HUMANITIES

(Arts Appreciation)1

OBJECTIVES: for the students to:

1. understand and appreciate their value as human whose identities are

shaped through participation in a wider community;

2. develop critical and analytical thinking;

3. gain historical consciousness with regard to the development of arts;

4. be aware of the aesthetic values and develop creativity, imagination and

artistic expression of feelings.

IMPORTANCE:

1. Provides enjoyment and stimulation if we try to understand;

2. Develop and refine our initial responses to arrive at a mature and meaningful

undertaking;

3. Satisfies our comprehension and appreciation and eventually evaluate our

experiences

4. Delights our desire for beautiful things.

Other Objectives

To survey the development of the arts (painting, sculpture, architecture, music

and literature) to help students appreciate our cultural heritage and give them

background for understanding and evaluating the arts of our own day.

Generally, this study aims to see how man’s thinking and feelings are reflected in

the arts which were produced in a given period so that students may appreciate

a work of art in the light of the age which produced it.

To give students a historical and aesthetic background for a more

comprehensive response to art in general.

I. INTRODUCTION

This subject is primarily intended for college students, particularly to those students who

are pursuing the arts, sciences and technological courses. Their exposure to the arts is

imperative which science and technology alone are not adequate to make them truly

appreciate the value of being human. As Salvador Gonzales puts it, “Science educates

our minds and hearts while humanities educate our feelings and sensitivities. With the

end in view to use our minds without forgetting that we are human beings”.

1 Doris Van de Bogart, Introduction to the Humanities: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, Music and Literature,

Barnes & Noble, Inc., New York, 1970

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II. OVERVIEW

A. HUMANITIES

a. Meaning Generally mean Art, Literature, music, dance & theater

Where appreciation of arts can be strengthened because

artists convey their thoughts, beliefs, values and feelings through

visual arts, literary arts, dance and music.

b. Concerns With the importance of human beings and his feelings and how

he expresses those feelings

c. Origin It came from the Latin word, “humanus” meaning refined and

cultured.

Based on the philosophical view of humanism which stresses the

dictum of Protagoras2 that “man is the measure of all things,”

implying that humanities emphasizes the dignity and worthiness

of a man and recognizes creative expressions.

d. Branch/field

of learning

Which include different disciplines in Liberal Arts like: History,

Philosophy, Theology & all languages

B. ART

a. Origin Came from the Latin word, “ars” meaning ability or skill. Thus,

art covers those areas of artistic creativity that seek to

communicate beauty primarily through the senses

b. Meaning Appeals to the senses or emotions, especially beauty.

c. Involvement

and function

Art applies to activities that expresses aesthetic ideas by the use

of skill and imagination in the creation of objects, environment

and experiences which can be shared with others.

We can say that we are involve in art if we:

1. plan, design and construct houses artistically;

2. paint and decorate our house beautifully;

3. landscape6 the garden;

4. paint a poster;

5. write poems, essays, biographies, short stories and plays.

6. compose a melody;

7. sing songs beautifully; and

8. dance gracefully

All these simply imply that anything accomplished with great

skill is art. Hence, in almost all human activities, there is the

9. Art of dressing

10. Relaxing

11. Art of cooking

2 A Greek Philosopher who comes to us from the, writings of other philosophers especially Plato,

Aristotle, Diogenes Laertius. He was a sophistThe sophists were self-proclaimed teachers who

travelled the Greek cities offering to teach young men arts such as rhetoric and public speaking.

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III. WORK OF ART

A work of art is an activity that involves both imagination and skill in

accomplishing it. It creates aesthetic feelings or experiences which delight and satisfy

our desire for beautiful things.

IV. SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES OF ART WORKS

DIFFERENCES 1. Words are used in verbal arts like in

Poetry

Prose

Drama

2. Musical notes used in musical composition

3. Visual Arts use colors lines and tones or canvass.

Like in

Painting

Sculpture

Architecture

3. Performing art tell stories like in

Dance

Operas

Music

Dances

However, it is easy to understand and appreciate

as song or a dance than a painting and a

symphony.

4. Poetry: fixtures of poetic frame are rhyme, meter,

expressive sound and distinctive grammatical

construction of words and metaphor. These are not

found in novels and short stories.

6. Emotions or passion evoked by a work of art

differs from person to person due to feelings (how

one perceives, moves and carried away with)

SIMILARITIES There is one common element among the works of

art and that is, they are concerned with the

audience’s feelings and emotions.

V. THE ARTISTS IN THE WORLD OF ART

A. Artist Credo “art for art sake” – implies that beauty is the reason for the art

work. Thus artist concerns with the minds of the viewers.

Role of Artist – The artist communicates through his art his:

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1. thoughts

2. fantacies

3. observations

4. self-revelation

He seeks to open our minds and ears so that we may see the beauty of the world

clearly and find the meaning of arts in our lives.

Role of Audience: To sense what the artist is trying to convey and tell through his

work of art.

B. ARTIST ARE CALLED BY MANY NAMES

1. VISUAL ARTISTS – “I think, I see”

a. Painter – paints picture and objects from his own imaginations to

reveal what he thinks he has seen so that we too can see it with our

own eyes.

Ex. Fernando Amorsolo – “Girl in mangoes” 1957

Vincent Van Gogh – Starry Night

Starry Night by Vincent van Gogh has risen to the

peak of artistic achievements. Although Van Gogh

sold only one painting in his life, the aftermath of his

work is enormous. Starry Night is one of the most well

known images in modern culture as well as being one

of the most replicated and sought after prints. From

Don McLean's song 'Starry, Starry Night' (Based on the

Painting), to the endless number of merchandise

products sporting this image, it is nearly impossible to

shy away from this amazing painting.

Van Gogh painted Starry Night while in an Asylum at

Saint-Remy in 1889.

Juan Luna – Spolarium-

Painting shows fallen gladiators being dragged to an

unseen pile of corpses in a chamber beneath the

Roman arena. It won the highest award at the

National Exposition of Fine Arts of Madrid in 1884.

b. Sculptor – drawn and carved from the original designs and sketches.

1. Makes scale model statues of

human beings

monuments

buildings

2. Decorations in clays

3. Chisels out:

statues from marbles

wood

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clay

c. Architecture

a. Plans – the layout of the structures and coordinates the structural

ornamental elements into a unified design.

b. Designs – prepares sketches of proposed buildings and writes the

specifications

- prepares scale drawings and details for the use of

building sites to ensure compliance with the plans and

specifications.

- Designs and oversees the repair and remodeling of

buildings

- Lays out the development of urban areas

- Landscape architect works with:

-lawns

-plants

-Roads

c. Constructs – public and commercial buildings

Other artists in the VISUAL ARTS:

a. Photographer

Often specialize in areas such as commercial photography, industrial

photography, or portrait photography. Many photographers work in

portrait or commercial photography studios, while others are employed

by newspapers, magazines, television broadcasters, or advertising

agencies.

b. Filmmaker

Art directors are those who develop the design concepts that other artists

implement, either for print or digital publications. They decide how to

present the information and which photographs or artwork to use so that it

is visually appealing.

