48

Chapter II

Geographical Setting

To understand the study area properly, its geographical background is

to be analysed, as the concerned elements are responsible for bringing upto

present situation and set-up of the region. The physio-cultural character is

being explained with its most important points under the following heads:

1. Physical Setting

2. Socio-Economic Setting

Physical Setting

Location and Extent

Almora district is one of the thirteen districts of Uttarakhand. It

nestles mainly in the lap of the Lesser or Middle Himalaya. Its latitudinal

extent is 29º5' north to 29º50' north. Longitudinally it lies between 79º2' east

to 80º39' east1. It is situated between Ramganga and Panar valleys and is

interspersed with many smaller hill ranges like Ranikhet range, SyahiDevi

range and regions like Salt-Manila and Dhikala regions. Its western

boundary is flanked by the Ramganga valley and the middle part constitutes

the well-developed Suyal-Kosi valley. Saryu river valley marks the

boundary in the north. The bordering districts of Almora are Champawat &

Pithoragarh in east, Bageshwar & Chamoli in north, Pauri Garhwal in west

Estelar

49

& Nainital in south. Pithoragarh, Champawat & Bageshwar districts were

previously parts of Almora.

Almora is one of the oldest district towns of the whole region, though

its origin leads back to the monarch states of 11th century. The history of this

region can be classified into four phases, which have been well-recognized

by historians (Atkinson2 and B.D. Pande3). Monuments of pre historic

period, various cave paintings & inscriptions exits even today. Among them

the rock shelter, "Lakhudiar" near Barechhena is prominent for pre historic

rock painting. Other such popular rock shelters also exist in Kasardevi,

Falsima etc. The king of Chand Dynasty, Balo Kalyanchand established the

city as his capital in 1563. His descendants developed & expanded the city

in later years. Lakhanpur, Bairath, Masi, Taleshwar, Tamadhaun, Syalde,

Dunagiri, Dwarahat, Ranikhet, Jageshwar, Binsar etc. are the historical

places of Almora, where its glorious stories lie. Great personalities like

Swami Vivekananda, Uday Shankar proved the historical significance of the

place by visiting Almora. During the British period there were three districts

in Kumaon before 1891. After conquering the Kumaon state from gorkhas in

1815, the Britisher developed it as a district, with boundaries up to the

eastern part of Garwal divison. Even today Almora in itself is an

introduction to a vast region of Uttarakhand. (Fig 2.1)

Estelar

50

Estelar

51

This district is surrounded by Chamoli and Bageshwar districts in the

north, Pauri Garhwal in the west, Nainital district in the south and

Pithauragarh and Champawat districts in the east. Its total area is 3689.34 sq

kms and total population is 6,21,927; male population is 2,90,414 and

female population is 3,31,513 (2011).

For the administrative purposes Almora district is divided into 9

tahsils, namely Almora, Ranikhet, Bhikiyasen, Bhanoli, Someshwar, Jainti,

Chaukhutiya, Salt and Dwarahat. It has been further divided into 11

development blocks which are Hawalbagh, Bhaisiyachhana, Dhauladevi,

Salt, Takula, Tarikhet, Dwarahat, Bhikyasen, Syalde, Lamgara and

Chaukhutiya. Almora district comprises of 131 Nyay Panchayats and 2245

Gram Sabha, of which 2147 are populated and 98 are non-populated

villages. The district has 1122 gram panchayat in all. In Almora district,

Almora town is the headquarter and a Municipal Board, while Dwarahat is a

town area and Ranikhet a cantonment board.4

Geology

The lithology, stratigraphy and the structure of the study area are

complex phenomena, mainly of caingzoic era. Evidences of several orogenic

movements of different geological times and their resultant structural

complexity can be easily traced out and visualized in the region.

Estelar

52

Several attempts have been made to study the geological environment

of the Kumaon Himalaya. Mention may be made of the work of Auden

(1937)5, Heim and Gansser (1939)6, Nautiyal (1943-44)7, Merh (1968-

1977)8 and Valdia (1978, 1979, 1980)9.

The study area falls in the physiographic-cum-geological unit of the

Lesser Himalaya. This is separated by the Main Central Thrust (MCT) from

the Greater Himalaya in the north. This is delimited by Krol or Main

Boundary Thrust (MBT) in the south. Between these two regional planes of

separation, the pre-Cambrian and Palaeozoic sedimentaries with granite-

injected metamorphics are visible in the succession of three thrust sheets or

nappes. Sandwiched between these two well-defined structural boundaries,

i.e. MBT (south) and MCT (north), each tectonic unit of the Lesser

Himalaya is characterized by its distinct lithology,structural setting,

deformation of the rocks and geomorphic peculiarities10. Valdia has

recognized the existence of four litho-tectonic units in the study area from

north to south, all belonging to the Lesser Himalaya.11 (Fig 2.2)

(a) Jaunsar-Berinag-Bageshwar Nappe: In the Inner Lesser Himalaya,

Deoban and Mandhali formations is thrust over by a thick succession of

Berinag quartzites. The Berinag has been correlated by most of the earlier

workers with the Nagthat formation of the Jaunsar group.12 The Berinag

rocks have discordant relation with the underlying Tejam group, such as

Estelar

53

Estelar

54

structural discordant, shearing-shattering, mylonitization of rocks along the

contact, the allenuation or even elimination of the Mandhali formation so

that the Berinag rests directly on the Deoban formation.

