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CHAPTER 5

RELIGION AND CULTURE OF RAJIS

There is no country in the world in which religion exercises more

influence on social and political life than in India. Religion gives the key-note

to most of the great changes that have occurred in the history of the races

inhabiting this country from the earliest ages to the present day. To every

individual its forms are ever present and exercise a perceptible influence on his

practices both devotional and secular, and yet the true history of religious

thought in India has yet to be written.1 Further, regarding the Himalayan

religion he mentions that in discussing the history of religion in the Himalayan

region we find a curious blending of pre-Brahmanical, Brahmanical and

Buddhistic practices which it will take some time and attention to separate and

ascribe to their original sources. It would doubtless be easy to dispose of the

question by stating that the prevailing religion is a form of Hinduism. This

would be perfectly true, but at the same time could convey no definitive idea to

the reader‟s mind as to what the real living belief of the people is. To ascertain

what the actual stage of religion is, it is necessary to examine the forms and

ceremonies observed in domestic and temple worship and the deities held in

honour; and this is the task that we now propose to undertake for the tract

between the Tons and the Kali.2

1 E. T. Atkinson, The Himalayan Gazetteer, Vol. II, Part-II, Delhi: Cosmo Publication, 1973, P. 699.

2 Ibid., P. 701.

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Further, Tribal religion is the most primitive form of religion found in

human society. For understanding the religion and culture of Rajis, This will be

pertinent to discuss the important characteristics of the Indian tribal religion.

Thereafter beliefs, cultural systems, views, rituals, sermons, gods- goddesses,

festivals, matrimonial, funeral practice, folk music and art etc. of Rajis will be

discussed in this chapter.

5.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INDIAN TRIBAL RELIGION

5.1.1 Mana

Defining faith in Mana found in tribal society, it has pointed out that

Mana is, "a force altogether distinct from physical power, which acts in all

kinds of ways for good and evil, and which is of the greatest advantage to

possess or control."Thus Mana is a supernatural power which is useful to man

in the control of many natural phenomena beyond his power. According to

Majumdar and Madan, "Entire religious life of the primitives, is born out of

their belief in certain understandable, impersonal, non-material and the

individualized supernatural power which takes abode in all the objects, animate

and inanimate, that exist in the world." In respect of Rajis, it has been observed

that they live in an ever present spirit world and these spirits which are both

benevolent and malevolent play an important part in their religious life. They

believe in the supernatural firmly and with unstinting faith. The list of these

spirits and ghosts is virtually endless, for they preside over the various aspects

of life, bless them or punish them for their deeds and their crimes, they can

give them prosperity if they are happy and can cause them misfortune and

misery if they are not properly propitiated.

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5.1.2 The Concept of Bonga

Bonga is a mysterious and impersonal power at the back of rains,

tempests, cold, floods, epidemics and the wild animals. Everywhere activity is

due to the power of Bonga. Thus Bonga is a form of Mana. The Rajis have firm

belief that at the back of all the calamity impersonal power exist and this harm

them if there is wrongdoing at large.

5.1.3 Animisim

Another important characteristic of Indian tribal religion is animism.

The tribal people believe in the presence of supernatural powers at the back of

high mountains, flooded rivers, big trees and epidemics. They try to please

these powers by means of different types of propitiations and worships.

Sometimes they are worshipped even without being given any name. An

important type of animism is ancestral worship which is found among the

Santhals and Oraons. The Santhals worship deities of family and village

deities. Among the Korawa tribe, there is a goddess of crop, one of animals and

a deity presiding rains. The tribal people try to please these gods and goddesses

by offering the sacrifices of different types of animals and birds before them.

The Rajis believe that the sorrows and troubles which befall them are all

the work of invisible and malicious spirits, to who they must offer prayers and

sacrifices by way of propitiation. Bayal pari and Dina pari are two examples of

malevolent spirits which bring misery to them. The principal beneficent spirits

are not many. A close observation of the Raji pantheon will reveal benevolent

spirits like Balchan, Ganganath, Khestrapal or Bhumia, Chhurmal, Haru and

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Latu. These spirits are believed to safeguard the interests of the inhabitants and

keep a watch on all the villages. They are very helpful in undoing the evil

wrought by ghosts and malevolent spirits. They protect them from the ravages

of diseases and from those evil spirits which are foreign to them. They are very

sensitive and if promises are not fulfilled they become very vindictive.

5.1.4 Animatism

According to animatism there is some impersonal power behind every

material object besides the living beings. Thus, in the tribal religions is found

faith in the presence of super natural power in bones and feathers, etc. This

impersonal power is worshipped to maintain peace and prosperity in the group.

It is difficult to distinguish between animatism and animism. The following

distinctions, however, have been pointed out between the two. While according

to animatism there is some mysterious, unknown, impersonal power at the back

of all living beings and things, according to animism there is animal spirit

found in all movable and immovable things. An example of animatism is found

in the tribes of Bihar. They consider the bones, beads, stones and feathers to

have living and magical powers. The stones are considered to be the children of

mother earth and worshipped. The tribal people worship only those powers

which can do some harm to them, but sometimes such powers are also

worshipped, which cannot do any harm, for example, the Sing-Bonga of the

Munda tribe. Though, it is difficult to say as to which type of nature worship is

found in a particular tribe in India, generally one finds animism as well as

animatism in most of the tribes. From the comparative point of view, however,

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animatism is more widespread than animism. Therefore, features of animism of

Rajis can be observed in animatism.

5.1.5 Naturalism

A universal characteristic of tribal religion is naturalism or nature

worship. The Garo tribe of Assam worships Sun and Moon. The Munda people

worship Sun god. The characteristic of naturalism is present in the Rajis, they

worship supernatural beings that live in the forests and sky. The Sun, known

as Diho, represents their major deity.

5.1.6 Faith in the Immortality of Soul

Among many tribes there is a custom of observing funeral rites two

times. This is because of their faith in the immortality of the soul. Sometimes

the second rite is considered to be more important than the first. The tribals

believe that the soul is not destroyed on the death of the body and requires

food, etc., for a sufficiently long time. Among the Nagas and the tribals of the

Nicobar Island, the skull of the dead man is placed on a wooden statue

believing that the soul of the dead man will pass from the skull to the statue.

Now the statue is served like a living human being and efforts are made to

fulfil all its needs. Sometimes the statue is made of brass. Such is the custom

among the Garo tribe of Assam. In south India in Kerala the statue of a dead

person is worshipped at least once a year. Regarding the burial practice of Rajis

this has been observed that they bury their dead in any convenient place in the

jungle. The clothes of the dead person and the sheet in which the corpse is

wrapped are laid over the grave and not removed from the friends. It may be

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conjectured that the idea is to provide clothing for the naked spirit in the next

world.3

The tribals believe that the soul matter can increase the fertility of land

and produce life. In the Naga tribe there is a custom of worshipping souls of the

ancestors at the time of sowing and in the need of rains.In the entire Kumaun

region ancestor worship is prevalent therefore Rajis are also observing the

same. Further, B. S. Bisht mentions that Indian tribes can also be classified on

the basis of their religious beliefs. In fact, the cultural contact and the impact of

various religions have brought about a tremendous change in the religious

beliefs and practices of tribals. Only these tribal communities who are leading

an almost isolated social existence in dense forests have maintained their

traditions and religious beliefs more or less with purity. But such tribal

communities are negligible in numbers. According to the census data of 1961

and 1971, Indian tribes may be classified into the following religions – (a)

Hinduism, (b) Christianity, (c) Buddhism, (d) Islam, (e) Jainism, and (f)

Others. About 90 percent of the tribals of India follow Hindu religion in one

form or the other, while the remaining 10% tribal population follow

Christianity, Buddhism, Islam, Jainism and others. But the remarkable thing

which is to be noted is that the tribes who have adhered to any of the religious

faiths have still maintained their own traditional beliefs, faiths and rituals

which are practiced along with the newly acquired religious faiths.4

3 W. Crooke, The Tribes and Castes of the North – Western India Vol. 4, Delhi: Cosmo Publication,

1975, P.213. 4 B. S. Bisht, Tribes of India, Nepal, Tibet Borderland a Study of Cultural Transformation, New

Delhi: Gyan Publishing House, 1994 pp. 13-14.

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5.1.7 Faith in Rebirth

Most of the Indian tribes believe that after death the soul of a man

survives the body and enters into the body of some animal, bird, or other living

being. Among the Bhils efforts are made to find out as to which body will be

entered into by a particular soul. Similar beliefs are found among Nagas of

Assam, Ahirs of Bengal, Kamar and Gond tribes. In Kumaun region faith in

rebirth is very common feature therefore now the Rajis who are in constant

contact with Kumaunis are also observing this faith.

5.1.8 Faith in Magic

The most important characteristic of tribal religion is faith in magic.

Different types of magical acts are prevalent in different tribes. The tribals

believe in magicians and witches. If a woman is declared a witch by the

magician of the village, she is given all types of tortures. A strange type of

magical rite is found among the Bhils to contradict the effect of the epidemic.

In the event of the spread of the epidemic, some people hang some pitchers and

baskets on a bamboo pole and run on the main street crying 'Toraka.' Hearing

them other people of the village help them in carrying this load out of the

village. The load is carried to the nearest river or jungle and throwing it the

people believe that the epidemic has been thrown out of the village in the river

or the forest. Earlier scholars do not mention about the involvement of Rajis in

magic, but due to regular contacts with their neighbor, now they believe in the

magical activities.