Multimedia artists create visual images using film, video, and

other electronic media. They may work for advertising

companies, electronic publishers, and the television and

movie industries.

c. Graphic Arts

The types of courses visual arts students take vary depending

on the discipline, ranging from graphic design to art history

and Web design to watercolor painting.

FINE ARTISTS

Include painters, illustrators, sculptors, sketch artists, and others. Their work may be

displayed in museums, galleries, or private homes, or they may work for organizations or

companies. A sketch artist, for example, might work for a law enforcement agency

sketching courtroom scenes, while an illustrator might work for a greeting card company designing cards, wrapping paper, and accessories.

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2. ARTIST IN MUSIC

a. Musicians “I think, I hear”– put together and composes melodies and

songs and conveys his thoughts and feelings which he wishes to share with

others.

b. Singers – an artist who sings to delight and entertain others.

Songster An opera Prima donna or diva

Vocalist Soloist Choir singer

c. composers – a person who writes music whose works include operas,

symphonies, concertos, and sonatas (ex. Mozart and Beethoven)

d. choreographer – composes and teaches

choreography representing stage dancing

by signs and music. Arrange dance movements or

patterns to accompanying music to develop a theme.

3. DANCER (Art of Movement) – artist who moves his body artistically, makes

gestures beautifully with the music:

- stage or ballet dancing

- female ballet dancer – danseuse

- street dance

4. LITERARY ARTS –

a. Poet puts words aesthetically together in verse form. Expresses his thoughts

and feelings in verses and poems

b. Novelist – a writer of fiction with originality. Write stories.

c. Authors also known as writer; an author of a dramatic play is a dramatist

d. Playwright writes plays and adapts his materials for the stage, radio,

television or motion pictures production.

e. Dramatist writes compositions in prose and poetry arranged for

excitement to be performed by actors and actresses on stage to portray

a character or tell a story through action or dialogue of characters.

WHY ARTISTS HAVE SO MANY NAMES – because of their varied expertise in the use of

different media or materials.

Painter – paints with pigments and uses oil and colors, canvass or tempera

Architect – works with designs

Sculptor – works with images

Poet – uses words and speak in rhymes,

Musician and composer – use musical notes or tones and spoken words that are

sang.

Writer, novelist, playwright and dramatist – use words to express their thoughts

and feelings

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Decorative arts are traditionally defined as ornamental and functional works in

ceramic, wood, glass, metal, textile. The field includes ceramics, furniture, furnishings,

interior design, and architecture. The decorative arts are often categorized in

opposition to the "fine arts", namely, painting, drawing, photography, and large-scale

sculpture. Some distinguish between decorative and fine art based on functionality,

intended purpose, importance, status as a unique creation, or single-artist production.

Decorative arts, or furnishings, may be fixed (for example, wallpaper), or moveable (for

example, lamps).

Style

There are certain common denominators of subject matter, treatment, and

emphasis which appear again and again in art works of a given epoch. These

characterize the style of a period, perhaps the result of a certain community of feeling

in the leading spirits of an age.

1. Historical Factors

When an artist searches for new perceptions, he is tied to the world around him. If

he ignores or loses this tie, his work becomes unintelligible to his contemporaries.

His is also affected by geographical and ethnic differences within the period.

2. Geographical Factors

Artists are conditioned by their nationality. For example, artistic expression may

be typically Dutch, French, or English. More particularly, in Italy they may be

Florentine, Roman, Or Venetian; in Germany, south German or north German.

3. Political, Psychological, and Sociological Factors

Political systems and social patterns contribute to changes in style. If an artist

broke away from this environment, as Voltaire did, he had a rough time and

might even be banished from the country. With social and economic change,

the groups in a society which sponsor art also changes.

4. Ideational Factors

Spiritual movements such as Christianity, the Renaissance, Humanism, the

Counter Reformation, and the Enlightenment brought striking changes in social

and political structures and they also influenced directly changes in art styles.

5. Technical Factors

The importance of technique has been overemphasized in the past. Modern

piano technique with its cult of the virtuoso could not exist before the modern

piano was perfected. Landscapes painted out-of-doors were limited before light

canvas and readily transportable oil paints in tubes had come into general use.

But these technical and material influences are not nearly so important as other

style-shaping factors.

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Major Stylistic Periods

Greek Golden Age 500 B.C. – 410 B.C.

Hellenistic 336 B.C. – A.D. 146

Roman 146 – 323

Medieval 323 – 1400

Renaissance 1270 – 1594

Mannerist 1530 – 1616

Baroque 1600 – 1750

Classic 1644 – 1793

Rococo 1715 – 1774

Romantic 1773 – 1848

Realist and Naturalist 1827 – 1927

Impressionist 1863 – 1900

Modern 1895 to the present

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THE GREEKS

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

It was said that the Athenians who for the first time in history discovered how to

achieve happiness by using their minds.

During this age, they are already aware between the difference in tragedy and

comedy. Homer wrote the greatest epic ever penned which shows the

difference.

Greeks believed in sound mind and in sound body, they cultivate their play as

systematically as their wars or their politics. It was shown in their athletic contest

held at Olympia which is popularly known nowadays as Olympic games.

Notably, the victors were awarded laurel wreaths and honor equal to that of the

bravest warrior.

It was the Athenian who invented the idea of freedom in democratic society.

For most Greeks, a daily trip to some temple to offer sacrifice to a god was

common practice, but they didn’t take it very seriously.

Greeks were intellectuals with a passion for using their minds. Our word school

comes from the Greek word for leisure. They thought that if a man had leisure he

would use it in thinking and finding out about the world. Further, our scientific

method is founded on the concept, “Man the measure of all things”, which

became the Athenian motto.

ARCHAIC ART

Greek started where the Egyptians left off. In Athens, from the eight to the sixth

century and extending into the early fifth century B.C., the so-called Archaic

period, occurred the most astonishing revolution in the whole history of art. They

studied the anatomy of bones and muscles and what effect these would have

on representation; they discovered that every part of the body does not have to

be shown, that a foot or had is often concealed behind the torso; they also

discovered foreshortening.

The free-standing figures of the Archaic period are usually young athletic males

(kouros), such as were winners in athletic games, and young women (kore, korai,

plural), fully clothed with long crimped locks of hair and with the corners of the

mouth turned up in a stereotyped smile so that they would look more “lifelike”.

The Greek Temples have three basic orders of columns.

a. Doric order – plain, short and thick. It expresses strength and nobility.

b. Ionic order – more slender and graceful, with its capital imitating the softness

of a cushion. It represents the naturalness and tender sentiment of the fourth

century B.C.

c. Corinthian order – the highest, most slender, and most decorative of the

three. It uses Oriental decorative elements like the acanthus leaves at the top

of the column.

SCULPTURE and ARCHITECTURE of the GOLDEN AGE

Greece was divided into many small, autonomous city-states, each self-

contained, self-supporting, and proudly self-sufficient.

Since the Athenians were intellectuals, it is just proper to approach their art

intellectually; there are no trivia to capture the emotions.

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The finest of the buildings were those on the Acropolis, a hill formerly used as a

fortress.