(b) Almora and Bageshwar Nappe: The Almora-Dudatoli crystalline mass

occurs in the form of a huge syncline and shows a great complexity in

composition; although a change in crystalline composition has also been

observed from north to south. It is the largest of the crystalline thrust sheets

and separates the outer zone of Krol formation from the inner sedimentary

belt often termed as the Deoban-Tejan zone. The Ramgarh Nappe of the

outer Lesser Himalaya is overthrust by a huge sheet of Almora and

Bageshwar group of medium grade metamorphics which are penetrated by

pre-Cambrian Synkinematic granodiorites of the trondhjemitic suite and post

Kinematic granite adamellites.13

(c) Chail-Barkot (Bhatwari- Ramgarh) Nappe: Ramgarh thrust is situated

on the base of Nagthat quartzite and basic volcanies. Valdia has recognized

the Ramgarh Nappe as a continuation of middle metamorphosed flyschoid

group penetrated by about 1000-1200 million years old granitic

porphyroid.14

(d) Krol Nappe: The Krol belt is extended from north-west to south-east

and covers the south-western part of the study area (Tarikhet, Bhikiyasen

Estelar

55

and Salt blocks). Comparatively oldest rocks of the Krol series include

slates, phyllites, sandstones and intercalated limestone.15

In the study area, however, there is conspicuous absence of boulder

beds above quartzites. A peculiar development of the Krol formation has

often been observed in certain western sections. The Lesser Himalayas are

composed of tectonically compressed blocks of Paleozoic and Mesozoic

crystallines, metamorphics, and sedimentary rocks. The Main Central Thrust

is a major tectonic feature of the Himalayas and has brought the crystalline

rocks of the Higher Himalayas over the younger sedimentaries. The true

amplitude of these movements cannot be determined. Many researchers

consider these overthrust overlappings to be due to large scale movements.

The almost complete absence of fossils in the Lesser Himalaya leaves

many structural and stratigraphic problems unsolved. This casts some doubts

on certain stratigraphic interpretations. The Lesser Kumaon Himalaya

includes a thrust-bound sector delineated by two tectonic planes - the Main

Boundary Fault to the south and the Main Central Thrust to the north. Many

workers have postulated existence of the regional inversion of sedimentary

pile. There are two elongated tectonic belts of sedimentary/metasedimentary

rocks separated by an ESE-WNW trending Almora-Dudhatoli Crystalline

zone. The Outer Sedimentary Belt to the south of the crystalline mass is the

Estelar

56

Estelar

57

Krol Belt while the Inner Sedimentary Belt to the north constitutes the

Deoban-Tejam zone.

Physiography

The entire region falls within one physiographic unit, the Lesser

Himalaya. The area, on an average, reflects a rough undulating terrain which

is dissected by several small and large perennial and non-perennial streams.

High mountain ridges and deep river valleys are the common features of the

orography of the area. The altitudinal range of the relief varies from about

600 mtrs to 3000 mts . (Fig 2.3)

The study area presents a complicated mosaic of mountain ranges,

hills and valleys, deeply dissected topographies and small to large patches of

flat lands.16 The low altitudinal zones in south, south-west, east and the

central parts ( Syalde, Bhikiyasen, Hawalbagh blocks) are demarcated by

contours of 600-1800 mts; while the zone of maximum elevation in the north

(Chaukhutia and Dwarahat blocks) are extended generally upto 2400 mts.

Presence of ranges (1800-2400 mts and slightly above) in the middle

section of the study area (Binsar, Vridha-Jageshwar, Bhatkot etc) is an

interesting feature. For detailed study, the area has been divided into the

following physical units:

Estelar

58

(a) Eastern Himanchal Ranges and Hills: The main peaks here are

Jageshwar (2326 mt), Banaridevi (2065 mt), Kasardevi (1985 mt) and

Sitlakhet (1690mt).

(b) Western Himanchal Ranges and Hills: These ranges extend in the

western part of district in north-south direction. Syahidevi (2190 mt),

Ranikhet (1890 mt) and Chaubatiya (2082 mt) ranges and peaks are the

important features. (Fig 2.4)

Drainage

The drainage system of this region has been influencing nearly every

aspect of the people’s lives. These have also transformed the economic and

cultural phenomena of the region. The settlements in particular have always

remained under their absolute control.

The drainage pattern is generally of dendritic type. The entire area is

characterized by many large and small perennial and seasonal rivers and

rivulets. The important rivers of the district are Ramganga, Kosi, Gagas,

Panar, Suyal etc. These have shaped the economic and cultural features of

the whole region. Two major river-systems can be recognized: (Fig 2.5)

1. The Kosi system : Originating from Bhatkot range at an elevation of

2528 mts near Kausani, it flows through Binsar, Bhatkat, Syahidevi and

Takula-Basauli hills in south and south-west direction. It drains a major

portion of the study area. Suyal is the main tributary of Kosi river. Binsar-

Estelar

59

Estelar

60

Almora ridge, extending north-east to south-west separates the Kosi

catchment from the Suyal basin. After their confluence at Kwarab, the

stream flows in westward direction. Someshwar valley is the most

significant landform within this system.

2. The West Ramganga system: Originating from the southern slopes

of Dudhatoli range in Chamoli district, it drains the north-western part of the

district. The principal tributaries of Western Ramganga river are Gagas,

Kanchan Gad, Basola Gad etc. This river system has a broad fertile valley of

Chaukhutiya-Ganai region. After the merger of Gagas at Bhikiyasen, the

channel flows towards south-west and enters Garhwal division.

Rivers of the region have formed deep valleys which are sometimes

narrow and sometimes broad in accordance with the lithology17. Flat

extensive terraces and plains are one of the main features of the Katyur

valley. Other extensive valleys are Someshwar valley, Chaukhutia-Ganai

valley and Dwarahat valley.

Climate

Climate not only influences the biogeographical phenomena but it

also influences the socio-economic and cultural aspects of the concerned

region.18 The study area enjoys the colder variety of the monsoon climate.

Geographical setting including longitudinal and latitudinal location,

Estelar

61

topography and distribution of flora etc are some prominent elements which

control the climate to a great extent.

The region is characterized by a large variety of micro-climates,

varying from sub-tropical in low river valleys to temperate on slopes and

peaks of moderate to high elevation and alpine at very high altitudes.

Undulating topography creates diversity in temperature and precipitation

within relatively short distances. Based mainly on thermal conditions, the

region can be categorized into the following climatic zones: (Fig 2.6)

(i) Warm sub-tropical zone: found at elevations 600 – 950 mts; mean

annual temperature: 18.9˚ – 21.1˚c

(ii) Warm temperate zone: 950 – 1830 mts; 13.9° - 18.9°c

(iii) Cool temperate zone: 1830 – 2440 mts; 10.3° - 13.9°c

(iv) Cold zone: 2440 – 3000 mts; 4.5° - 10.3°c

Cloudless sky, transparent atmosphere, calm nights, heavy dew and

great temperature variations etc are the main characteristics of the autumn

and winter seasons in the study area. The mean monthly temperature falls

below the freezing point sometimes at several places. By the end of

December, northern dry winds are well-established and produce much snow-

fall at higher elevations. Sometimes they result into severe blizzards.

The mean monthly temperature of Almora and Ranikhet respectively

vary from 7.9 and 7.8°c in January to 23.9 and 22.1°c in June and the mean

Estelar

62

Estelar

63

annual precipitation of these places are 104.0 cm and 129.0 cm respectively.

The period from May to July is the hottest. Pleasant nights and very hot days

are the principal characteristics of lower altitudes in the summer season.

The region experiences moderate rainfall. Monsoon arrives in the

second or third week of June. Most of the rainfall (approximately 60%) is

recorded between June and September. August is the month of maximum

relative humidity.

Almora has a completely mountainous climate, which is majorly

influenced by the monsoons. It has a moderate type of climate. The summers

are warm in the morning and pleasant in the evenings. The temperatures in

summer usually vary between 15 and 30 degrees Celsius. The winters are

cold and sunny during the daytime while the nights are very cold with

temperatures falling below the zero degree mark.19 The monsoon season

starts in July and can last till September.

Snowfall is quite a regular phenomenon here since the temperature

can fall upto -2 degree Celsius during the winter season. However, the fun of

walking among the hills in warm sunlight during daytime cannot be

described in words. Almora is quite well known for healthy atmosphere

which cures people of many ailments. The monsoon season starts in the

month of June and lasts till August. The rainfall can be very heavy here.

Average annual rainfall is 30 cms, 80% of which is received during the rainy

Estelar

64

season only. Rains last generally for two months of July and August.

Winters are extremely cold with temperature as low as 5º-9º c. Summers are

warm and dry. Temperature ranges between 25º-30ºc. (Fig 2.7)

Table No. 2.1

Climatic characteristics of Almora district 2010-11

Months Average

Temperature (ºc)

Average

Rainfall (mm)

Relative

Humidity (%)

No. of

Rainy Days

January 8.00 78.40 58.00 3

February 8.75 56.90 41.00 8

March 13.40 40.00 45.00 4

April 16.25 157.40 62.00 8

May 19.50 100.80 66.00 10

June 22.80 208.00 56.00 11

July 22.40 209.40 70.00 14

August 20.75 233.60 77.00 15

September 22.50 331.00 70.00 12

October 17.88 22.10 53.00 4

November 13.30 00.00 49.00 0

December 9.90 17.80 51.00 2

Source: Vivekanand Parvatiya Krishi Anusandhan Sansthan, Almora

Estelar

65

Estelar

66

Natural Vegetation

This is the most important part of the geo-physical aspect of Almora

district. It plays a major role in the socio-economic scenario of the whole

region and influences it very deeply. Forests occupy nearly 51% area of the

district.20 Changing thermal conditions and varying relief control the

distribution of natural vegetation. The forests have plenty of broad-leaved

evergreen plants like Baanz, Buransh. Higher altitudes have Deodar forests.

But in recent years Pine forests are growing rapidly which is not favourable

for the environment. Another problem facing the natural vegetation is the

rapid depletion on account of the growing demands of the ever-growing

population. Major forest areas are converted into farmland to support the

basic food supply of the people. Absence of the alternate occupational

opportunities is also responsible for this transformation. Pine and Oak are

the main trees, Kaphal, Buransh, Deodar, Uttis, Ayar etc are other main

species. Ghingaru, Kurie (lantana) Cactus & grass are found in dry areas.

Changing thermal conditions and varying relief control vertical

distribution of natural vegetation. The forest types of the district can be

classified in to the following categories. (Fig 2.8)

(i) Hill Sal Forests

(ii) Moist Mixed Deciduous Forests

(iii) Chir Forests

Estelar

67

(iv) Banj-Oak Forests

(v) Shrubs

(i) Hill Sal Forest (below 800 mt): Extending upto 800 mts of altitude, it

has less areal coverage in the district. These types of forests are found in the

south-eastern parts of the study area.

(ii) Moist Mixed Deciduous Forest (600-1500 mt): It can be observed

along exposed slopes with poor soil, where sal is not so well adapted. The

common associated species are Harar, Barar, Tun, Rur and Dalchini etc.

(iii) Chir Forests (800-1800 mts): Maximum area of the district falls under

this elevation category. Consequently, most of the forest cover is of this

type. Pine is the dominant species. In cooler areas of above 2100 mts

elevation, Pine is replaced by Oak and other broad-leaved species. Under-

growths are usually scarce due to acidic nature of soil in Pine forests.

(iv) Banj-Oak Forests (1500- 2400 mts): This type is found mostly on

southern slopes. An important character of this species is its capacity to

establish itself on the moist unfavourable slopes.

(v) Shrubs: In dry areas, shrubs, Cactus and grass are found.

Great varieties of wild life species are found in the district. Forests

abound in plenty of birds and wild animals. Varied nature of terrain and

climate accompanied by sparse human settlements provide a good

environment for these animals.

Estelar

68

Estelar

69

Soil

Soils are the reflection of geological setting, relief, climate and natural

vegetation and thus characterize the personality of region. Our study area

has at some places very thick, well drained soils formed in a loamy mantle

and sandy or gravelly outwash sediments. These soils are on till plains,

moraines, stream terraces, and outwash plains. They have moderate

permeability in the upper part and rapid permeability in the lower part. Slope

gradient range from 0 to 18 percent.

In general, the soil cover of mountainous parts of the region is thin.

Thick layers of soils are distributed mainly in the valleys and broad river

tracts. Absolute rock exposures are the prominent features of crystalline

basements, particularly in the high altitudes of Himadri. Mainly on the basis

of chemical composition and fertility of the soils, the study area can be

divided into five main soil regions. (Fig 2.9)

(i) Meadow Soils

(ii) Red Looms

(iii) Podzol Soils

(iv) Brown Forest Soils

(v) Mountain Meadow and Glacial Soils

(i) Meadow Soils: This type of soil is mainly confined near the water

courses and cool shady places. Loam, varying from clayey to sandy is quite

Estelar

70

common in this group. Owing to very high water table, these soils always

remain moist and are very fertile, therefore these are used for intensive

cultivation. Upto about 1200 mts elevations in the humid sub-tropical

climatic zone, these soils are widely distributed, i.e. Kosi-Suyal valley and

West Ramganga- Gagas valley. The soils are neutral to moderately alkaline

and calcareous and have sometimes well-developed clay accumulation

horizon in the sub-soil21.

(ii) Red Loams: These are sedentary soils found on steeper slopes, e.g.

South Tejam range and Morenaula and Syahidevi ridges. These soils receive

maximum solar radiation and are always dry. The extent of cultivation is

comparatively less. Such soils of warm temperate zone are developed

generally on the lower hill slopes.

(iii) Podzol Soils: Areas ranging between 1800 mts and 3000 mts in cool

temperate and pertinent cold climates have this type of soil. Forests of Pine

and other coniferous varieties develop acidic brown podzol soil, while Oak

forests produce deep brown forest soils22. Soil texture is generally silty loam

to loam with dark brown to light brown colour. Organic contents and

nitrogen vary from medium to high; whereas phosphorous and potassium

contents are low to high. Soil reaction is slightly neutral to moderately

acidic. These soils are widely spread in the higher parts of the region. These

areas are not very frequently used for agricultural practices.

Estelar

71

Estelar

72

(iv) Brown Forest Soils: Associated mainly with the pine forest zone, these

soils are of sandy loam to loamy types. These soils although rich in

decomposed organic matters, are acidic in nature due to their composition of

pine leaves. In favourable conditions, the soils are quite deep. Nitrogen

content varies from medium to high; while phosphorous content is low to

medium and potash content is medium. Chemical reaction is moderately

neutral to acidic23. At several places, the forest land has been converted into

terraced fields.

(v) Mountain Meadow and Glacial Soils: At high altitudes of 3000 mts

and above, soils of granitic sandy loam texture are found. Owing to steep

slopes and cold climate, the soil formation in this zone is very low and the

depth too of the soil is very less. The organic status is also very low.

The remaining part of the region is useless for agriculture: soils being

stony, thin-layered and less-fertile and are not of much use.

Estelar

73

Socio-Economic Setting

The physical personality of the district reflects its clear impact on the

morphology, structure and dynamics of cultural environment. The multi-

dimensional character of cultural environs, i.e. agriculture, small scale

industries, transport and communication and socio-cultural institutions have

produced some particular properties which, undoubtedly, has a great role to

play in the geography of the region.

Economic Activities

The economy of the area happens to be the result of physical-

environmental resource conditions and the techno-economic production

level of the society under study. In an agro-based rural economy of the

subsistence society, the main economic activity of the people is agriculture.

i.e.-

Agriculture: Inspite of recurrence of many physical and cultural

constraints such as rough climate, problems of irrigation, poor economic

conditions, lack of skill of peasants, small size of holdings, scattered and

tiny fields, lack of adequate inputs and proper technology etc, agriculture has

remained the backbone of district’s economy. About 74% of the working

population is predominantly engaged in it. Agriculture includes both crop

Estelar

74

farming and animal husbandry. Crop farming is done by the traditional

intensive subsistence farming system. Field crops dominate; paddy, maize,

millets and wheat form the staple source of the diet and are the major

products. But since agricultural activity is seasonal in nature, the farmers are

actively engaged in it only for four months of the year. During the rest of the

year, because of lean season, the people live in a condition of

underemployment or unemployment. Lands having even more than 40%

slope gradients are being utilized for cultivation. 18% of total land area of

the district falls under the category of net sown area. Of these, only 8.5% has

irrigation facility of any kind at all and remaining 91.5% depends upon

rainfall for irrigation. The well-irrigated, fertile valley of Takula,

Chaukhutia, Dwarahat, Syalde blocks have registered potential agro-

economic structures.

The ‘Upraon’ (uphill lands) of Hawalbagh, Dhauladevi, Lamgara and

Tarikhet blocks are rich with fruit belts. The percentage area under orchards

to total area is highest in Lamgara block . Bhikiyasen, Bhaisiyachhana and

Salt blocks have poor representation in agriculture as well as in horticulture.

Livestock rearing is rather the essential part of agriculture and a

complementary source of cash income in the rural households. The farmers

rear buffaloes, cows, oxen and goats for different purposes. Buffaloes are

Estelar

75

mainly reared as milching animals. Goats are kept largely for meat. Cows

are equally important for milk productions as well as for breeding oxen,

which are used for ploughing fields. Apart from these, livestock rearing is a

source of manure for maintaining soil fertility.

Agro-Industry and Trade: Industrialization is regarded as a key to

economic development in any region. The objectives of maximum economic

development and production specialization in a region can be obtained

through careful industrial planning which entails proper assessment and

careful utilization of resources, adequate provision of infrastructural

elements and initiation of suitable industrial production cycles24. Industries

and trading are less prevalent activities in the study area. Less than 2% of the

work force is engaged in it. Before the advent of planned development era,

the industrial activities of this region were confined to the implementation of

Hill Wool scheme. Under this scheme, carded wool was given to villagers,

who used to spin it into yarn. This yarn was used in training-cum-production

centres for making woolen khadi. The Bhotiyas who acquired skill in

manufacturing of woolen handloom, involved themselves in this scheme.

There are a few cottage industries which are dependent on agro-

products for their raw material. These include manufacturing of spices,

pickles, honey, juice, jam, and other small-scale industries like dairy farms

Estelar

76

etc. The present industrial setup of Almora district can be categorized in two

sectors: (i) Cottage Industries and (ii) Small Scale Industries

(i) Cottage Industries: About 1025 persons are engaged in wool-weaving

activity; the annual value of their production being Rs. 25.37 lacks. Sri

Gandhi Ashram and some local institutions are also engaged in

manufacturing and sale of the woolen products. The district has about 65

units employing 172 persons, who manufacture copper –ware worth Rs 7.72

lacks annually. They are mainly concentrated in Takula block and Tamta

Mohalla in Almora.

(ii) Small Scale Industries: There are 134 small industrial units in the

organized sector25. Oil procuring, saw-milling, furniture making,

pharmaceuticals unit, nut and bolt making, soap manufacturing, woolen

industries etc are some important industrial activities. A drug factory is

working at Ranikhet, in which ayurvedic medicines extracted from various

medicinal and aromatic plants are manufactured.

In trade, agricultural products form the major items of rural supply,

whereas both urban-industrial services and foodgrains form the market

supply. Animals and animal-products are the sources of cash income to the

farmers. Milk is traded independently as well as through the depots of the

Estelar

77

government dairy. Fruits and vegetables are the major items of rural supply

to market centres.

The traditional artisans are engaged in professional family businesses.

However these different family-based industrial enterprises provide only a

few employment opportunities in the study area. In trading activity, catering

of daily consumption needs from village shops is prominent. These shops

are opened as a complementary source of income to agriculture and a side

business to marginal farmers respectively. Apart from the above-mentioned

activities, some other odd jobs such as portering, construction labour, repair

and lumbering provide some employment to the people.

Transportation and Communication

Transportation and communication form the basic infrastructural

facilities for rural development. The unfavourable geographical environment

has restricted the development of means of transport in the region. Rugged

terrain, scattered population settlements are the main reasons for the under-

development of the transportation facilities in the district. The only

important available transport system is the road transport. The nearest

railway station is Kathgodam in Nainital district, situated at a distance of

about 90 kms from Almora town.

Estelar

78

Estelar

79

Though there have been large scale road constructions recently, there

are still many areas which remain abandoned. The total length of metalled

roads in the district is 1892 kms, out of which 129 kms are under the

category of National Highway (2010-11). Length of roads per lakh of

population is 287.6 kms. Length of roads per thousand sq. km. is 813.38

kms. The roads of the region can be categorized into four groups:

1. National Highway Extension with a total length of 129 kms.

2. State Highways with a total length of 341 kms.

3. Major district roads – 635 kms.

4. Unmetalled roads- 660 kms.

Traffic flow on the main road- Almora-Haldwani- is quite high. The

other roads, like Almora-Ranikhet, Almora-Bageshwar also have

considerable traffic flow. Kumaon Motor Union is the major transport

agency. Many private taxis also run on important routs. (Fig 2.10)

Density of metalled roads is very low in comparison to unmetalled

roads. Majority of the blocks fall under the category of very low density, like

Syalde and Chaukhutiya. High density of metalled roads per thousand sq.

km. of area is found in Hawalbag, Bhaisiyachhana and Dwarahat. (Table no.

2.2 & Fig 2.11)

Estelar

80

Table 2.2 Block-wise metalled roads- Almora district (2010-11)

2010-11 Blocks

Length of metalled roads(kms)

length of metalled roads per lakhs population(kms)

length of metalled roads per th. sq. km.(kms)

Syalde 126 255.78 521.96 Chaukhutia 109 222.36 567.42 Bhikiyasen 154 406.41 704.49 Tarikhet 202 292.37 830.6 Salt 213 346.12 705.3 Dwarahat 203 329.79 978.79 Takula 100 220.63 880.29 Bhaisiyachhana 108 408.94 1120.34 Hawalbag 266 395.5 1318.14 Lamgara 150 316.81 700.28 Dhauladevi 201 319.85 619.61

Source: Sankhikiya Patrika: Almora, 2011

Fig 2.11

Bar Graph: Block-wise Length and Density of Roads in Almora (2010-

11)

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

Syalde

Chaukh

utia

Bhikiya

sen

Tarikh

et SaltDwara

hat

Takula

Bhaisiy

achh

ana

Hawalbag

Lamgara

Dhaulad

evi

length of metalled roads(kms)

length of metalled roads perlakhs population(kms)length of metalled roads per th.sq. km.(kms)

Source: Sankhikiya Patrika, Almora 2011

Estelar

81

Road Accessibility of the Area: The accessibility of the area through roads

is divided into three categories.

(a) Area of high accessibility: These are mainly situated in the southern

portion of the district. Two urban centres, namely Almora and Ranikhet have

well-connected road-network, which joins them with most of the other rural

settlements as well as the other urban areas of the state. Almora-Ranikhet-

Khairna is the busiest triangular route with maximum traffic flow.

(b) Area of medium accessibility: The medium accessibility area is

considered as (i) between 10-15 km from the main roads, shown with

unbroken lines on the map, and (ii) 5-10 km from the tributary roads, shown

with broken lines. Since these areas are surrounded by high accessibility

area, the distribution pattern is somewhat similar.

(c) Area of low accessibility: These are the remote areas, scattered in

between very rough terrain and dense jungles. The northern portion of the

district has the maximum proportion of low accessibility. These pockets

have mostly unmetalled roads. Few settlements are highly inaccessible.

Communicational Facilities: Communicational facilities are satisfactory

only in urban centres. Telephone and post services are mainly concentrated

in urban localities and centres of administrative and defense importance.

(a) Post Offices: Inspite of the fact, that migration is a very common

phenomenon in the region, the post and telegraph services are not very well

Estelar

82

developed here. Number of post offices is less comparing to per lakh of

population that is found in maximum of the blocks due to the remote and

scattered location of villages. A total of 316 post offices are currently

working in the district. (Table 2:3)

(b) Telephones: The importance of this mode of communication need not be

justified as this is one of the fastest. Earlier this facility was concentrated in

the urban centres, but now maximum of the villages are connected by

telephones in the remote areas as well. Though the number, per lakh of

population is still very low. Total number of telephone connections in 2010-

11 is 29,256 in all. (Table 2.3)

Table 2.3: Block-wise number of post-offices and telephones

2010-11 Blocks

No. of post offices per lakh of population

No. of telephones per lakh of population

Syalde 44 685 Chaukhutia 39 1852 Bhikiyasen 53 2850 Tarikhet 50 5580 Salt 61 668 Dwarahat 48 2400 Takula 47 1414 Bhaisiyachhana 30 1085 Hawalbag 49 13356 Lamgara 100 2426 Dhauladevi 70 1134

Source: Sankhikiya Patrika, Almora 2011

Estelar

83

Education and Health

Educational facilities are well provided to in the district. The overall

literacy is 81.06% (2011) which is well above the national average. Male

literacy is 93.57% whereas female literacy is 70.44%. There are a total of

1538 Junior Basic Schools, 242 Senior Basic Schools, 210 Higher

Secondary Schools, 2 Under-Graduate colleges and 4 Post-Graduate

colleges.

Medical and health facilities in this region are inadequate, causing

deaths even by ordinary diseases. Considering the physical inaccessibility,

there is dearth of primary health care centres. There is also scarcity of

hospitals and bed facilities. The region accounts for nearly one bed per 694

persons.

The rural health care system is a three tier structure. It has “Sub-

center” at the most peripheral level, “Primary Health Centre” at the

intermediate level and “Community Health Centre” at the secondary level.

The population covered by a “Sub Centre”, “Primary Health Centre” and

“Community Health Centre” are “3,000-5,000”, “20,000-30,000” and

“100,000”, respectively. In addition, there are Private Voluntary Healthy

Facilities, also. As per Uttarakhand government organizational set up, the

District is headed by a District Magistrate, who is also the chair person of

Estelar

84

the Integrated District Health Society of Almora district. The District health

set up of Uttarakhand government is headed by the Chief Medical Officer

followed by a Deputy CMO as second-in-command. Chief Medical

Superintendent looks after the Uttarakhand government hospitals in the

district.

There are 315 government health care facilities in the district. (Table 2.4)

Table 2.4: Health Care Facilities: Almora district

Category Number

District Hospital 01

Community Health Centre 04

Primary Health Centre 08

Additional Primary Health Centre 18

Sub – Centres 218

Female Hospitals 03

Leprosy Hospital (Local & Int’I NGO) 01

Ayurvedic Hospitals 51

Homeopathic Hospitals 11

ANM Training School 01

Source: Sankhikiya Patrika, Almora 2011

Estelar

85

Settlement

The spatial distribution of settlement is related with various ecological

conditions of naturo-cultural environment. There are various restrictive and

attractive naturo-cultural factors which govern the distribution, types and

patterns of rural settlements. Among the major factors, the important control

is exercised by relief, geology, drainage system, climate, soil and natural

vegetation. While among the cultural factors, transport routes, religious

centres, agricultural conditions and opportunities dominate the scene. In

short, the spatial system of settlement distribution and patterns are the

outcome of both natural and cultural environmental conditions.

Owing to the non-homogeneous environmental conditions, the

distribution of settlement in the district is irregular. The following major

zones of settlement distribution have been marked. (Fig. 2.12)

(i) Uninhabited Zone

(ii) Poorly Inhabited Zone (1 – 12 houses / km²)

(iii) Moderately Inhabited Zone (12 – 24 houses / km²)

(iv) Moderately High Inhabited Zone (more than 24 houses / km²)

(i) Uninhabited Zone: This zone of settlement occupies the areas having

more than 1800 m of altitude, which can easily be seen in all blocks of the

Estelar

86

district having such heights. The major uninhabited areas of the district are

northern slopes of Ranikhet, Syahidevi range, Jageshwar range, north-west

Takula and few parts in Chaukhutia block.

(ii) Poorly Inhabited Zone: This zone is well-marked around the

uninhabited zones. The southern part of Salt and Bhikiyasen blocks, the

marginal areas of Takula and Hawalbagh blocks have such sparse

settlements.

(iii) Moderately Inhabited Zone: This settlement zone is found in the

areas of moderate and gentle slopes. Almost all the villages are located on

the mid of the spur, where the slope gradient range between 10º-18º.

(iv) Moderately High Inhabited Zone: This zone mostly occupies valley

areas where fertile soil and gentle slopes are found. The important valleys

are Kosi, Gagas, Suyal and Western Ramganga. In Kosi valley, the major

concentration of the settlements is found in between Kausani and Kosi. The

main villages here are Hawalbagh, Manan, Someshwar and Chanoda.

Another concentration of settlements are marked in the north-western part of

the study area, i.e. West Ramganga and Gagas valleys (parts of Chaukhutia,

Bhikiyasen and Dwarahat blocks).

Estelar

87

Organization

Indo-Aryan and Mongoloid are two and distinct type of racial groups

found in the study area. First type of community includes the Brahmin,

Kshatriya and associated scheduled caste groups. They are organized under

the traditional Hindu Jajmani (Patron-client) system. But the Mongoloids are

organized as horizontal society where collective decisions are made. The

system of Jhara (free donation of labour), Perma (exchange of labour) and

Pareli (shared ownership of plough in field crop cultivation) are popular

among Mongoloids. In the Indo-Aryan cult also, Perma and Pareli are found

but this is limited within clan. In the traditionally organized societies, rich

and large landholders are the informal social, cultural and political leaders.

The landless and small farmers till the lands rented from large farmers in

50% share each. Scheduled caste groups eke out their livelihood mainly by

ploughing the lands of higher caste groups or working as landless

agricultural labourers in their fields, and also carrying on the domestic

chores in their households.

Traditionally, Brahmins are socially and ritually prohibited from

handling a plough or ploughing land. Also the higher castes never exchange

labour with scheduled caste groups. Ploughing is strictly men’s job, whereas

planting is women’s job. There is traditional division of labour as well as

Estelar

88

exchange of labour in the society. Land fragmentation is limited among

males as in earlier days. The role of women is significant in the agro-

economy. However, outside this, their importance is minimal, except within

the domestic chores of cooking, cleaning, carrying water etc and raising

children.

Institutional Intervention

Besides the traditional system of organization, there are different

institutional organizations which assist the farmers for adopting progress in

measures. Cooperatives and Agricultural Development Banks (ADB) are

providing agricultural inputs and loans to the farmers. Small Farmer

Development Programme (SFDP) is also implemented in the study area.

Under this programme, farmers are organized into several groups and are

provided with the opportunities for making a community more independent

of the traditional Hindu Jajmani system. However, the formal organizations

are also not free from these traditional informal organizations. The higher

caste people, being relatively more educated and aware, receive the

information first about the development subsidies from the government and

other agencies. They have evolved informal organization irrespective of

caste/family background. Their dominance in the organizations can not be

ignored. Therefore, newly formed formal organizations are unable to

Estelar

89

compete with deep-rooted patron-client relations and communal orders

articulated over on time and spaces in the long run. Whatever the

organizations, the deteriorating economic condition of the people has led to

continuing reduction in cooperation among the farm families. The first quest

of the farmers has become to meet the immediate requirement of food. One

can benefit more by selling labour in a competitive wage market than in a

cooperative basis in scarcity. Many of the farmers hold a small quantity of

land that can be managed by their own family members. This has led to

reduction in cooperation with the fellow farmers more than before.

Electricity Facility: Electricity plays a very important role in the process of

development. Availability of power is crucial to modernization of

agriculture, establishment of industries and running of diverse educational,

medical and other facilities. In Almora district, 95.4% villages had got

electricity till the year 2006-07. Number of villages having electricity was

1997 out of the total 2180 villages in 2004-05. The per capita annual

electricity consumption in 2009-10 was 851.86 KWh and the projection for

2010-11 was 906.29 KWh (Source: UPCL statistics). Fig 2.13 shows the

percentage of electrified villages in the blocks of Almora district.

Estelar

90

Fig 2.13: Percentage of Electrified villages to total villages (2010-11)

88.3698.1698.4

88.5198.83

94.59100

97.2886.3

82.78

86.46% of electrifiedvillages to total

villages

DhauladeviLamgaraHawalbagBhaisiyachhanaTakulaDwarahatSaltTarikhetBhikiyasenChaukhutiaSyalde

Source: Sankhikiya Patrika, Almora 2011

Banks and Financial Institutions: Banks (nationalized, private),

cooperative society and related institutions are very necessary for the

economic development of any region. They are playing very positive role in

the development of the rural areas of the district. They provide credit,

investment, fixed deposit and other schemes for the improvement of

economic conditions of the people. Unfortunately, socio-economic

conditions of the people don’t let them invest in agriculture or the allied

activities. Overall number of commercial banks is very low. Except for the

urban centres, there are very few branches of nationalized banks in the

remote areas of the district and nearly no branch of any private banks,

though cooperative banks have got a good say in the economy of the rural

Estelar

91

areas. There are altogether 50 branches of national banks, 19 branches of

regional rural banks and 9 branches of private banks in the district. (Table

2.5)

Table 2.5: Block-wise number of commercial banks

2010-11 Blocks No. of commercial banks per lakh of population

Syalde 9 Chaukhutia 9 Bhikiyasen 14 Tarikhet 20 Salt 12 Dwarahat 11 Takula 9 Bhaisiyachhana 9 Hawalbag 26 Lamgara 15 Dhauladevi 11

Source: Sankhikiya Patrika, Almora 2011

There are a number of financial institutions in Almora district to cater

to the needs of the economy. Four types of banks can be seen as:

1. Public sector: State Bank of India, Punjab National Bank, Central

Bank, Canara Bank, Bank of India, Uco Bank, Bank of Commerce,

Allahabad Bank, Bank of Baroda etc.

2. Private Sector: ICICI, HDFC

3. Cooperative Banks: Almora Urban Cooperative Bank,

Estelar

92

4. Gramin Bank: Nainital Almora Kshetriya Gramin Bank

There are a few branches of Life Insurance Corporation of India in the

district. There are a few other insurance companies working in the district

like Oriental Assurance Company Ltd.

The Vivekanand Parvatiya Krishi Anusandhan Sansthan, an ICAR

project is also actively engaged in various research programmes related to

agricultural potentials and problems of the region. It has also made some

outstanding achievements in the field of seed production, i.e. wheat, paddy,

maize, jowar and new varieties of masoor, moong, soyabean and mustard.

The extension training centre at Hawalbagh trains the community

development officials and agriculture diploma holders in various aspects of

agro-technology.

The Soil Conservation Training Centre at Majhkhali has not only

evolved some new techniques of soil conservation for Kumaon Himalaya

but has also launched a programme to train officials in this field.

●

References:

1. Joshi, S C (2004) – “Uttaranchal: Environment and Development”,

Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital

Estelar

93

2. Atkinson, E T (1973) – The Himalayan Gazetteer, Cosmo Pub, Delhi

3. Pandey, B D (1937) – Kumaon ka Itihas, Almora Shakti Press, Almora

4. Official Portal - Government of Uttarakhand

5. Auden, J B (1937) - The Structure of the Himalaya in Garhwal, Rec.

Geol. Surv. Ind. 71(4), pp 407-433

6. Heim, A and A Gansser (1939) – “Central Himalaya, Geological

Observations of the Swiss Expeditions of 1936”, Mem. Swiss

Soc. Nat. Sci. 73(i), pp 1-245

7. Nautiyal, S P (1943-44) - Unpublished report of the Geological Survey

of India

8. Merh, S S (1968) – “A Preliminary Note on the Structural History of the

Central Kumaon Himalaya”, Bull, Geol Soc. Ind. 5, 1-7;

Merh S S (1977) – “Structural Studies in the parts of Kumaon

Himalaya”, Hin. Geol, 7, 26-42

9. Valdia K S (1978) – “Outline of the Structure of Kumaon Lesser

Himalaya”, Saklani P S (ed), Tectonoc Geology of the

Himalaya, 1-14;

Valdia K S (1979) – “An Outline of the Structural Setup of the

Kumaon Himalaya”, Geol Soc. Ind. 20, 145-151;

Valdia K S (1980) – “Stratigraphic Scheme of the Sedimentary

Units of the Kumaon Lesser Himalaya”, Stratigraphy and

Correlation of Lesser Himalaya Formations, by K S Valdia and

S B Bhatia (eds), Hindustan Pub. Corp. Delhi, pp 7-48

10. Mishra D K, Arun Kumar and C C Pant (1983) – “Outlines of the

Geology of Kumaon Himalaya, U.P.”, India in the Himalaya:

Nature, Man and Culture by O P Singh (ed), Rajesh Pub. Delhi,

p 41

Estelar

94

11. Valdia K S (1978) – “Extension and Analogues of the Chail Nappe in

the Kumaon Himalaya”, Ind. Jour. