality ofthe presentations themselves surpassed all my expectations!

In sum, it seemed the workshop was very successful - I trust the feedback sheets will justifymy assumption. It was a true delight to work with an international group of teachers,educators and managers; I myself have learnt a great deal from many of them. I believe thatwork was greatly facilitated by fellow animators and above all by Frank Heyworth, who hadnot only produced an exquisite manual, but conducted the five-day workshop with a highdegree of efficiency and tact.


Appendix 4The timetable of the workshop

Monday November 22nd

9.00 - 16.00 - preparation meeting for teamevening - informal dinner with participants

Tuesday November 23rd

Theme of the day - "Visions for Language Education"

9.00 Opening session - Introduction to workshopIntroduction from Josef Huber, Deputy Executive Director/Head of Programmes of theECMLPresentation of seminar - Frank HeyworthIntroductions by team Denise Lussier / Eva Marquardt / Péter MedgyesIntroductions from participants - work on expectations / working context / experience10.30 - 11.00 Coffee break11.00 - 12.30 General Considerations "What is Innovation?“ "What is Organisation"

Aim of session - to give a theoretical background to the concept of organisation andinnovation in language education - why change? "normal" change and paradigm change - theframework for organising language education.Introductory presentation by Frank Heyworth

Illustrative exampleDenise Lussier – The development of bilingual education in Canada

12.30 - 14.00 Lunch14.00 - 16.00 Analysis and evaluation of participants' own situationCarrying out a SWOT Analysis - Eva Marquardt

Aim of session - to get an introduction to the tools of SWOT analysis; for participants to startto define the specific areas of innovation they would like to work on during the workshopWork in groups

16.00 - 16.30 Coffee break16.30 - 18.00 Defining a vision for language education

Aim of session - to show that all change and innovation comes through a vision of what is tobe achieved

Examples of vision statements – Eva Marquardt, Denise Lussier, Péter Medgyes,Frank HeyworthGroup work and feedback from participants


Reflective session on day's work19.30 - 21.00 Reception in Town Hall, GrazWednesday 24th November

Theme of the day - Principles of organisation and identification of specific innovativeprojects

9.00 - 10.30 Innovative Projects - Theory and examples

Aim of session – the proces of innovation; how is change organised?Introduction by Frank Heyworth

Examples of application of changeEva Marquardt - Curriculum reform in Goethe-InstitutPéter Medgyes - Changing perspectives in teacher education

10.30 - 11.00 Coffee break11.00 – 11.45 Innovative projects – continued11.45 - 12.30 Defining specific projects for innovationIntroduction Denise Lussier

Aim of session• to introduce a matrix of possible innovations and get common understanding of meaning;• to identify areas for participants' action plans and to form groups with coherent interests;• to apply systematic thinking to definition of innovation

12.30 - 14.00 Lunch14.00 - 16.00 Analysis of organisational variables

Aim of session - to examine the organisational variables of time, place, etc.

Three short presentations on the applications of organisational variablesDenise Lussier, Péter Medgyes, Eva Marquardt

16.00 - 16.30 coffee break16.30 - 18.00 Setting priorities for innovations and projects

Group work defining participants´ areas of work for action plans; each person / group tocome up with clear definition of proposed innovation

Reflective session on day's work

Thursday November 25th

Theme of the day Change and Project Management

9.00 - 10.30 Principles of project managementA seminar on project and change management – Frank Heyworth


10.30 - 11.00 Coffee break11.00 – 11.45 Group work on development of a Matrix of Innovations11.45 – 12.30 Resistance to change – how to cope with itIntroduction and leading discussion – Péter Medgyes

12.30 - 14.00 lunch14.30 - 17.00 Tour of Graz17.00 – 19.00 - ECML open for work on individual projects; informal meetings withworkshop team

Friday November 26th

Theme - the planning and management of innovation

9.00 - 10.00 Review of workshop so far and feedback from participants

Aim of session - bring all the input together, get participants' reactionsbrief summary from each member of team

10.00 - 16.00 Setting up and preparing individual or group projects

Aim of session - to set up individual or collaborative projects to be followed up after theworkshop. Systematic preparation of the action plans using the approaches to organisationand innovation presented in the workshop.(coffee breaks & lunch at group´s convenience)

16.30 - 18.00 The role of the Council of Europe in innovation in language education.Panel discussion with team and Josef Huber of the ECML

Aim - familiarisation with Council of Europes role and possible support for subsequentprojects

19.30 Workshop dinner

Saturday November 27th

Theme of day - project presentation and follow-up

9.00 - 10.30 Presentation of participants' projects and action plansProject presentations in four groups, each one chaired by one of the workshop team

10.30 - 11.00 coffee break11.00 - 11.30 Plenary presentation of projects11.30 - 12.30 Organisation of follow-up and networking; establishment of reporting systemwith bulletin and discussion forum on the web12.30 - 14.00 Lunch


14.00 - 15.30 Final session - evaluation / questionnaires / review / reflective session onworkshop

30

Documents

Report - European Centre for Modern Languagesarchive.ecml.at/documents/reports/WS199906.pdf · educational innovation depends on manipulation of basic organisation variables - time,