Propylaea – consisting of noble colonnades and porticoes

Athena the defender – colossal bronze statue

Athena Nike – small temple

Parthenon and Erechtheum – two largest buildings; figures in Parthenon were the

highest expression of the Greek spirit

Parthenon eastern pediment

Represents the birth of Athena

It contains the figure of Mount Olympus, the three Fates on one

side of the central figure; Persephone, Demeter and Artimis

Parthenon western pediment

It represents the dispute between Athena and Poseidon for the

sponsorship of the cty

THE FOURTH-CENTURY IDEAL of BEAUTY

Toward the end of the fifth century B.C. artists had become fully aware of their

mastery and ordinary people had become more art-conscious. They demanded less of

the ideal and impersonal, and more of the natural and graceful.

Artist Artwork Distinctness

Praxiteles Hermes holding the infant

Dionysus

Figure of Hermes is not erect but

assumes a S curve

No violent emotion

First to portray a feminine body

Lysippus Head of Alexander the Great Faces looks animated and

expresses personality

Avoided strong feeling

The Erechtheum - The Erechtheion or Erechtheum is an ancient Greek temple on

the north side of the Acropolis of Athens in Greece which was dedicated to both

Athena and Poseidon.

GREEK MUSIC

Two subjects required of every Greek schoolboy, mathematics and music

Two meanings of music: first, mathematics of music; second, music and poetry

Compared to our two scales, major and minor, Greeks formed a new scale or

tonal system on every degree of our diatonic scale

While music may have existed without poetry, poetry did not exist without music

As a rule, Greek singing was accompanied by an instrument, the seven-stringed

lyre

The highest form of choric poetry was the dithyramb (ex. Epitaph of Seikelos and

Hymn of Apollo, consisting of strophe (turn), antistrophe (counter turn), and

epode (aftersong). Though none of the dithyramb has survived

As the chorus of only twelve singers chanted the words, they executed slow,

rhythmic steps, bringing out the meaning of the words by gestures and attitudes

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According to the doctrine ethos, held by Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek

philosophers, certain tonal successions were capable of calling forth definite

emotions

Not one Greek dithyramb has survived

GREEK LITERATURE

The greatest Greek literary legacy consists of the drama of four men: Aeschylus,

Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes

Artist Artwork Distinctness

Aeschylus The Persians – a play

Agamemnon

The Eumenides

Affirmation of the will to live in the face

of death is the underlying theme of his

plays.

He presents suffering and death in such

a way that it exalts rather than depresses

us.

The Greeks were inclined to believe that

the gods were jealous of man’s

happiness and prosperity.

Sophocles Oedipus Tyrannus Understanding Aristotle’s poetics will

understand Greek’s drama.

According to Aristotle:

- Tragedy is an imitation of action

- It should be long enough to show a

character passing gradually from

happiness to misery

- A good plot involves peripety

(reversal), which is a change from

one state of affairs to its opposite,

and discovery, a change from

ignorance to knowledge

Euripedes Hippolytus

Electra and Medea -

heroines

He was the poet of the world’s grief, but

not necessarily the most tragic

He knew pain better than exaltation

Aristophanes The Wasps

The Birds

The Frogs

The Clouds

Greeks comedy is often bawdy and

satire

Known device for comedy: parody,

burlesque, farce, apt quotations, and

unexpected turns

GREEK PHILOSOPHY

Great Philosophers of the

“Golden Age”

Notes on the Philosophers

Socrates One of the greatest of all time, yet wrote nothing

Was put to death; was accused of “corrupting the

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youth”

Influenced and taught Plato

Plato Was an aristocrat, a soldier, an athlete, and a musician

A philosopher and passionate lover of wisdom

Wrote The Republic, his most important legacy

He gave ideas in theology, ethics, psychology, politics

arts; including modern thoughts like communism and

socialism

Aristotle Studied under Plato’s academy

Tutored Alexander the Great

Became the world’s first scientist

He established the world’s first zoological garden

He created a new science, logic, which is explained in

his Organon

THE HELLENISTIC PERIOD

The period during the empire of Alexander the Great

The period started during the conquest of King Philip, a Macedonian.

Macedonians are part Greek and part Oriental

Alexander the Great conquest is considered the greatest cultural conquest in

history

Art:

The most flourishing cultural centers during Hellenistic Period were

Alexandria in Egypt, Antioch in Syria, and Pergamum in Asia Minor

Philosophy:

Popular philosopher during this period were the Epicureans, Stoics, Cynics,

Skeptics, and Neoplatonism

Map of Ancient Greece

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Comparison of Greek and Roman Mythologies

Greek Roman Description

Zeus Jupiter Lord of the sky and supreme ruler of the gods. Known for throwing lightening bolts.

Poseidon Neptune Ruler of the sea. Brother of Zeus. Carried a three-pronged spear known as a trident.

Hades Pluto Ruler of the underworld and the dead. Brother of Zeus. Had a helmet which rendered its wearer

invisible.

Hestia Vesta

A virgin goddess and sister of Zeus. No distinct

personality or part in myths. Goddess of the Hearth, the symbol of the home.

Hera Juno

Zeus's wife and sister. Protector of marriage, spent most of her time punishing the many

women Zeus fell in love with. Likes cows and peacocks.

Ares Mars God of war and son of Zeus and Hera. Likes vultures and dogs.

Athena Minerva

Daughter of Zeus alone. No mother.(?) She sprang from his head full-grown and in full armor. The protector of civilized life, handicrafts, and

agriculture. Invented the bridle, and first to tame the horse. Likes Athens, olives, and owls.

Apollo Apollo Son of Zeus. Master musician, archer god, healer, god of light, god of truth, sun god. A busy god

who likes the laurel tree, dolphins, and crows.

Aphrodite Venus Daughter of Zeus. Goddess of Love and Beauty.

Likes the myrtle tree, doves, sparrows, and swans.

Hermes Mercury Son of Zeus. Wore wings on his sandals and his

hat, thus was graceful and swift.

Artemis Diana Apollo's twin sister and daughter of Zeus. Lady of wild things and huntsman to the gods. As Apollo is the Sun, Artemis is the moon.

Hephaestus Vulcan Son of Hera, God of Fire. The only ugly and deformed god. Makes armor and weapons forged

under volcanoes.

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THE ROMANS

Introduction

For several centuries Ancient Rome was the most powerful nation on earth, excelling all

others at military organization and warfare, engineering, and architecture. Its unique

cultural achievements include the invention of the dome and the groin vault, the

development of concrete and a European-wide network of roads and bridges. Despite

this, Roman sculptors and painters produced only a limited amount of outstanding

original fine art, preferring instead to recycle designs from Greek art, which they

revered as far superior to their own. Indeed, many types of art practised by the Romans

- including, sculpture (bronze and marble statuary, sarcophagi), fine art painting

(murals, portraiture, vase-painting), and decorative art (including metalwork, mosaics,

jewellery, ivory carving) had already been fully mastered by Ancient Greek artists. Not

surprisingly, therefore, while numerous Greek sculptors (like Phidias, Kresilas, Myron,

Polykleitos, Callimachus, Skopas, Lysippos, Praxiteles, and Leochares, Phyromachos)

and painters (like Apollodorus, Zeuxis of Heraclea, Agatharchos, Parrhasius, Apelles of

Kos, Antiphilus, Euphranor of Corinth) were accorded great respect throughout the

Hellenistic world, most Roman artists were regarded as no more than skilled tradesmen

and have remained anonymous.

Of course it is wrong to say that Roman art was devoid of innovation: its urban

architecture was ground-breaking, as was its landscape painting and portrait busts. Nor

is it true that Roman artists produced no great masterpieces - witness the extraordinary

relief sculpture on monuments like Ara Pacis Augustae and Trajan's Column. But on the

whole, we can say that Roman art was predominantly derivative and, above all,

utilitarian. It served a purpose, a higher good: the dissemination of Roman values along

with a respect for Roman power. As it transpired, classical Roman art has been

immensely influential on many subsequent cultures, through revivalist movements like

Neoclassical architecture, which have shaped much European and American

architecture, as exemplified by the US Capitol Building.

History of Roman Art

Origins

Although Rome was founded as far back as 750 BCE, it led a precarious existence for

several centuries. Initially, it was ruled by Etruscan kings who commissioned a variety of

Etruscan art (murals, sculptures and metalwork) for their tombs as well as their palaces,

and to celebrate their military victories. After the founding of the Roman Republic in 500

BCE, Etruscan influence waned and, from 300 BCE, as the Romans started coming into

contact with the flourishing Greek cities of southern Italy and the eastern

Mediterranean, they fell under the influence of Greek art - a process known as

Hellenization. Soon many Greek works of art were being taken to Rome as booty, and

many Greek artists followed to pursue their careers under Roman patronage.

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However, the arts were still not a priority for Roman leaders who were more concerned

about survival and military affairs. It wasn't until about 200 BCE after it won the first Punic

War against Hannibal and the Carthaginians, that Rome felt secure enough to develop

its culture. Even then, the absence of an independent cultural tradition of its own

meant that most ancient art of Rome imitated Greek works. Rome was unique among

the powers of the ancient world in developing only a limited artistic language of its

own.

Cultural Inferiority Complex

Roman architecture and engineering was never less than bold, but its painting and

sculpture was based on Greek traditions and also on art forms developed in its vassal

states like Egypt and Ancient Persia. To put it another way, despite their spectacular

military triumphs, the Romans had an inferiority complex in the face of Greek artistic

achievement. Their ultra-pragmatic response was to recycle Greek sculpture at every

opportunity. Greek poses, reworked with Roman clothes and accessories, were pressed

into service to reinforce Roman power. Heroic Greek statues were even supplied

headless, to enable the buyer to fit his own portrait head.

An example is the equestrian bronze statue of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (c.175 CE),

whose stance is reworked from the Greek statue "Doryphorus" (440 BCE). See: Greek

Sculpture Made Simple.

The reason for Rome's cultural inferiority complex remains unclear. Some Classical

scholars have pointed to the pragmatic Roman temperament; others, to the overriding

Roman need for territorial security against the waves of marauding tribes from eastern

and central Europe and the consequent low priority accorded to art and culture. To

which we might add that - judging by the narrowness of Celtic art (c.500 BCE - 100 CE) -

Roman artists weren't doing too badly. Moreover, we should note that cities in Ancient

Rome were less provincial and far more powerful than Greek city-states, so that its art

invariably played a more functional role - not least because Roman culture was

actually a melange of different beliefs and customs, all of which had to be

accomodated. Thus, for example, art quickly became something of a status symbol:

something to enhance the buyer's home and social position. And since most Romans

recognized the intrinsic value of Greek artistry, buyers wanted Greek-style works.

Realist Propaganda

Like the Romans themselves, early Roman art (c.510 BCE to 27 BCE) tended to be

realistic and direct. Portraits, both two-dimensional and three-dimensional, were

typically detailed and unidealized, although later during the age of Hellenistic-Roman

art (c.27 BCE - 200 CE), the Romans became aware of the propaganda value of busts

and statuary, and sought to convey political messages through poses and accessories.

The same PR value was accorded to relief sculpture (see, for instance, the Column of

Marcus Aurelius), and to history painting (see, Triumphal Paintings, below). Thus when

commemorating a battle, for example, the artwork used would be executed in a

realistic - almost "documentary" style. This realistic down-to-earth Roman style is in vivid

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contrast to Hellenistic art which illustrated military achievements with mythological

imagery. Paradoxically, one reason for the ultimate fall of Rome was because it

became too attached to the propagandist value of its art, and squandered huge

resources on grandiose building projects purely to impress the people. Construction of

the Baths of Diocletian (298-306), for instance, monopolised the entire brick industry of

Rome, for several years.

Types of Roman Art

Architecture

Rome's greatest contribution to the history of art is undoubtedly to be found in the field

of architectural design. Roman architecture during the age of the Republic (knowledge

of which derives largely from the 1st-century Roman architect Vitruvius) discovered the

round temple and the curved arch but, after the turn of the Millennium, Roman

architects and engineers developed techniques for urban building on a massive scale.

The erection of monumental structures like the Pantheon and the Colosseum, would

have been impossible without Rome's development of the arch and the dome, as well

as its mastery of strong and low-cost materials like concrete and bricks.

The Romans didn't invent the arch - it was known but not much used in Greek

architecture - but they were the first to master the use of multiple arches, or vaults. From

this, they invented the Roman groin vault - two barrel vaults set at right-angles - which

represented a revolutionary improvement on the old Greek post-and-lintel method, as it

enabled architects to support far heavier loads and to span much wider openings. The

Romans also made frequent use of the semicircular arch, typically without resorting to

mortar: relying instead on the precision of their stonework.

Arches and vaults played a critical role in the erection of buildings like the Baths of

Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla, the Basilica of Maxentius and the Colosseum.

The arch was also an essential component in the building of bridges, exemplified by the

Pont du Gard and the bridge at Merida, and aqueducts, exemplified by the one at

Segovia, and also the Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus in Rome itself.

A further architectural development was the dome (vaulted ceiling), which made

possible the construction and roofing of large open areas inside buildings, like Hadrian's

Pantheon, the Basilica of Constantine, as well as numerous other temples and basilicas,

since far fewer columns were needed to support the weight of the domed roof. The use

of domes went hand in hand with the extensive use of concrete - a combination

sometimes referred to as the "Roman Architectural Revolution". But flagship buildings

with domes were far from being the only architectural masterpieces built by Ancient

Rome. Just as important was the five-storey apartment building known as an insula,

which accommodated thousands of citizens.

It was during the age of Emperor Trajan (98-117 CE) and Emperor Hadrian (117-138 CE)

that Rome reached the zenith of its architectural glory, attained through numerous

building programs of monuments, baths, aqueducts, palaces, temples and

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mausoleums. Many of the buildings from this era and later, served as models for

architects of the Italian Renaissance, such as Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) designer of

the iconic dome of the cathedral in Florence, and both Donato Bramante (1444-1514)

and Michelangelo (1475-1564), designers of St Peter's Basilica. The time of Constantine

(306-337 CE) witnessed the last great building programs in the city of Rome, including

the completion of the Baths of Diocletian and the erection of the Basilica of Maxentius

and the Arch of Constantine.

Famous Roman Buildings

Circus Maximus (6th century BCE - 4th century CE)

Dating back to Etruscan times, and located in the valley between the Aventine and

Palatine hills, this was the main Roman chariot racing venue in Rome, Italy. Measuring

roughly 2,000 feet in length (610 metres) and 400 feet in width (120 metres), it was rebuilt

in the age of Julius Caesar to seat an estimated 150,000 spectators, and again during

the reign of Constantine to seat about 250,000. It is now a park.

Colosseum (72-80 CE)

Built in the centre of Rome by Vespasian to appease the masses, this elliptical

amphitheatre was named after a colossal statue of Nero that stood nearby. Built to seat

some 50,000 spectators, its intricate design, along with its model system of tiered seating

and spacious passageways, makes it one of the greatest works of Roman architecture.

The Colosseum was one of the key sights on the Grand Tour of the 18th century.

The Arch of Titus (c.81 CE)

The oldest surviving Roman triumphal arch, it was built after the young Emperor's death

to celebrate his suppression of the Jewish uprising in Judea, in 70 CE. Standing on the

Via Sacra, south-east of the Roman Forum, the Arch of Titus was the model for

Napoleon's Arc de Triomphe in Paris (1806-36).

Baths of Trajan (104-9 CE)

A huge bathing and leisure complex on the south side of the Oppian Hill, designed by

Apollodorus of Damascus, it continued to be used up until the early fifth century, or

possibly later, until the destruction of the Roman aqueducts compelled its

abandonment.

Pantheon (c.125 CE)

Built by Marcus Agrippa as a temple dedicated to the seven gods of Ancient Rome,

and rebuilt by Hadrian in 126 CE, the Pantheon is a daring early instance of concrete

construction. The interior space is based on a perfect sphere, and its coffered ceiling

remains the largest non-reinforced concrete dome in the world. In the middle of its

dome an oculus lets in a beam of light.

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Baths of Caracalla (212-16 CE)

Capable of holding up to 16,000 people, the building was roofed by a series of groin

vaults and included shops, two gymnasiums (palaestras) and two public libraries. The

baths proper consisted of a central 185 x 80 feet cold room (frigidarium) a room of

medium temperature (tepidarium) with two pools, and a 115-foot diameter hot room

(caldarium), as well as two palaestras. The entire structure was built on a 20-foot high

base containing storage areas and furnaces. The baths were supplied with water from

the Marcian Aqueduct.

Baths of Diocletian (298-306)

These baths (thermae) were probably the most grandiose of all Rome's public baths.

Standing on high ground on the northeast part of the Viminal, the smallest of the Seven

hills of Rome, the baths occupied an area well in excess of 1 million square feet and

was supposedly capable of holding up to 3,000 people at one time. The complex used

water supplied by the Aqua Marcia and Aqua Antoniniana aqueducts.

Basilica of Maxentius (308-12 CE)

The largest building in the Roman Forum, it featured a full complement of arches and

barrel vaults and a folded roof. It had a central nave overlooked by three groin vaults

suspended 120 feet above the floor on four piers. There was a massive open space in

the central nave, but unlike other basilicas it didn't need the usual complement of

columns to support the ceiling, because the entire building was supported on arches.

Moreover, its folded roof reduced the total weight of the structure thus minimizing the

horizontal force on the outer arches.

Sculpture: Types and Characteristics

Roman sculpture may be divided into four main categories: historical reliefs; portrait

busts and statues, including equestrian statues; funerary reliefs, sarcophagi or tomb

sculpture; and copies of ancient Greek works. Like architecture, a good deal of Roman

sculpture was created to serve a purpose: namely, to impress the public - be they

Roman citizens or 'barbarians' - and communicate the power and majesty of Rome. In

its important works, at least, there was a constant expression of seriousness, with none of

the Greek conceptualism or introspection. The mood, pose and facial features of the

Roman statue of an Emperor, for instance, was typically solemn and unsmiling. As Rome

grew more confident from the reign of Augustus (31 BCE - 14 CE), its leaders might

appear in more magnanimous poses, but gravitas and an underlying sense of Roman

greatness was never far from the surface. Another important characteristic of Rome's

plastic art was its realism. The highly detailed reliefs on Trajan's Column and the Column

of Marcus Aurelius, for instance, are perfect illustrations of this focus on accurate

representation, and have been important sources of information for scholars on many

aspects of the Roman Legion, its equipment and battle tactics.

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Nonetheless, as we have seen, Roman sculptors borrowed heavily from the sculpture of

Ancient Greece, and - aside from the sheer numbers of portrait busts, and the quality of

its historical reliefs - Roman sculpture was dominated by High Classical Greek sculpture

as well as by Hellenistic Greek sculpture. What's more, with the expansion of Rome's

empire and the huge rise in demand for statuary, sculptors churned out endless copies

of Greek statues.

Historical Reliefs

Rome didn't invent relief sculpture - Stone Age man did. Nor was there any particular

genius in the skill of its carvers and stone masons: both the reliefs of the Parthenon (447-

422 BCE) and the frieze of the Pergamon Altar of Zeus (c.166-154 BCE) outshone

anything created in Italy. See also: Pergamene School of Hellenistic Sculpture (241-133

BCE). What Rome did was to inject the genre with a new set of aesthetics, a new

purpose: namely, to make history. After all, if an event or campaign is "carved in stone",

it must be true, right? The Greeks adopted the more "cultured" approach of recording

their history more obliquely, using scenes from mythology. The Romans were far more

down to earth: they sculpted their history as it happened, warts and all.

Trajan's Column (106-113 CE)

The greatest relief sculpture of Ancient Rome, Trajan's Column is a 125-foot Doric-style

monument, designed by the architect Apollodorus of Damascus. It has a spiral frieze

that winds 23 times around its shaft, commemorating the Dacian triumphs of Emperor

Trajan (98-117 CE). Sculpted in the cool, balanced style of the 2nd century, its

composition and extraordinarily meticulous detail makes it one of the finest reliefs in the

history of sculpture. A full-size cast of Trajan's Column is on show at the Victoria and

Albert Museum, London, and the National History Museum of Romania, Bucharest.

Marcus Aurelius' Column (c.180-193 CE)

Second only to Trajan's monument, this 100-foot Doric column in the Piazza Colonna

also features a winding ribbon of marble sculpture carved in low relief, which illustrates

the story of the Emperor's Danubian or Marcomannic wars, waged by him during the

period 166-180 CE. It includes the controversial "rain miracle", in which a colossal

thunderstorm saves the Roman army from death at the hands of the barbarian Quadi

tribes. The sculptural style of the column differs significantly from that of Trajan's Column,

as it introduces the more expressive style of the 3rd century, seen also in the triumphal

arch of Septimius Severus (199-203 CE) by the foot of the Capitoline Hill. The heads of

the Marcus Aurelius figures are larger than normal, to show off their facial expressions. A

higher relief is used, permitting greater contrast between light and shadow. Overall,

much more dramatic - a style which clearly reflected the uncertain state of the Roman

Empire.

Other famous relief works of stone sculpture carved by Roman artists include: the

processional marble frieze on the Ara Pacis Augustae (13-9 BCE) in the Campus Martius,

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and the architectural relief sculpture on the Arch of Titus (c.85-90 CE) and the Arch of

Constantine (312-15 CE).

Portrait Busts and Statues

These works of marble and (occasionally) bronze sculpture were another important

Roman contribution to the art of Antiquity. Effigies of Roman leaders had been

displayed in public places for centuries, but with the onset of Empire in the late 1st-

century BCE, marble portrait busts and statues of the Emperor - which were copied en

masse and sent to all parts of the Roman world - served an important function in

reminding people of Rome's reach. They also served an important unifying force.

Roman administrators had them placed or erected in squares or public buildings

throughout the empire, and affluent citizens bought them for their reception rooms and

gardens to demonstrate loyalty. The traditional head-and-shoulders bust was probably

borrowed from Etruscan art, since Greek busts were usually made without shoulders.

Roman statues and portrait busts are in many of the best art museums around the

world, notably the Louvre (Paris), the Vatican Museums (Rome), the British Museum

(London), the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York) the Getty Museum (Los Angeles).

Famous Portraits of Roman Emperors

Famous busts and statues of Roman leaders include:

- Statue of Augustus (Ruled 27-14 CE) (Livia's Villa, Prima Porta)

- Statue of Tiberius in Old Age (14-37) (Capitoline Museum)

- Bust of Caligula (37-41) (Louvre)

- Statue of Claudius as the God Jupiter (41-54) (Vatican Museum)

- Head of Nero (54-68) (British Museum)

- Bust of Galba (68-69) (Capitoline Museum)

- Statue of Titus (79-81) (Vatican Museum)

- Bust of Trajan (98-117) (British Museum)

- Bronze Statue of Hadrian (117-138) (Israel Museum)

- Bronze Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius (180) (Piazza del Campidoglio)

- Statue of Commodus as Hercules (180-192) (Capitoline Museum)

- Bust of Gordian II (238) (Capitoline Museum)

- Bust of Pupienus (238) (Capitoline Museum)

- Bust of Balbinus (238) (Capitoline Museum)

- Bust of Maxentius (306-312) (Museo Torlonia)

- Colossal Head of Constantine (307-337) (Basilica Nova)

Religious and Funerary Sculpture

Religious art was also a popular if less unique form of Roman sculpture. An important

feature of a Roman temple was the statue of the deity to whom it was dedicated. Such

statues were also erected in public parks and private gardens. Small devotional

statuettes of varying quality were also popular for personal and family shrines. These

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smaller works, when commissioned for the wealthier upper classes, might involve ivory

carving and chyselephantine works, wood-carving, and terracotta sculpture,

sometimes glazed for colour.

As Rome turned from cremation to burial at the end of the 1st century CE, stone coffins,

known as sarcophagi, were much in demand: the three most common types being

Metropolitan Roman (made in Rome), Attic-style (made in Athens) and Asiatic (made in

Dokimeion, Phrygia). All were carved and usually decorated with sculpture - in this case

reliefs. The most expensive sarcophagi were carved from marble, though other stone

was also used, as was wood and even lead. In addition to a range of different

depictions of the deceased - such as Etruscan-style full-length sculptural portraits of the

person reclining on a sofa - popular motifs used by sculptors included episodes from

Roman (or Greek) mythology, as well as genre and hunting scenes, and garlands of fruit

and leaves. Towards the end of the Roman Empire, sarcophagi became an important

medium for Christian-Roman Art (313 onwards).

Copies of Ancient Greek Sculpture

Although the wholesale replication of Greek statues indicated a hesitancy and lack of

creativity on the part of Roman artists, the history of art could not be more grateful to

them, for their efforts. Indeed, it is fair to say that one of the greatest contributions of

Rome to the history of art, lies in its replication of original Greek statues, 99 percent of

which have disappeared. Without Roman copies of the originals, Greek art would never

have received the appreciation it deserves, and Renaissance art (and thus Western Art

in general) might have taken a very different course.

Painting

The greatest innovation of Roman painters was the development of landscape

painting, a genre in which the Greeks showed little interest. Also noteworthy was their

development of a very crude form of linear perspective. In their effort to satisfy the

huge demand for paintings throughout the empire, from officials, senior army officers,

householders and the general public, Roman artists produced panel paintings (in

encaustic and tempera), large and small-scale murals (in fresco), and mastered all the

painting genres, including their own brand of "triumphal" history painting. Most surviving

Roman paintings are from Pompeii and Herculanum, as the erruption of Vesuvius in 79

helped to preserve them. Most of them are decorative murals, featuring seascapes and

landscapes, and were painted by skilled 'interior decorators' rather than virtuoso artists -

a clue to the function of art in Roman society.

Panel Paintings

In Rome, as in Greece, the highest form of painting was panel painting. Executed using

the encaustic or tempera methods, panel paintings were mass-produced in their

thousands for display in offices and public buildings throughout the empire.

Unfortunately, almost all painted panels have been lost. The best surviving example

from the art of Classical Antiquity is probably the "Severan Tondo" (c.200 CE,

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Antikensammlung Berlin), a portrait of Roman Emperor Septimus Severus with his family,

painted in tempera on a circular wood panel. The best example from the Roman

Empire is the astonishing series of Fayum Mummy portraits painted in Egypt during the

period 50 BCE to 250 CE.

Triumphal Paintings

Roman artists were also frequently commissioned to produce pictures highlighting

military successes - a form known as Triumphal Painting. This type of history painting -

usually executed as a mural painting in fresco - would depict the battle or campaign in

meticulous detail, and might incorporate mixed-media adornments and map designs

to inform and impress the public. Since they were quick to produce, many of these

triumphal works would have influenced the composition of historical reliefs like the

Column of Marcus Aurelius.

Murals

Roman murals - executed either "al fresco" with paint being applied to wet plaster, or

"al secco" using paint on dry walls - are usually classified into four periods, as set out by

the German archaeologist August Mau following his excavations at Pompeii.

• The First Style (c.200-80 BCE)

Also known as incrustation or masonry style, it derived from Hellenistic palaces in the

Middle East. Useing vivid colours it simulates the appearance of marble.

• The Second Style (c.80 BCE - 100 CE)

This aimed to create the illusion of extra space by painting pictures with significant

depth, such as views overlooking a garden or other landscape. In time, the style

developed to cover the entire wall, creating the impression that one was looking out of

a room onto a real scene.

• The Third Style (c.100-200)

This was more ornamental with less illusion of depth. The wall was divided into precise

zones, using pictures of columns or foliage. Scenes painted in the zones were typically

either exotic representations of real or imaginery animals, or merely monochromatic

linear drawings.

• The Fourth Style (c.200-400)

This was a mixture of the previous two styles. Depth returned to the mural but it was

executed more decoratively, with greater use of ornamentation. For example, the artist

might paint several windows which, instead of looking out onto a landscape or

cityscape, showed scenes from Greek myths or other fantasy scenes, including still lifes.

Art Styles From the Roman Empire

The Roman Empire incorporated a host of different nationalities, religious groups and

associated styles of art. Chief among them, in addition to earlier Etruscan art of the

Italian mainland, were forms of Celtic culture - namely the Iron Age La Tene style (c.450-

50 BCE) - which was accomodated within the Empire in an idiom known as Roman-

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Celtic art, and the hieratic style of Egyptian art, which was absorbed into the Hellenistic-

Roman idiom.

Late Roman Art (c.350-500)

During the Christian epoch, the division of the Roman Empire into a weak Western

Roman Empire (based in Ravenna and Rome) and a strong Eastern Roman Empire

(based in Constantinople), led to changes in Late Roman art. While wall painting,

mosaic art, and funerary sculpture thrived, life-size statues and panel painting

dwindled. In Constantinople, Roman art absorbed Eastern influences to produce the

Byzantine art of the late empire, and well before Rome was overrun by Visigoths under

Alaric (410) and sacked by Vandals under Gaiseric, Roman artists, master-craftsmen

and artisans moved to the Eastern capital to continue their trade. (See Christian-

Byzantine Art.) The Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, for instance, one of the

most famous examples of Roman dome architecture, provided employment for some

10,000 of these specialists and other workmen. Commissioned by Emperor Justinian

(527-565), the Hagia Sophia, together with the shimmering mosaics of Ravenna,

represented the final gasp of Roman art.

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MEDIEVAL ART

The medieval period of art history spans from the fall of the Roman Empire in 300 AD to

the beginning of the Renaissance in 1400 AD. In the Middle Ages, art evolves as humans

continue addressing the traditional and the new, including Biblical subjects, Christian

dogma, and Classical mythology. This article introduces a few concepts of three

periods—Early Christian, Romanesque, and Gothic.

During the Early Middle Ages, the Catholic Church financed many projects, and the

oldest examples of Christian art survive in the Roman catacombs, or burial crypts

beneath the city. By 350 AD, the Church had two power centers, Rome in the West and

Constantinople (the capital of the Byzantine Empire) in the East. Medieval artists

decorated churches and works for public appreciation using classical themes. For

example, Roman mosaics3 made of small stone cubes called tesserae offered Christian

scenery. In about 350 AD, Rome’s Santa Costanza, a mausoleum built for Constantine’s

daughter, included a vault decorated with mosaics. Nearby, in Santa Maria Maggiore,

the mosaic called Melchizedek Offering Bread and Wine to Abraham was constructed

80 years later. Early Christian mosaics used muted colors like classical mosaics, but in the

fourth century, mosaicists moved to brighter colors and patterns.

At the beginning of the eleventh century, Romanesque architecture symbolized the

growing wealth of European cities and the power of Church monasteries. For example,

Romanesque buildings, especially monasteries and churches, were marked by semi-

circular arches, thick stone walls, and stable construction. In 1070 or 1077 AD, St. Sernin,

located in Toulouse, France, was built with a stone barrel vault ceiling. St. Sernin is

remembered as a model of the Romanesque “pilgrimage church.”

The Gothic style developed in the middle of the twelfth century and is named after the

Goths who ruled France. Some contemporaries of the Goths thought the use of figures

such as gargoyles was hideous, but Gothic cathedrals represent the most beautiful and

timeless accomplishments of the period. For example, Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris

has been added to many times since the twelfth century, but it still bears important

Gothic features such as gargoyles and flying buttresses.

There are plenty of ways to analyze 900 years of medieval art, including examining

decorations inside churches. Human forms such as the Madonna and Baby Jesus

evolve from large heads on small bodies in Early Christianity to abstract forms in the

Romanesque era. In the Gothic era, the Madonna and Child are more naturalistic with

tall, bony figures. Even the facial features of the Madonna and Child changed over 900

years. By the Gothic era in France, Mary had an approachable, warm countenance,

signaling the Church’s recognition that images should attract people instead of

intimidating them. In the Renaissance, artists would become bolder about exploring the

themes of Christianity even in works commissioned by the Church.

3 Mosaic is the art of creating images with an assemblage of small pieces of colored glass, stone, or

other materials. It is a technique of decorative art or interior decoration.

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The Early Medieval Period

The dark age started when the age of reason from the Greek tradition

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THE RENAISSANCE

Notes on Renaissance

Renaissance was primarily a gradual shift in attitude, interest and concern about

the next world to an awakened interest in and concern for this world.

Factors that contributed to the shift from Medieval to Renaissance:

a. The enormous power and wealth of the Church had led to abuses which

caused a certain loss of prestige.

b. The Crusaders had found in some Hellenistic cities like Alexandria a standard

of culture superior to that of most European cities.

c. Explorers like Marco Polo and Vasco da Gama had brought back tales of

Oriental luxuries that whetted the appetite of wealthy Europeans.

d. The new trade routes by sea and land were actually bringing back Oriental

treasures in quantity.

e. Cities were growing in size at the termini of such trade routes. Cities needing

tradesmen and merchants found them in serfs who were ready and willing to

leave the feudal estates and to run off to a city where they would be paid for

their work.

f. There was a change from an economy based on land to an economy based

on money.

g. The new aristocracy of wealth sought identification with the ancient Roman

world.

Renaissance zest for life precluded any danger of boredom, and it spread to old,

young rich, poor, educated, and uneducated.

The uomo universale, especially the artist, engaged in a bewildering number of

activities.

No one date can ever be found to mark the beginning of a stylistic epoch.

Artists in all fields realized that great technical questions remained to be

solved, and they set out to solve these problems with exuberance and energy.

The literary men began to study Roman stylisms so that they might use them in

their own creations.

The sculptors became interested in the structure of the human body and tried

to establish laws governing its representation.

The painters began to formulate the laws of linear and aerial perspective and

the mathematics of space.

Then the musicians began to study the laws of the vibration of sound and to

reassess tonal relationships.

They were all stimulated by an enormous demand for their creations and an

awareness of their own dignity and importance.

The Church remained the greatest patron of the art, but the courts of the

great merchant princes created a whole new market.

Renaissance merchant princes had the wealth and leisure to cultivate the arts:

to collect books and to hire painters, sculptors, architects, and musicians to

gratify their desire for sumptuous living. The intent was not to impress their rivals

but to become, each one, an oumo universal, “universal man,” trained in

body, mind, and spirit for his exalted position as head of a great family, a

Humanists whose life, based on classical models, should be a work of art and

a reflection of the divine.

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The Humanistic leaders did not aim to resuscitate the classical part, but

through the study of that past they tried to find guiding principles for a new

cultural life of their own outside the religious sphere.

Vittorino’s School

These courts also provided schools where the children were trained to become

oumini universali.

One famous school began in Mantua in 1423 under the direction of Vittorino da

Feltre, an inspired Humanist.

His object was to train the mind and body according to the Platonic doctrine,

with Christianity inculcated to train the heart.

Renaissance Italy made woman the equal of man, and in her important position

as head of the household, she needed the same education as her husband.

Sculpture

Lorenzo Ghiberti – Although he lost against Filippo Brunelleschi in the famous

competition to create the sculpture of the bronze doors for the north side of the

Baptistry at Florence, he made the north doors which depict the twenty-eight

scenes from the life of Christ, each in a geometrical frame.

Donatello – The best Floretine sculptor of this period. He made the bronze

“David”. There are two other “Davids”, one by Verrocchio and one by

Michelangelo. Other works of Donatello were the equestrian statue of the soldier

Gattamelata, the bust of the “Child Jesus”, and the “Singing Choir” in the

Cathedral of Florence.

Andrea del Verrocchio – was a master of anatomy and realistic form. It was in his

studio that the youthful Leonardo da Vinci got his start.

Architecture

Brunelleschi – He closed the contract for the dome of the Cathedral of Santa

Maria del Fiore. He built two concentric, octagonal domes, joined at the corners

by ribs and held together by great oaken beams fastened by iron clamps. This

dome and the beautiful lacy campanile, or bell tower, of Giotto are the most

familiar features of the Florentine skyline.

Leon Battista Alberti – He was a real uomo universale, proficient in everything. His

ideas in his book on Roman architecture provided norms for the classical revival.

One of his popular designs was the Rucellai Palace in Florence.

Painting

Giotto de Bondone – considered to have started the fourteenth century

Renaissance painting. His series of thirty-eight frescoes on the walls of the Arena

Chapel are his greatest contributions. Some of these are the “Flight into Egypt”

and the “Lamentation”. “Giotto changed painting from an art of symbols to an

art of passion”. He was a close friend of Dante, and he painted the lovely fresco

of “St. Francis Blessing the Birds”.

Fifteenth-century Painters – All the painters of the 15th century were concerned

with technical problems: how to represent 3-dimensional reality on a 2-

dimensional surface. This involved perspective, foreshortening, unity, thought in

posture and facial expression, arrangement of individuals in a crowd, and effects

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of light, shade, and color. All these problems were mastered largely by Florentine

painters from Massaccio to Botticelli. The architect Brunelleschi was the first to

work out mathematically the rules of linear perspective, and the painter

Massaccio was the first to put them into practice.

Massaccio – He recognized that painting is nought but the imitation of things as

they are. Some of his works are “The Expulsion of Adam and Eve” and “The

Tribute Money”.

Piero della Francesca – He solved the problem of space for Raphael and the

problem of chiaroscuro for Leonardo da Vinci. His portraits were the Duke of

Urbino and his wife, Battista Sforza.

Fra Filippo Lippi – Some of his superb portraits were the Virgins and “Madonna

and Child with Angels”.

Sandro Botticelli – He started realistically, like his teacher Lippi, but became

increasingly idealistic and abstract. His best-know paintings were the “Spring”

and “Birth of Venus”.

Music

The most important concept which the Renaissance has bequeathed to us is the

optimistic faith in man’s ability to create enduring works of beauty.

Not every uomo universale could paint a picture or build a church, but he could

make music.

Participation, not passive listening, was the key to enjoyment.

Italians were so innately musical that they mastered polyphonic complexities

and in the High Renaissance period produced some glorious music.

In the fifteenth century, there was an increasing trend toward secular forms and

also toward greater simplicity and lyricism which came from English, Italian, and

minstrel influences.

The lute was the favourite household instrument of the entire Renaissance

because its tone was soft and intimate.

The development of polyphony has already been traced from its rather

haphazard beginnings perhaps in England, through the Gothic motets of

Leoninus and Perotinus.

Guillaume de Machaut – a great composer, musician, poet, priest, and the

much-travelled diplomatic agent to King John of Bohemia, brother-in-law of

Charles IV of France. The French compared his poetry to that of the

contemporary Petrarch and the younger Chaucer. (The idea that proficiency in

one art implied proficiency in other arts was new in the Renaissance.) He set

many of his own love poems to a sophisticated type of music which marks him as

an innovator. This worldly prelate composed more secular works than sacred, but

is remembered chiefly for his Mass of Notre Dame, the first completely integrated

polyphonic four-part mass. Integrated means that the same melodic and

rhythmic material runs through all six sections of the mass. This unifying principle

anticipates not only the masters of the High Renaissance, but also Bach,

Beethoven, in fact all composers of extended works right down to modern times.

When he called his work ars nova, “new art”, he spoke more truly than he knew.

There is a tradition that this mass was used at the coronation of Charles V in 1364.

Guillaume Dufay –His style reconciles French with Italian and English elements. In

religious music he often builds on a secular instead of a Gregrorian cantus firmus.

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His secular songs, rather plaintive and melancholy, give a perfect picture of the

poem and its meaning.

Francesco Landino – The Italian ars nova of the fourteenth century is best

exemplified by him, who in fact composed more than a third of all the extant

Italian music of blind since childhood (probably from smallpox). He played every

instrument known to his period and is usually pictured in the manuscript playing a

small portative organ held in his arm. A great friend of Petrarch, he wrote much

poetry and was awarded a laurel crown for a poem in Venice in 1364. His

compositions fall into three types, all secular: madrigals (real art songs), ballate

(rhythmic dance songs), and cacce ( programmatic fun songs). While all these

types are polyphonic and show as great artistry as those of Machaut, Landino’s

style shows a greater emphasis on the soprano part, greater interest in thirds and

sixths (the lush intervals), a strong trend toward our major and minor tonalities,

and a preference for the A B B A form.

Literature

Italy produced no great literary masterpiece during the Renaissance. The reason

is that all the literary men were trying to find in the works of antiquity literary

canons which would ensure excellence in structure and style. Sometimes their

work shows creativeness and sometimes only imitation of classical models. At

least their efforts produced the Petrarchan sonnet, the short story, the pastoral

romance, and the romantic epic, which, if not great, provided the raw material

upon which future French, English, Spanish, and German writers built. It is

sometimes said that the Italian writers had a Freudian obsession with sex, but

most of them were attached to one of the courts and they wrot to entertain their

frivolous courtly clientele.

Francesco Petrarch – One of the most popular lyricists. Like Boccaccio, Petrarch

was in love with a young married woman, who appears as Laura in his poetry He

was a real Humanist, intensely interested in the classics. He expressed his love

and torment in highly polished intellectual poems which, while they show careful

workmanship, do not always seem sincere. The balanced structure and

parallelism between form and content made the Petrarchan sonnet the most

popular form during the Renaissance and gave it lasting validity even into our

own day.

Giovanni Boccaccio – His fame rests on the short stories in The Decameron,

which means “ten days”, that tells about the escape from the plague-ridden city

during the Black Death of 1348, taking refuge to their country estates.

Romantic Epics – Storytelling was popular entertainment at Renaissance courts

just as it had been in the Middle Ages. To satisfy this demand Luigi Pulci created

the romantic epic tale based on the French hero, Roland. On the other hand,

the love affair is woven through a bewildering tapestry of battles, magic, pursuit,

and fantasy with all sorts of digression involving King Arthur’s knights and

Charlemagne.

Next to elaborate the Roland narrative was Ariosto. His work, called Orlando

Furioso. Every line of the poetry is polished like a jewel, but there is little internal

unity. In the poem Roland has gone mad because of love and another

character makes a trip to the moon to recover his lost senses.

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The last poet to deal the Roland material was Torquato Tasso, who lived when

Inquistion was in force. He wrote Gerusalemme Liberata (“Jerusalem Liberated”)

at the court of the Duke of Ferrara. A story of the First Crusade, it attempts to

achieve the unity of action which other epics lacked.