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5.1.9 Totem and Taboo

The custom of totem is an important characteristic of tribal religion.

Different Indian tribes believe in different types of totem. The totem is

considered to be the originator of a particular tribe. Its‟ killing and eating is a

taboo for the people of the particular tribe. It is worshipped and respected

everywhere. Marriages cannot be contracted among the male and female of the

same totem, because they are thought to be having blood relationships. In fact

tribal religion is the most primitive form of human religion. Thus, it exhibits

that unified purity characteristic of the primitive form. It is the beginning of

religious revolution. Hence, in it one finds magic, religion and ritualism all in

one. In it there is no distinction of utility and religious sanctity. Mostly, the

latter depends on the former. The tribal religion is not merely a particular part

of the tribal life, but enters into life everywhere. The religious and social

activities of the tribal people are closely interconnected.5

There are certain taboos present among Rajis. A Raji male or female

can‟t marry within its clan. Sutak (death pollution) lasts for twelve days in this

period they do not come out of the house. The nearest relative of the diseased

sits for performing Kriya (ritual) in this duration wears dhoti (Sari) and takes

only one time meal that is too in the absence of the other. The bereaved family

and its fraternal kin group observe some restrictions, like avoiding religious

activities, purchasing new articles, hunting, ploughing and eating meat, fish,

5 Ram Nath Sharma & Rajendra K. Sharma, Anthropology, New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and

Distributors, 1997, pp. 337-339.

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etc. The observance of this taboo, however, is not uniform and depends on the

degree of acculturation.6

Therefore, all the religious activities of Rajis have characteristics of

tribal religion, i.e. Mana, Bonga, Animism, Animatism, Naturalism, Faith in

the Immortality of soul, Faith in rebirth and magic and totem and taboo. Rajis

believe in the presence of supernatural powers on the back of high mountains,

rivers, big trees, epidemics, further they try to please these powers by means of

different types of propitiations and worships. Various scholars have studied

their religion and faith and described as following.

5.2 RELIGIOUS BELIEF AND DEITIES OF RAJIS

The religious practices of the Rajis are deeply influenced by Kumaoni

neighbours. Earlier scholars state that the Rajis do not have any gods of their

own apart from the local deities Khudai and Malikarjan, whom they worship in

common with Hindus. They have no idols among them. The Rajis have neither

temples nor any god of their own. The Rajis recognise the existence of local

Hindu deities like Nanda devi, Kali, Mallikarjun, Huskarnath or Huviks,

Khudai, Ghan devata and other goddesses known as Devis, as being capable of

exercising an influence on them. Religion of Rajis involves ancestor worship or

worship of spirits of natural features and local god and goddesses. They follow

Hinduism. Scholars have described their religious practices as following.

Sherring has mentioned, “I have not been able to discover any gods of

their own apart from the local deities Khudai and Malikar Jan, whom they

6 K.S. Singh, et.al. ed., People of India: Uttar Pradesh, Vol. 42, Part 3, Anthropological Survey of

India, 2005, P.1191.

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worship in common with Hindus. They have no idols amongst them, and they

do not worship the other deities of Hinduism except on one day, i.e., on the

festival of Nanda Devi, the goddess who presides over the highest mountain in

the British Empire, when they sing and dance, forming two rows facing each

other, and move round in a circle. The curious point is that they move from left

to right in the exactly opposite way to that in which Tibetans twirl their prayer

–wheels, and in which the Hindus turn when they bath in sacred rivers.7

The Christian missionaries, who have been very active in the North-

Eastern part of India, could never reach the Rajis. At the same time Rajis are

totally unaware of the myths and mythology of Hinduism: the Ramayana and

the Mahabharata, which have proved to be the most unifying factor all over

India had no impact on them. The Gods they worship are Ganenath, Manenath,

Malikarjun and Devis, they only propitiate these gods and goddesses by

sacrificing goats and cocks by way of their periodic worship, so that they may

get plenty of game in the forests and fish in the small mountain rivers. Also for

rich harvest mainly of tuber, which is their favourite food. It may be observed

that the rest of the population in Kumaon and Garhwal hills have their local

gods and goddesses, who are worshipped both for their benevolent and

malevolent qualities. People approach these gods not only to seek successor or

relief at times of some crisis, but also to seek vengeance against their enemies.8

The Rajis are said to have their own peculiar gods, but they also worship

those of the Hindus and, like the people of Kumaon, and indeed of the entire,

7 C.A. Sherring, Western Tibet and The British Border Land, London: Edward Arnold, 1906, P.15.

8 William Crook, Op. Cit., P.213.

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Himalaya, attribute great power to the local deities, spirits, goblins and deified

men.9 They worship Devi in the month of October under a large tree with an

offering of cooked food and animal sacrifice. When anyone gets ill, they

worship the gods, ghosts and demons of the jungle; but they erect no temples in

their honour, and make no pilgrimages. They appear to have no caste initiation

ceremony, and no priests. Their religious duties are performed by the eldest

male member of the family. The worship of Devi is performed publicly by day;

but that of ghosts and demons, secretly by night. The special offering to Devi

consists of goats; the demon and ghosts are propitiated by a sacrifice of fowls.

These offerings are made on the tops of hills or under some large trees. After

the offering is made, the meat is consumed by the worshippers.

They believe that demons and ghosts inhabit the tops of mountains,

rivers, wells, and wherever water accumulates. If, after visiting a jungle, a

person becomes ill, they the attack to the wrath of the jungle demon. It is then

necessary to propitiate him with appropriate sacrifices. The fields are haunted

by a special demon known as Chhal, who is, as a rule benignant. Though they

keep no annual feasts in their honour, they live in excessive dread of the ghosts

of their deceased relations. These ghosts are of two kinds: some are worshipped

as the protectors of the household; and others because, if neglected, they bring

disease and death.

Their chief omens are derived from throbbing of various parts of the

body. Thus the throbbing of the left eye or of any member on the left side of

9 E.T. Atkinson, The Himalayan Gazetteer Vol. 2, Part 1, New Delhi: Cosmo Publication, 1973,

P.367.

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the body forebodes evil; the opposite is the case with the throbbing of any

member on the right side of the body. They are much in dread of the evil eye,

and of demoniacal influence generally: the favourite precaution is to bestow

opprobrious names of their children.

They are not skilled in any special form of magic or witchcraft, but

certain persons. Occasionally fall under the influence of a demon, and in a state

of ecstasy pour out incoherent expressions, which are regarded as oracles. In

such cases the family guardian demon is invoked to expel the malignant

intruder, and he instructs them, which form of worship or sacrifice should be

used to bring about this result. The name of this family demon is Baital, the

Sanskrit Vetala.10

They do not have any sradh ceremony, nor have they any

priest, nor purifications rites after childbirth, though they claim to be Hindus.

The Rajis are chiefly engaged in the clearing of forests and in order to ward off

evil influences in their work they perform certain rites.11

Vanrawats have no sign like Gotra concept, although they considered

themselves Hindu by religion and Rajwar (Chand) i.e. Rajput by caste.

Whenever any person is ill, then they worship the Devta (God) and evil spirits

and ghosts of the forest, but never build temples in their respect (1896: 212).

They have their specific god and goddess, but they also worship local gods and

goddesses, evil spirits and invisible and natural powers like other Hindus and

Kumauni and in reality like whole Himalayi People (1882 : 367). Today

Vanrawats worship Malainath, Ganganath, Sam, Malikarjun, Chhurmal etc.

10

W. Crooke, Op. Cit., pp.213-214. 11

D. N. Majumdar, Races and Cultures Of India, Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1961, P.138.

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Every rath has its specific god to whom they worship at different time period.

Today Banrawats not only worship their specific god and goddess, but also

build Than (Temple) in their respect.12

The adoption of many Hindu Gods and

Goddess and the local goddess Nanda Devi shows an admixture of Hinduism.

As is usual with most of the tribes, supernatural beliefs are not uncommon.

There is usually a conspicuous absence of priest in all the rites and rituals.”13

The Raji religion is a mixture of their traditional faith and local forms of

Hinduism. Their deities are of three types, some are for the entire community,

some are of the lineage and others of village level. The 1981 census returns

99.91 percent of the Raji as Hindus and one person as a Muslim. The 1971

census recorded 100 percent of them as followers of Hinduism. Their sacred

specialist is of two types; dangaria or dhami is a medicine man and purchharu

is a divine-teller, who also diagnoses the causes of unhappiness.14

The Rajis have their own tribal deities and also revere many Hindu

Gods. In fact, they worship all aspects of nature. They have family deities like

Malayanath, Gananath and Kholiya. Other tribal gods are Khudai and

Malikarjun. Some believe that Khudai and Malikanjan are one and the same

god. The Hindu gods and goddesses popular among the Rajis are Shiva,

Mahadeva Rama, Lakshman, Gauri Parvati, Nanda Devi and Kalika. They also

worship spectral beings and spirits (Masan and bhutas). The Rajis are ardent

devotees of Nanda Devi, who is worshipped twice a year in Bhadon and Jeth.

12

B.S. Bisht Op. Cit., P.139. 13

S. C. Joshi, Op. Cit., P. 193. 14

N.S. Bisht, Encyclopaedia of Primitive Tribe in India, Delhi: Kalpag Publications, Satyawati

Nagar, 2004, P.213.

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White and red pieces of cloth or flags are tied to tree branches as offerings.

They sing and dance during this worship. Due to the religious beliefs of these

Rajis, sickness is also treated with religious mantras and no sick person is taken

to hospitals unless their dhamis or jhankris (shamans), called gurubas by them,

do not authorise this move. Therefore, due to the belief of these Raji in the

powers of jharphuk their mortality rate is extremely high, on account of the

untimely and immature deaths.15

Previously, there were no temples of gods and goddesses of Rajis in the

area; they only worshipped some rounded obelisk type of stones as their

emblems of those gods and goddesses. Today, however, they are inclined

towards the Hindu way of constructing temples and worshipping some of the

Hindu gods. They are strong believers in spirits and ghosts and other

supernatural forces.

Table 5.1 : Village-Wise Deities of Rajis

Present Village God/Goddess Worshipped

Khirdwari, Kimkhola Betal

Altari, Kimkhola, Khirdwari and Nepal Malikarjan

Jamtari Ganenath, Malikarjun

Jamtari, Mandapuri Malikarjan

Nepal (Rajpura) Betal

Kutachaurani, Kimkhola and Madanpuri Ganenath

Khirdwai and Bhoktirawa Ganaenath

Kimkhola and Jamtari Malikarjan

Chifaltara, Altari and Kimkhola Hunsikar

15

N. S. Bisht, Op. Cit., P. 1349.

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5.2.1 Deities of Rajis

5.2.1.1 Kshetrapal (Bhumia)

It is a minor god of fields or the boundaries of the village. He is a

benevolent god. He does not torture anyone. In every village there is a temple

dedicated to him. When the grain is sown or new grain is grown, he is

worshipped with that coru, so that at the time of sowing he may protect it from

hailstorms or wild animals and when the corn is stored in the granary, he may

safeguard in from insects and rats. He is a just god. He rewards the pious and

good persons and penalizes the cunning or guileful. He desires the welfare of

the roat (thick unleavened cake) and gifts are offered to him. He is so simple

that he is gratified with even bare fruits and flowers. The temple of Kshetrapal

is in Jagishwar. There he is supposed to be the protector of the Jhankar area

and is called Jhankar Saim. (Saim is probably the corrupt form of swayambhu

(self-begotten), which is the name of Buddha in Nepal-Atkinson). Sometimes

goats too are slaughtered here. There is a temple in Baurarau also. There is

some difference in the duties of Saim and Kshetrapal but he too in the category

of ghosts. Sometimes he clings to people, the sign or symptom of which is that

the hair become matted. In Kali Kumaon, the ghost Saimchand is regarded as a

follower of Haru.16

Earlier Atkinson mentions that Kshetrpal or Bhumiya, the

tutelary god of fields and boundaries, is a beneficent deity who does not as a

rule force his worship on any one by possessing them or injuring them or their

crops. Every village has a small temple, often no more than a few feet square,

16

Badri D. Pande, History of Kumaun, Vol. 2, trans. C. M. Agrawal, Almora: Shyam Prakashan,

Shree Almora Book Depot, 1993, P. 632.

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sacred to him.17

In the Raji village of Kimkhola, temple of Bhumia has been

constructed by its villagers and they have firm belief that this is the protector

of their village from all type of calamities.

5.2.1.2 Haru

Haru, a beneficent spirit, is much sought after by the Kumaonis. He

was, in olden days, known as Harishchand, Raja of Champawat, and the

following story is told to explain the origin of his worship : The Raja had

grown old in years and became desirous of devoting the remainder of his life to

the service of the deity, so he went to Hardwar and there became the disciple of

a Sanyasi and adopted a religious life. To him the local accounts attribute the

building of the sacred ghat at Hardware known as „Hari ke pairi’. From

Hardwar he set out on the great pilgrimage and successively visited the four

great dhams, Badrinath, to the north; Jagannath, to the east, Ramnath, to the

south; and Dwarkanath, to the west. On his return to Champawat, he continued

his religious duties and taught the people the divine precepts and established a

fraternity. His brother Latu and his servants Syura, Pyura, Ruda Kathayat,

Kholiya, Bheliya, Mangaliya and Ujyaliya joined the brotherhood. Sayam or

Saim, also was a member and Haru. The Raja became the head of the

community and owing to his great austerities was soon unable to move from

the place where he sat in meditation on the deity. He acquired, however, such

power by his mortifications that whatever he willed was accomplished; the

barren became fruitful; the poor became wealthy; the miserable, happy; the

17

E. T. Atkinson, Gazetteer of Himalayan Districts of the North Western Provinces, Vol. II, Part, II

New Delhi: Cosmo Publication, 1882, P. 825.

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blind were restored to sight; the lame learned to walk and the wicked became

virtuous. When Harishchand and his companions abide no calamity ever falls

upon the inhabitants, hence the adage :

“Auna Haru harpat, jauna Haru kharpat.”

“With Haru comes prosperity, with his departure, adversity.” There is a

somewhat celebrated temple to Haru at Than in Katyur at which is considerable

assembly takes place every third year.18

Rajis being deeply influenced by

Kumauni religion now having a great faith on Haru.

5.2.1.3 Aidi (Airi)

A caste among the land-owners in Kumaon is Aidi or Airi. One person in

this caste was a great wrestler and very powerful man. He was very fond of

hunting. When he died, he became a ghost. He began to hold children and

women in his clutches. When he began to dance in the victim‟s body, it was

said – “It is Aidi or Airi. Worship him by offering halwa (porridge) unleavened

cake, goat etc. and he will release the children and women.”

So he began to be worshipped by all in this way. Everywhere his

temples also were erected. In Kali Kumaon he has many temples. People say

that Airi, hunts, riding on a dandi, in big and huge hills. The carriers of Airi’s

dandi keep saying „Sau, Sau’ while carrying it. The person who hears the bark

of his dog will certainly get some trouble or pain. These dogs accompany Airi

and bells are tied in their necks. Other ghost also goes along with him to

encircle animals and they are called Paris. They are known as Anchari

18

E. T. Atkinson, Op. Cit., P. 830-31.

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Kinchari also. The legs are twisted and face backwards. The arms of the Airi

are bow and arrows. Sometimes when an unwounded animal is traced in the

forest, it is said to be killed by Airi. It is also said that sometimes the arrow shot

by Airi enters the house through a niche or small recess in the wall for

extricating the smoke, when it strikes some person he becomes paralyzed. His

waist is broken, the body becomes sapless, and limbs tremble. There is a

proverb in the hills about it.

“Dalamuni se Jano, Jalamuni ni seno”

“Go beneath a branch, never sleep below a niche.”19

This deity has been described by the Atkinson, he mentions that Airi is a sylvan

deity who is represented as hideous and repellent, with eyes on the crown of his

head and four arms filled with various weapons. He remains concealed during

the day, but at night comes forth from the hills and forests and wanders about

accompanied by the fairies (pari) who join him in dance and song. Their feet

are turned backwards, not forwards like those of men.

Airi‟s temples are found on hills and desolate tracts and are never met

with in inhabited places. In the middle of such temples are set up tridents,

which represent Airi himself, and the tridents are surrounded by stones

representing Sau, Bhau, the fairies, etc. But in some cases the deity and his

followers are actually represented by carved images.

Milk, sweetmeats, cakes, cocoanuts, and other delicacies are offered at

the shrine during the course of this festival. Kids are sometimes sacrificed, and

19

Badri Datt Pande, Op. Cit., P.479.

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a piece of red cotton stain in the blood of the sacrifice is set up as a banner near

the sacred spot. It is not to be supposed that so poor a community allow the

good things offered to the god to spoil in his temple; a crowd of worshippers

divide and devour the sacrificial offerings, water is sprinkled over the images

or stones in the temple, and the following prayer is used : - “Hallowed God! Be

pleased with me, forgive my trespasses and accept this kid that is offered thee. I

am devoid of understanding; thou art a knower of hearts.” While this prayer is

being said, a spell (mantra) is whispered in the car of the kid thatis about to be

sacrificed :

“Asvam naw gajam naw sinham naw cha naiv cha

Aja putro balind dybt daivo durbal ghataka.”

“Thou are not a horse, nor an elephant nor a lion. Thou art only the son

of a goat an I sacrifice thee: so god also destroys the weak.”

A red mark is made on the kid‟s forehead, he is crowned with a garland,

and (akshat) rice is scattered on his head, and at last some water is sprinkled

over him. He shakes himself to get rid of it and this action is taken as a sigu

that the god has accepted him as an offering; whereupon his head is severed

from his body by a blow from a kukri (curved knife). If on the other hand he

does not skake himself, or if the bleats, it is taken as a sign that the offering is

not accepted, and he escapes. After the sacrifice the kid‟s tail is cut off and

placed in the temple beside the trident or images. His head is given to the

officiating priest, and his hind leg to the man who slays him, or (in some cases)

to the head-man of the village, and the rest of his carcase is distributed amongst

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the spectators. A kid that has in any way been maimed cannot be offered as a

sacrifice. There are temples to Airi or Chulalekh above Kandra and on

Airdyau-danda in Patti Salam where festivals are held at the Shiuratri and

Asojnauratri. This may be taken as the local indigenous form of the original

montane idea of Siva.20

5.2.1.4 Ganganath

Ganganath is one of the favourite deities of the majority of Kumaunis

therefore now Rajis too are worshiping the deity. However, earlier low caste

Kumaunis worship this. Atkinsons mentions that the son of Bhabichand Raja

of Doti quarrelled with his family and became a religious mendicant. In the

course of his wanderings he arrived at Adoli, a village in Patti Salam, and there

saw and fell in love with the wife of one Krishna Joshi. This Joshi was a

servant at Almora, and the Jogi disguised himself as a labourer and took service

in the house where the woman lived. When Krishna heard of the intrigue he set

out for Adoli and with the aid of one Jhaparua Lohar murdered his wife and her

lover. Like Bholanath and his companions, the Jogi, his mistress and the

unborn child became goblins and vexed the people, so that they built a temple

and forthwith instituted a regular service in honour of the three sprites. From

Adoli the cult of Ganganath spread over Kumaon and at Takuriya, Lwali and

Narai in his home Patti21

we have temples to his honour. He is supposed

especially to harass the young and beautiful, if they do not propitiate him.

20

E. T. Atkinson, Op. Cit., pp. 825-827. 21

Mahendra Singh Barha and Takuriya, is credited with the introduction of the cult of Ganganath

into Salam.

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When any one is aggrieved by the wicked or powerful he goes to Ganganath

for aid, who invariably punishes the evil-doer. He sometimes possesses a

follower and through him promises all that they desire to those who offer the

following articles – to Ganganath himself a kid, cakes, sweetmeats, beads, a

bag and a pair of Jogi‟s earnings; to his mistress Bhana, apetticoat, a dopatta

and a nose-ring, and to the child a coat and anklets, forming a fair spoil for the

Ghantuwa or astrologer who conducts the ceremonies. During the ceremony

the following verse is repeated thrice :

“Ai garo bayo (bis) doli ko uthiyo, kali tir dyo (bis)

Jogi re Ganginatha, kali tir dyo (bis.)”

There is also a song reciting the adventures of the prince during his

wanderings, each verse of which winds up with the above lines as a refrain.

The person who acts the part of one possessed by any Bhut is called

„Dungariya’.22

5.2.1.5 Goril

Goril has been described by the Atkinson in detail, he mentions that

Goril, who is also called Goriya, Gwel, Gwall and Gol, if we judge from his

general repute and the number of temples to his name, is the most popular of all

the deities worshipped by the lower classes in Kumaon. He has formal temples

at Chaur, Garura and Bhanari in Bararau; at Basot in Uchakot : Tarkhet in Mali

Doti : Manil in Nayan : Gol Chaur in Kali Kumaon : Kumaur in Mahar and

Gagar Gol in Katyur. Heis also worshipped at stated intervals at Hairiya-gaon

22

E. T. Atkinson, Op. Cit., P. 819-20.

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in Chhakhata, Ranibag in Chautha, Silangi in Chaugaon, Than in Katyur and

Damanda Uniyal in Patti Udepur of Garhwal. He has local names derived from

some celebrated form or person like Siva : thus the Goril at Garura is also

known as the Iriyakot Goril, that at Basot as the Hairka Goril from the caste of

that name and that at Than as Saman. The local legend as to his origin tells us

that once upon a time Jhalrai, the Katyuri Raja of Champawat, went to hunt in

the forests near the Kali river. Unfortunate in the chase he came, weary and

disappointed, to the village of Dubachaur and saw to buffaloes fighting

together in a field. The Raja in vain tried to separate them and being very

thirsty sent one of his servants to fetch some water, but none was found. A

second servant volunteered to search the neighbouring hills and whilst

wandering about heard the noise of two waterfalls and going towards them

soon found himself in a little garden attached to a hermitage. The waterfalls

were within the garden and pushing his way towards them, he found himself

obliged to pass through the hermitage, and there he saw a beautiful woman so

deeply immersed in contemplation on the deity as to be altogether lost to all

external influences. Seeing her in this condition the servant resolved to break

the spell and in a loud tone asked who she was. She slowly opened her eyes

and as if recovering from a trace begged him not to cast his shadow over her

and so disturb her meditations. He then told her who he was and why he had

come to the hermitage and received permission to draw some water for the

Raja. He then approached the water-jar bottom foremost to the waterfall, and

the water and spray rebounded on to the maiden, who at once arose and said it

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was no wonder that everything was done upside down by the followers of Raja

who was not able to separate even two fighting buffaloes. The servant

astonished at this remark begged her to accompany him to his master and

attempt the fear herself. The maiden consented and gliding onwards, as if in a

dream, she reached the place where the buffaloes were still contending; then

meditating on the deity she advanced and seized each by the horns and

separated them. The Raja was amazed and demanded of her what manner of

woman she was, and she told him that she was Kali, the niece of a Raja with

whom she was engaged in great austerities for the purpose of propitiating the

deity until disturbed by his servant.

The Raja, thereon, resolved to marry the maiden and visited her uncle,

whom he found to be an old leper suffering terribly from that loathsome

disease. So strong, however, was his love for Kali that the Raja remained for

several days performing menial services for the old man, who was so pleased

that he gave permission to the Raja to marry his niece. She had devoted herself

to a life of celibacy, but at her uncle‟s command married the Raja and lived

very happily with him. In due time Kali became pregnant, and the Raja being

obliged to absent himself from home charged her to ring a bell which he

attached to his girdle, should a male child be born during his absence and he

would at once return. The other wives of the Raja were envious of Kali and

determined to thwart her in every way, and one of them rang the bell though

Kali had not yet been delivered. The Raja at once returned and was very angry

at having been deceived and set off on his travels again. In the meantime Kali

gave birth to a beautiful son, but the other Ranis placed a bandage over her

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eyes and removing the child, showed her a pumpkin which they said she had

given birth to. The boy was then placed in an iron cage and buried in a pit lined

with salt, but lo! The salt turned to sugar and the boy ate thereof and flourished.

But nothing daunted by this visible sign of protecting influence, the Ranis took

cage and boy and flung them into the river, when again the cage floated down

the current and came to land near a fisherman‟s hut. Now the fisherman was

childless and deeming the boy a gift from the gods took him to his house and

brought him up as his own child. The boy grew up to man‟s estate and one day

asked his reputed father for a wooden horse, on which he rode to the ghat

where the wicked Ranis used to go for water and broke all their water-jars,

saying that he was in a hurry to make his horse drink. They all laughed at the

idea, but he retorted and said that if it were possible for a woman to give birth

to a pumpkin, it was possible for a wooden horse to drink water. This story

reached the ears of the Raja, who sent for the boy and in the presence of the

entire court, the boy recounted the wrongs done to his mother by the Ranis and

the deception that had been practised on the Raja. The boy was at once

recognized as the son of the Raja and the Ranis paid the penalty of death by

being boiled alive in cauldrons of oil. In course of time the young prince

succeeded his father and as every one believed him possessed by a portion of

the deity from the knowledge of the past shown by him in his discomfiture of

the Ranis, he was an object of worship even during his own lifetime and since

his death is recognized all over Kumaon. The river down which the iron cage

floated is the Goriganga and hence his name Goril.23

23

Ibid., pp. 821-823.

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5.2.1.6 Nanda Devi

During the period of Chand kings, Nanda Devi worship took the shape of a

fair. Prior to that, Nanda Devi was being worshipped, but at that time only an idol of

Nanda Devi used to be worshipped. The custom to make two idols started from the

period of Baj Bahadur Chand. Even today only one idol is prepared in the remote

villages. The reason for this addition appears to because it appears that the goddesses

Nanda and Sunanda together took birth as princesses in the royal family and to mark

this new reincarnation, the practice of celebrating a festival for both sisters together

was introduced in which a story of from their life is enacted. There is folk lore that

while walking in the forest a bull chased them. They hid themselves behind a banana

tree. A goat came there and ate away the banana leaves with the result Nanda and

Sunanda were visible to the bull, which killed both the sisters. This is the reason that

goat and bull are sacrificed during the celebrations.

5.3 EVIL SPIRIT MASAN

The demon Masan is usually found at burning-grounds, which are as a

rule placed at the confluence of streams: hence called marghat. He has a temple

at Kakarighat on the Kosi in Kandarkhuwa, parganah Phaldakot, and numerous

small memorials at all burning ghats. Persons possessed without any assignable

cause are for the time being said to be under his influence. Masan is supposed

to be of a black colour and hideous appearance; he comes from the remains of a

funeral pyre and chases people passing by who sometimes die from fright,

others linger for a few days and some even go mad. When a person becomes

possessed by Masan, the people invoke the beneficent spirit of the house to

come and take possession of some member of the family and all begin to

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dance. At length some one works himself into a state of frenzy and commences

to torture and belabour the body of the person possessed by Masan until at

length is a cure is effected or the person perishes under the drastic treatment.

Khabish resembles Masan in his malignant nature and fondness for charnel

grounds. He is also met with in dark glens and forests in various shapes.

Sometimes he imitates the bellow of a buffalow or the cry of a goat-herd or

neat-herd and sometimes he grunts like the wild-pig. At other times he assumes

the guise of a religious mendicant and joins travellerson their way, but his

conversation is always unintelligible. Like Masan, he often frightens people

and makes them ill and sometimes possesses unfortunate travellers who get

benighted. Both these demons possess many of the attributes of Chamunda

Devi, one of the Sikti forms of Siva, of whom some account has been given

elsewhere.24

5.4 PRESENT SCENARIO OF RELIGION

The religious faith of Rajis represents an interesting admixture of

traditional animism and local Hinduism. They believe in good number of

deities, gods, goddesses and spirits whom they worship periodically or in the

event of an emergency. Many deities, gods, goddesses and spirits, imbibed

from the neighbouring Kumaoni belief are now worshipped in addition to their

traditional ones. Their deities may be divided into three categories.

1. Pan-tribal deities: These deities of Rajis are Ganenath and Manenath

who are regarded as their supreme gods and are benevolent in nature,

24

Ibid., P.820.

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but may turn to be malevolent if due respect and attention are not

accorded to them.

2. Lineage deities: These are many, and there are a few lineages who have

more than one deity. Some of the lineage deities are Dinshi Betal,

Balichand, Huishikar, Mallikaijan, Khudai Kholia, etc. They are

benevolent but may turn malevolent on slightest neglect.

3. The village deities: They are, as a class, are of recent origin.25

Kimkhola, Ganagaon and Bhoktirawa villages it is known as Bhumia

Devta i.e. god of the village land or saviour of the village (Picture

inclosed). In some villages, it is also named as devi (goddess) and

which does not specifically reveal her identity. However, some Raji

tried to identify the devi as Bhagwati, Kali, Durga, etc., but none

seemed to be very sure of her identity. Khirdwari Rajis of Champawat

call their village deity Jimdar deota (the deity of the Jimdar, i.e.

agriculturist). The village deity is viewed as the supernatural proprietor

of the land which they cultivate and reside in. After each harvesting,

village deity is offered some grain as a token of recognition of his/her

over-lordship. Apart from the deities mentioned above, they believe in a

large number of spirits which are thought to be extremely malevolent

and who abound in their eco-setting. These are Airi, Ban, Bhoot(Ghost),

Chhal(demon), Gardevi(Goddess of the river), Kotgari, Masan, Pari

(Angel), etc. Of these, Chhal is a spirit of lesser consequence and

25

K.S. Singh, Op. Cit., P.1193.

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demands no formal propitiation, and unlike others, attacks small

children and women. Its influence is minimal. The most dreaded ones

are Kotgari, Ban and Masan. Chicken sacrifice is essential for Ban and

Bhoot while Kotgari, Airi and Masan require propitiation by billy goat

sacrifice.26

However, High Court of Uttarakahnd has prohibited the

practice of animal sacrifices in the temple before god and goddesses, but

except some very famous temple this practice is still in continuation.

Pilgrimage is absent among Rajis.

Dangaria/dhami and Puchhuaru practice of Kumauni religion is now

prevalent among Rajis.This practice is known as “Jaagar” in Kumaon region.

Jagar is a ceremony to invoke the deity. Every clan or village has its own deity.

They believe that this deity is protecting them from any harm. It‟s a ceremony

which starts at night and goes on till early morning. It seems that the deity

enters the body of a designated medium and answers questions to the ones

suffering. The person (Dhami) who invokes the deity plays a drum and is

accompanied by the people playing the hurka (a common instrument, giving

out staccato beats, also believed to be mentioned in the Natya Shashtra. It can

be played solo or with other instruments) or using the brass plate. Dhami is

much like a shaman while the Puchhuaru is a divine-teller. The Raji lay special

importance to these supernatural functionaries who play a crucial role in

solving problems faced by a family due to supernatural wrath. The Puchhuaru

is an expert for detection of identity of the harming spirit, while the Dhami is a

26

K.S. Singh, Op. Cit., P.1194.

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curer and healer of a disease or family or clan. The Dhami has primarily been

also the vehicle of deity‟s appearance the scene when the Dhami is „possessed‟

during trance.27

During trance, the words of Dhami are deemed as an injunction

from the deity who has been invoked. After enquiring the root cause of

problem or disease, invoked spirit is released by the Dhami. Apart from this,

the Dhami also functions as a priest when his patron deity is worshipped.

Empirical study of religion of Rajis exhibits that there is elements of

changes are dominating because of neighbouring Kumaoni. Traditional

practices of Rajis have been replaced by Kumaoni religion. And Kumaun is

well known for the lands of gods, therefore, after better relation of Rajis with

their neighours the impact of Kumauni religion is deeply influencing to the

Rajis, gradually tribal religion of Rajis is being replaced by Kumauni religion.

5.5 RITUALS

Although Rajis are now more open to their neighbor but this is the

economic condition which plays an important role for observing rituals.

Further, because Rajis don‟t have sufficient currency, therefore, they do not

observe like Kumaunis. Earlier scholars have mentioned about their rituals like

birth, death and marriage only. The above noted rituals are followed today,

imitating Kumauni culture. Earlier there were very simple, now capable

families observe rituals through calling Kumauni priest. Rituals of Rajis are

birth, marriage and funeral. Marriage has been discussed at length in Chapter

three, therefore birth and funeral rituals will be discussed in this chapter.

27

Ibid.

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5.5.1 Birth

This is a very important ceremony, which is performed by Hindus. And

for performing ceremonies currency is a primary requirement, further this is

evident that till today Rajis are living in extreme poverty and scarcity, therefore

they are not in such a condition that they could celebrate the birth ceremony

like their Kumaoni neighbours. However, they observe birth pollution for

eleven days. In this period woman and neonatal kept in a corner of the room or

in a separate room. After completion of period of eleven days woman and

neonatal is purified by cow dung and cow urine. Thereafter the family comes in

contact with mother and child. Earlier, they appear to perform no ceremony in

the nature of the ceremonial purity results after childbirth.28

In this regard,

Majumdar mentions “They do not have any ceremony, neither have they any

priest, nor purifications rites after childbirth, though they claim to be

Hindus.”29

The Raji social customs and rituals are very simple. As is usual with

most of the tribes, supernatural beliefs are not uncommon. There is usually a

conspicuous absence of priest in all the rites and rituals.”30

But nowadays some families of Rajis which have some government

employment are celebrating birth ceremony in Kumauni style. Bisht says they

perform three main rituals of human life, i.e. Namakaran, marriages and death

like unscheduled tribes of their neighbouring areas. Today approx. 30%

Vanrawat families take the services of Brahman Priests for performing above

28

W. Crooke, Op. Cit., P.212. 29

D. N. Majumdar, Races and Cultures Of India, Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1998, P.138. 30

S.C. Joshi, Op. Cit., P.193.

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rituals. Other remaining families get to perform these rituals by a daughter‟s

husband or sister‟s son. On the Ninth day of childbirth after bathing of newborn

and mother, purification rites are performed.”31

Presently, due to acculturation Rajis are performing the birth rituals like

their Kumauni neighbours. It will not be wrong to suggest that they are

imitating Kumani culture on this occasion. And now birth pollution is observed

up to ten days and on eleventh day birth ceremony is celebrated, on this

occasion child is named and ritual is known as the Namakarma Sanskar, and

this is usually held after first ten nights of a baby's delivery. These ten post-

natal days are considered inauspicious and the mother and child are considered

to be unclean. Traditionally mother and child are separated from the rest of the

family during these ten days where no one except a helper is allowed to touch

the baby or the mother. All festivals and events in the family and extended

family are postponed by ten nights. After those ten nights, the house is cleaned

and sanctified for the ceremony. The mother and child are bathed traditionally

and are prepared for the ceremony. This is most likely to avoid infecting baby

or the mother and allowing mother some time to recover after delivery.

Relatives and close friends are invited to be a part of this occasion and bless the

child. Priests are called and an elaborate ritual takes place. Further, nowadays

modern name is chosen for the child like Kiran for a baby girl and Rahul for a

baby boy. However, earlier these were like Kalawati for baby girl and Ratan or

Ramu for baby boy.

31

B.S.Bisht, Op. Cit., P.140.

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5.5.2 Marriage

Marriage ritual has been discussed at length in Chapter III.

5.5.3 Funeral

Funeral rites of Rajis that are described by earlier scholar is constantly

changes with the passage of the time. Sherring says, it has been said that the

Rajis bury their dead, but these men certainly nowadays practise cremation,

whatever their former practice may have been, and the spot chosen is always on

the bank of some stream. They employ no mourning ceremonial whatever,

except that they fast on the day of death, and the next day eat rice instead of

ordinary food.32

But nowadays this is an important sacrament of their society. The

procedure of funeral differs on the basis of the child, married, unmarried, caste,

group and the status of the deceased person. Earlier Atkinson says that they

bury their dead and their only funeral ceremony is said to this, that for ten days

after death, they every night place out in the open air vessels of rice and water

for the dead.”33

In this regard, it has been noticed that they bury their dead in

any convenient place in the jungle. The clothes of the dead person and the sheet

in which the corpse is wrapped are laid over the grave and not removed from

the friends. It may be conjectured that the idea is to provide clothing for the

naked spirit in the next world. The children of the deceased and his younger

brothers get their heads, beards, and moustaches shaved, and the hair is thrown

on the grave as a sacrifice to the spirit of the dead man. They appear to perform

no ceremony in the nature of the sraddha, and no loss of ceremonial purity

results after death.34

32

C.A. Sherring, Op. Cit., P.16. 33

E.T. Atkinson, Op. Cit., P.367. 34

W. Crooke, Op. Cit., P.213.

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The nomadic character of the Rajis is made conspicuous and underlined

by one of their customs. In earlier times, if and when a member of their family

died, they used simply to leave their dwelling place without burying or

cremating the dead; and move on to some other place. At that time they

considered their dwelling unfit for living after the death. Nowadays, it appears

that they have yielded to the practices prevalent outside of their area and have

started either burying or cremating the dead.35

Crooke says they appear to perform no ceremony in the nature of the

sraddha, and no loss of ceremonial purity results after death.36

Majumdar

mentions (1961) – “They bury the dead; they do not have any sradh ceremony,

nor have they any priest, or purifications rites after childbirth, though they

claim to be Hindus. The Rajis are chiefly engaged in the clearing of forests and

in order to ward off evil influences in their work they perform certain rites.”37

Empirical study on Rajis exhibit following procedures for final rites,

they practice two types of disposal of the dead, i.e. burial and cremation. The

corpses of children and unmarried persons of any age are buried, whereas

others are cremated. Cremation is, by and large, a recently adopted practice

from Kumaoni. The procedure of cremation is performed near the banks of the

river. Kimkhola, Ganagaon and Bhoktirawa villages of Dharchula tehsil of

Pithoragarh perform this last rite at the bank of river Kali. In the past, the Rajis

were used to bury the dead. They used to leave the dead body in the cave where

35

H.S. Bora, The Rajis: Invisible Traders The Study of a Primitive Tribal Group in Uttarakhand,

U.S. Nagar: Himalaya Publication Khatima, Uttarakhand, P. 8 36

William Crook, Op Cit., P.212. 37

D.N. Majumdar, Op. Cit., P.138.

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the person was staying just before the death, and thereafter seal the mouth of

the cave by big rocks, after which the whole band would flee from the place.

But nowadays they are practicing cremation. After death, the corpse is tied with

a long strong wood-beam which serves as a bier. The body is placed on the

pyre in the cremation ground in supine position. The eldest son or a collateral

brother of the deceased first sets fire and others follows. Sutak (death pollution)

lasts for twelve days in this period do not come out of the house. The nearest

relative of the diseased sits for performing Kriya (ritual) in this duration wears

dhoti (Sari) and takes only one time meal that is too in the absence of the other.

The bereaved family and its fraternal kin group observe some restrictions, like

avoiding religious activities, purchasing new articles, hunting, ploughing and

eating meat, fish, etc. The observance of this taboo, however, is not uniform

and depends on the degree of acculturation. Purificatory ritual is performed, in

the more acculturated families; Brahmans are engaged to regain ritual purity.

The general practice to mark the end of Sutak, however, is the resumption of

taking fish and rice as diet by the bereaved family. More acculturated families

of Rajis are now performing Sraddh ceremony.38

The foregoing description highlights the tremendous changes that have

occurred during the celebration of life-cycle event of the tribe. Almost the

entire ceremonial contents of their life-cycle events that they observe now have

been the result of the process of acculturation. Another interesting trend is that

a few Raji males have assumed janeu recently, which is slowly spreading. And

38

K.S. Singh, Op. Cit., P.1191.

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this is a usual and general practice in the region that only male having Janeu

ritual can attend the death rituals. However, due to lesser population this is not

possible to observed in Rajis strictly.

5.6 CULTURE OF RAJIS

Cultural history of the inhabitants of the Himalaya is very old, perhaps

as old as the history of mankind itself. Fossilized evidences of early man

discovered by geologists and anthropologists from the Siwalik regions of the

western Himalaya are indisputable proof of the existence of man in this part of

the world. Tribal culture is an integral part of India‟s cultural heritage. Hence,

an adequate knowledge of tribal culture and its heritage is essentially important

in the exploration of Indian culture, since the tribal culture along with the

varied cultures of different ethnic groups constitutes the composite culture of

India. The tribal population in India exhibits typical customs, traditions,

religious beliefs, practices as well as the various forms of economy, and law

and government. But the centuries old confinement of tribal into the isolation

of dense forests and remote uninhabited areas has kept them away from the

main-stream of social life.

Further, cultural heritage is the legacy of physical artefacts and

intangible attributes of the Rajis that are inherited from past generations,

maintained in the present and bestowed for the benefit of future generations.

Cultural heritage includes tangible culture such as buildings, monuments,

landscapes, books, works of art, and artefacts, however out of these tangible

culture there are availability of only some wooden arts of Rajis, intangible

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culture such as folklore, traditions, language, and knowledge will be discussed

in length here as the same are richly available for study and natural heritage

including culturally significant landscapes, and biodiversity are also abundantly

available in this region of Rajis.

However, Preservation or Conservation of cultural heritage for Rajis is

very difficult because they are living in extreme poverty and in this

circumstance they have to give up their cultural practices for their survival.

Cultural heritage is unique and irreplaceable, which places the

responsibility of preservation on the current generation. But preservation is an

advance stage where a man starts to think freely because he has surplus

production of agriculture for the future. However Rajis do not have sufficient

food grains even for half of the year, therefore collection of smaller objects

such as artworks and other cultural masterpieces in museums and art galleries

is not possible.

Like other tribal groups Rajis have their distinct culture, however, it is

now highly influenced by their surrounding Kumauni people. For a clear

understanding of their cultural traits firstly we will discuss what the other

scholars have noticed about their culture and then what are the changes in that,

meaning thereby the elements of continuity and changes will be discussed.

5.6.1 Fair and Festivals

There can be seen a clear influence of Kumaoni neighbours on the

festivals of Rajis. Therefore, most of the Rajis celebrate both Kumaoni festivals

as well as their traditional.

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Crooke Says their festivals are the Kark Sankrant, or “passage of the sun

into the sign of Cancer;” and those of Aries and Capricorns, Mekha, Makara ki

Sankrant; marriage days and after childbirth, On these festivals they eat

especially good food themselves and entertain their relations and friends.39

K.S. Singh says the major festivals observed by the Raji are Gamra or

Gowra, and Naorata or Navratri. Gamra is celebrated during Janmashtami with

much joy and merry-making and lasts for 10 to 15 days. During this festival,

every night they hold Khel dance and sing, but religious function is totally

lacking. Navratri is held during September-October when the village deities are

worshipped. Observance of the festivals is a new dimension in their socio-

religious sphere which witnessed considerable change following their

sedentarization.40

5.6.1.1 Jauljibi Fair

This fair is held every year in November at Jauljibi of Dharchula Tehsil

of district Pithoragarh of Uttarkhand, the confluence of the rivers Kali and

Gori, which is a meeting place of three different cultures - the Shauka, the

Nepali and the Kumaoni including Rajis. This gateway to Johar, Darma,

Chaudans and Byans was at one time, considered to be the central place

between Tibet and the Tarai regions of Uttarakhand. Though this fair is

primarily a commercial one, its cultural importance cannot be overlooked.

People come even from Nepal to this fair in order to sell horses, ghee and

foreign goods and take back foodgrains, jaggery etc. For a long time this

39

William Crook, Op Cit., P.213. 40

K.S. Singh, Op. Cit., P.1194.

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festival is a main medium for Rajis to exchange or sell their wooden

implements. Many people or scholars use this festival to observe Rajis and

interact with them.

5.6.1.2 Nanda Devi Fair

The term Nanda means prosperity and well being. Nanda Devi Fair is held

with a great deal of pageantry and magnificence and it signifies the economic and

cultural affluence of the region. The Nanda Devi Fair is usually held in the month of

late August or early September depending upon the date of the lunar calendar. The

fair was initiated by King Kalyan Chand of Chand Dynasty of Garhwal in the 16th

century to showcase the economic and cultural prosperity of different regions. It also

served as a competition to better each other every year. People take part in the parade

which carries the dola (litter) of Goddess Nanda Devi. The yatra continues for three

long weeks and people from different parts are seen to participate in it. The yatra

begins from Nauti village near Karna Prayag and goes up to the heights of RoopKund

and Hemkund with a four-horned sheep.

5.6.1.3 Makar Sankrant

This is one of the main festival of entire Kumaun region as well as of

Rajis. Atkinson mentions that the Makar or Magh sankrant took place on the

12th

January, 1878. It is also known as the Ghugutiya, Phul and Uttarayini or

Uttraini sankrant. The name „Ghugutiya‟ is given from the small images of

flour baked in sesamum oil or ghi and made to resemble birds which are strung

as necklaces and placed around the necks of children on this day. On the

morrow or the second day of Magh the children call the crow and other birds

and feed them with the necklaces and eat a portion themselves. The name

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„Phul‟ sankrant is derived from the custom of placing flowers, especially those

of the rhododendron, at the threshold of friends and relations who, in return,

give presents of rice and grain. The name „Uttarayini‟ is derived from its being

the beginning of the winter solstice according to the Hindu equivalent for the

constellation corresponding to Capricorn and is represented by a figure half

fish and half goat. The whole of Magh is specially devoted to the worship of

Vishnu and the sun of according to the Padma-Purana bathing during this

month is particularly efficacious.41

Crooke has also mentioned that Makar

Sankrant is Rajis important festival. Nowadays too this festival is celebrated

with enthusiasm.

5.6.1.4 Kark Sankrant

This festival is celebrated with great enthusiasm in Kumaun. Crooke has

mentioned Rajis celebrate this festival with great joy, this is known also as the

Harela, Hariyalo or Haryao sankrant from the following custom : On the 24th

Asrah the cultivators sow barley, maize, pulse (gahat) or mustard (lai) in a

basket of earth and on the last day of the month, they place amidst the new

sprouts small clay images of Mahadeo and Parvati and worship them in

remembrance of the marriage of those deities. On the following day or the Kark

samkrant, they cut down the green stems and wear them in their head-dress and

hence the name Harela. This customs is in every way similar to the practice of

wearing the rose, observed in Great Britain. The Kark sankrant was the great

day of the bagwali or stone-throwing festival for Chamdyol in Patti Gumdes,

41

E. T. Atkinson, Op. Cit., P. 872.

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Ramgar in Patti Ramgar, at the Narayani temple in Siloti and at Bhim Tala in

Chhakhata.42

Nowadays, however, Rajis are celebrating many festivals like

Holi, Dipawali, Raksha Bandhan etc., but Kark Sankrant has its own

importance. Young generations of Rajis enjoy this festival with great joy.

5.6.1.5 Poos

According to the Hindu religious texts, on the day of Uttarayani, the sun

enters the Zodiacal sign of 'Makar' (Capricorn) from the Zodiacal sign of the

Kark (Cancer), i.e. from this day onwards the sun becomes 'Uttarayan' or it

starts moving to the north. It is said that from this day, which signals a change

of season, the migratory birds start returning to the hills. On Makar Sankranti

people give Khichadi (a mixture of pulses and rice) in charity, take ceremonial

dips in holy rivers, participate in the Uttarayani fairs and celebrate the festival

of Ghughutia or Kale Kauva. During the festival of Kale Kauva (literal

translation 'black crow') people make sweetmeats out of sweetened flour (flour

and gur) deep fried in ghee, shape them like drums, pomegranates, knives,

swords etc. They are strung together and worn as necklace-in the middle of

which an oragne in fixed. Early in the morning children wear these necklaces

and sing "Kale Kauva Kale Lagad Baud Khale" to attract crows and other birds

and offer them portions of these necklaces, as a token of welcome for all the

migratory birds, who are now coming back after their winter sojourn in the

plains.

42

E. T. Atkinson, Op. Cit., P. 870.

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5.6.1.6 Bikhauti

Syalde Bikhauti is celebrated on the Vishuwat Sankranti. Syalde

Bikhauti is celebrated on the occasion of an ancient victory. On this day, the

Bagwal fair is held at Syalde Pokhar in the old town of Dwarahat. People also

celebrate the festival with music, songs and dances. One day before this, a

similar fair is held at Vibhandeshwar in which Lord Shiva is worshipped. This

is celebrated for ending last years‟ poison. Among the twice- born citizens this

festival is observed as the day of solstice. This solstice is called Mesh (ram in

form) also; but the Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Shilpkars observe a grand festival

on this day with victuals fried in clarified butter, sweetmeats, betel-leaves etc.43

5.6.1.7 Holi

However, this is not very common and important among Rajis. But the

uniqueness of the Kumaoni Holi have influenced Rajis and now they are

enjoying this. Holi, being a musical affair, whichever may be its form, be it the

Baithki Holi, the Khari Holi or the Mahila Holi. The Baithki Holi and Khari

Holi are unique in that the songs on which they are based have a touch of

melody, fun and spiritualism. These songs are essentially based on classical

ragas. No wonder then the Baithki Holi is also known as Nirvana Ki Holi.

The Baithki Holi begins from the premises of temples, where Holiyars (the

professional singers of Holi songs) as also the people gather to sing songs to

the accompaniment of classical music.

Kumaonis are very particular about the time when the songs based on

ragas should be sung. For instance, at noon the songs based on Peelu,

43

Badri D. Pande, Op. Cit., P. 655.

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Bhimpalasi and Sarang ragas are sung while evening is reserved for the songs

based on the ragas like Kalyan, Shyamkalyan and Yaman etc. The Khari

Holi is mostly celebrated in the rural areas of Kumaon. The songs of the Khari

Holi are sung by the people, who sporting traditional white Churidar pyjamas

and Kurta, dance in groups to the tune of ethnic musical instruments. Rajis

being a nature loving and having a huge impact of Kumaoni culture have

adopted the festival of Holi and enjoying its colours. Atkinson has mentioned

about Kumauni holi that The Holi commences on the eighth or ninth and ends

on the last day of Phalgun Sudi, locally known as the chharari day. Some

derive the name Holi from the demon Holika, who is one with Putana; but the

Bhavishyottara Purana, which has a whole section devoted to this festival,

gives a different account which may be thus briefly summarised: In the time of

Yuddhishthira there was a Raja named Raghu who governed so wisely that his

people were always happy, until one day the Rakshasi Dundha came and

troubled them and their children. They prayed the Raja to aid them and he

consulted the Muni Narada, who directed them to go forth in full confidence on

the last day of the light half of Phalgun and laugh; sport and rejoice. Then they

should set up a bonfire and circumambulate it according to rule, then every one

should “utter without fear whatever comes into his mind. In various ways and

in their own speech, let them freely whatever songs they will. Appalled by

those vociferations, by the oblations to fire and by the laughter of the children,”

The Rakshasi was to be destroyed. “Inasmuch as the oblation of fire (homa)

offered by the Brahmas upon this day effaces sin and confers peace upon the

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world (loka), therefore shall the day be called holika”. The Kumaonis take full

advantage of the license thus afforded and under the influence of bhang

proceed from village to village singing obscene songs and telling stories. The

red-powder or gulal which is used in the sports during the festival is made from

the flowers of the rhododendron. Although preparations commence on the

eighth or ninth, the real festival does not begin until the eleventh, known as the

chirbandhan day, or amardki ekadasi. On this day, people take two small

pieces of cloth from each house, one white and the other coloured, and after

offering them before the Sakti of Bhairava make use of them thus: A pole is

taken and split at the top so as to admit of two sticks being placed transversely

at right angles to each other and from these the pieces of cotton are suspended.

The pole is then planted on a level piece of ground and the people

circumambulate the pole, singing the Holi songs in honor of Kanhaiya and his

Gopis and burn it on the last day. This ceremony is observed by the castes who

assume connection with the plains castes, but the lower class of Khasiyas,

where they observe the festival, simply set up the triangular standard crowned

by an iron trident, the special emblem of Pasupati, which they also use at

marriage ceremonies. The Holi is chiefly observed in the lower patties and is

unknown in the upper hills. The Tika Holi takes place two days after the

chharari or last day of the Holi, when thank offerings are made, according to

ability, on account of the birth of a child, a marriage or any other good

fortune.44

44

E. T. Atkinson, Op. Cit., P. 868.

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5.6.1.8 Deepawali

This festival is observed due to the influence of their Kumauni neighbor.

In entire Kumaun region this festival is celebrated with great joy and

happiness. Houses are white washed before the actual day of celebration. New

clothes, jewellery, pots and household articles are purchased. At the evening of

the day earthen lamp and candle stick are lit. Now acculturated Raji families

are also celebrating this festival like Kumaunis.

5.7 DIALECT

The dialect of the Rajis has remained the point of attraction among the

linguistic scholars. Other scholars who have observed the tribe has expressed

their view in this regard. Atkinson says – they have a dialect of their own, but

some of them can communicate with their civilized neighbours in Pahari

Hindi. The scanty vocabulary of the Raji language that has been collected

supports the connection with the tribes of Nepal suggested by Dr. Latham.

From their language it would appear that they are of ordinary aboriginal stock

like the Kirantis, a still further reason for identifying them with the Rajya-

Kiratas of the Puranas.45

He also states that there is "a total dissimilitude of

language" between the Rajis and Kumaonis. W. Crooke says – They have a

dialect of their own, which is not intelligible to outsiders, and this language is

always spoken by the women and children. Most of the adult males are able to

communicate with strangers in rude Pahari Hindi.46

Rahul Sanskrityayan says –

In the language of Rajis, Elements of Kirati language is present.

45

E.T. Atkinson, Op. Cit., P. 366. 46

W. Crooke, Op Cit., P.213.

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Further it has been mentioned that they speak the Jangali language,

which belongs to the Himalayan group of the Tibeto-Burman family of

languages. According to the 1961 Census, 111 persons spoke this language.

They speak the Indo-Aryan language, Kumaoni, with others. Very few among

them are conversant with Hindi. The Devanagari script is used by them.47

On

analysis of how these three Raji septs or thars possess their individual

languages, it can be assumed that they separated and migrated to various places

where on settling and remaining for long periods, they assimilated or were

influenced by the dialects of local tribes. Accordingly this is seen that the

Purbiya Raji language consists of a mixture of various dialects spoken by the

other tribes of the Mechi zone. Dotaeli dialect seems to have influenced the

language of the Naukale Raji. The Bundale Rajis speak a language consisting

of a mixture of Terai dialects since they inhabit the Terai belt. On looking at

the Raji languages, it can be estimated that there three different types cannot be

classified into any of the existing categories, since one thar of Raji does not

understand the language of the other thar and such. However, in spite of such a

drawback, the linguistic scholars have placed the Raji language in the Tibeto-

Burman Category.”48

However, B. S. Bisht says that Rajis apart from their

local dialect, can speak Kumauni and broken Hindi.

The Rajis speak a dialect of their own. It is the same among the Raji in

India and the Rajis living in Nepal. This dialect has not the remotest

resemblance with the Indo-Aryan dialects and languages. According to

47

N.S. Bisht, Op. Cit., P.1351. 48

N.S.Bisht. Op. Cit., P. 1351.

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distinguished linguist Mr. Gearson, the dialect which the Rajis speak is from

the Burmese and Tibetan family of dialects and languages. This can be verified,

somewhat, by the fact that there are some common words between the dialect

of the Rajis and the neighbouring Bhotias of the Dharchula valley: these

Bhotias have had contact with the Tibetans for centuries on account of barter

trade for centuries. As both Rajis and the Bhotias live in close proximity, it is

not surprising that there are some common features both in their dialect and

their physique. Since the Bhotia dialect carries a large impress of Tibetan, it

may be assumed that the dialect of the Rajis is a derivative of Tibetan and the

Bhotia dialects.

There is one more point which needs to be underlined. The vocabulary

of the Rajis in relation to numbers is confined only to the ninth digit. The digits

after 9 are now being incorporated from the local Kumaoni dialects.49

A few words and numbers of the Raji dialect are given below:

English Raji Dialect

Wheat Ghumang

Tree Seeng

Rice Darav

House Nauv

Clothes Latta

Shoes Jodha

Hair Hamo

Nose Sina

49

H.S. Bora, Op. Cit., P.14.

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Eye Mikey

Throat Jidda

Ear Guna

Hand Hakey

Lips Thol

Leg Bha

Stomach Lado

Stone Dunge

Sun Diho

Land Matiya

Dog Kui

Cat Birari

Mouse Muha

Sister-in-law Bhauji

Wife Budiya

Door Dher

Fish Machha

Today Day

Tomorrow Keelay

Day after tomorrow Neewak

Give(to) me Na Bayan

You Nee

I Na

Stand up (Get up) Ya key

Take food Bhatt Ja

Drink water Tee Tung

Go to sleep Ees

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Dying Seepan

Now Atar

Hundred Dak

One Ga

Two Nee

Three Khud

Four Pari

Five Pan

Six Turkau

Seven Khatt

Eight Aatth

Nine Nauv

Ten Dakh

The distinct geography of the region affects the socio-cultural settings

and languages spoken in the two regions. Although, there is no clear dialect

and script of the languages spoken in Garhwal and Kumaon (Garhwali and

Kumaoni), yet the people of these two regions speak in their local languages.

Each and every drainage system has its own language. It is said regarding the

language of Uttaranchal that „Kos-kos par badale pani, char kos par bani‟

means water is changed in every mile,while language is changed in every four

miles.50

After a long continuity the language of Rajis is changing to meet the

global challenges.

After analyzing above scholars, encyclopedia and field investigation, it

is observed that the Rajis speak a dialect of their own which they call Rajbar

50

Vishwambhar Prasad & Kamlesh Kumar, Uttaranchal Dilemma of Plenties and Scarcities, New

Delhi: Mittal Publications, 2004, P.9.

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Bhasa. This dialect is spoken by Rajis in India and their kins in Nepal. Now-a-

days they are well-versed with Kumani language, which they use during

communication with their Kumauni neighbours. The young generation

communicates in Kumauni and Hindi with their counterparts, meaning there by

now Hindi is being more common among young generation.

5.8 HANDICRAFT

Handicrafts are mostly defined as "Items made by hand, often with the

use of simple tools, and are generally artistic and/or traditional in nature. They

are also objects of utility and objects of decoration.” The tribal economy is

equally distinctive since it is closed and undifferentiated characterized by

adoption of primitive technology in economic pursuits. The tribal people earn

in their livelihood by undertaking many occupations such as forestry and food

gathering, shifting cultivation, settled agriculture, and industrial labour, animal

husbandry, fishing, traditional commerce of which household industry

including handicrafts is of prime importance Tribal have been producing

different handicrafts both utilitarian and decorative over centuries. Tribal

economy in the earlier days was a barter system through mutual help.

The tools and technique used by the Rajis are very primitive and simple

in nature. However, after frequent contact with Kumauni people, these are

remarkable changes, especially in the field of the agricultural implements.

5.9 WOODEN CRAFT

Wood carvings are important handicraft of Uttarakhand state due to

availability of wood as raw material from nearby forest areas. Craft-persons of

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the Uttaranchal had mastered the art of wood carving. Abundant in Wood and

wood product, the artisans of the region has designed simple and beautiful

designs on carvings on Doors, windows and ceilings in the houses of the

region. These beautifully ornamented doors and windows still attract art lovers.

The motifs, ordinarily of the Gods or Goddesses, add to the richness of the

carvings. The craftsperson also used to do specific latticework to fill in the

open space of the windows in order to give a screen like effect. Rajis wood

craft has been earlier described by the Crooke he asserts– At present one of

their chief industries is the making of rude vessels out of the wood of the genti

tree; these they exchange in the villages bordering on the jungle for scraps of

coarse cloth and grain.51

Traditional occupation of Vanrawats are Gethi and

preparing of the objects of daily uses, e.g. Theki (Wedge) for making curd,

Chauntha for keeping ghee, Bind for churning curd, Nali for measuring grain,

etc. Implements, which are used in the agriculture sector are mainly made by

Rajis e.g. Plough, yoke, hoe, sickle, mortar etc. In Kimkhola village of

Dharchula Tehhsil of Pithoragarh, wood craft training centre has been started

where Raji youths are being trained by two trainers. During the training period

stipend is providing to Rajjis for motivating them for maximum participation.

In this centre presently they are learning the art of making furniture. Further, at

this centre, there are various machine for making furniture and wooden articles.

5.9.1 Plough

Plough is locally known as Halank. This is made of a light and straight

flat piece of wood called mud into which is set the pole at right angles. The

51

W. Crooke, Op Cit., P.213.

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upper part of the pole bears an oblique cut, which it can be seen rely fastened to

the yoke, and is known as lathi. On the upper part of the body there is a handle

inserted at right angle to it and is called hatiyano. The ploughshare is fitted

obliquely to the body and is steeped with an iron point 8-10 inches long. All

these parts are fitted by making holes, and if by chance they become loose,

wedges of wood known as pato are inserted.

5.9.2 Yoke

Rajis refer it as a Jua. However, it seems that Rajis have adopted this

word from Kumauni neighbour. The Yoke consists of a flat beam of wood. It

has two holes on the extremities through which wood is inserted known as

swali. The bullocks are so positioned at the time of pitting on Yoke, as to

between these pegs, so that they may not draw too close to each other during

ploughing and obstruct the ploughing process. The Yoke is fastened to the pole

or dab of the plough and tied by means of a rope-piece called jeora.

The other important agricultural implements are the hoe (bhyoka), the

axe (gadya) and the scythe (ansi), and a basket (doka). For harvesting grains,

they use scythes or curved blades with the inside of the blade sharpened.

5.9.3 Wooden Vessels

Rajis are very expert in making wooden vessel, it remained their prime

material to exchange with Kumauni neighbour. There are important sources

which contributed substantially to their subsistence. There are three main types

of bowls namely Pali, daba and theki. They also sell plough to their

neighbours. Rajis are gradually learning from the surroundings and developing

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the more useful implements. These are the elements of changes which can be

easily noticeable.

5.10 WOOD CRAFT TRAINING CENTRE AT KIMKHOLA

Presently, at the Kimkhola village of Dharchula Tehsil of district

Pithoragarh a centre for wood craft training has been opened exclusively for the

Rajis. In this centre two trainers have been appointed. For encouraging the

participation of the Raji youths stipend is provided to them. Rajis of nearby

villages are being trained here. Gagan Singh Rajwar (member of the Raji tribe),

Ex. M.L.A. is actively involved in the functioning of this centre. Nowadays

furniture craft training is given to the Rajis. This initiative will be definitely

beneficial for the Rajis as there is availability of abundant woods in the area.

5.11 HANDLOOM TRAINING CENTRE AT JAULJIBI

Females of the Raji community are receiving training of Handlooms and

handicrafts at the Jauljibi training centre at Dharchula Tehsil of Pithoragarh.

They are receiving stipend along with training. Two women trainers have been

appointed at the centre for making them skilled. Earlier the Raji women who

remained busy in cattle rearing, collection of tubers and woods, fishing etc.

now are actively participating in the handloom training, some of them are now

trained therefore making carpets, curtains, cushions pads and floor coverings,

etc.

5.12 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS

N.S. Bisht says, male Raji wraps a short skirt like cloth around their

loins and call tills cloth a kachhad or wear dhoti also. In this way, they wear

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their own type of shirts and a bhoto (vest) with a lining and buttons. Almost all

Rajis wear caps.52

But nowadays Rajis that are residing near to their Kumauni

neighbours wear Pants, shirts, T shirts, sweater, jackets etc.

Females wear gunew (lungi-like) and a different sort of blouse which is

backless and held in place by strings, running horizontally across the back. The

gunew is called batauli since it is made in Butwal.53

Now due to the influence

of neighbours, they wear salwar kurta, saree- blouse, sweater like Kumaunis.

However, it will be pertinent to mention that during field investigation it has

been noticed that females and children had no proper clothes to wear in cold

climatic conditions.

As Rajis supposed to themselves as of higher status and caste so in

earlier time their women do not come in contact with other people, therefore,

scholars of that time have not described the ornaments of their ladies. But now-

a-days these women come into contact with their neighbours. The women

ornaments are silver, metal and glass (bangles), silver tariya (on the shoulders)

and phullis (studs on nostrils). Pheru was one worn on their ears and sometime

their number up to 5 on each ear. These pheru are worn by only married

women. During field visit some women had wore the Bulaki of gold, only

married women used to wear it. Further, this symbol of married women has

been observed after contact with Kumauni neighbour.

Although now Raji women are well aware about Kumauni ornaments

and jewelleries but due to poor economic condition they can‟t afford the same.

52

N.S. Bisht, Op. Cit., P.1347. 53

Ibid.

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Only few Raji families where males are employed in Government sector, their

females have some gold jewelleries. Further, till date most of the Rajis are not

capable to fulfill their primary requirements of bread, cloth and housing

therefore ornaments which are secondary can‟t be expected from them.

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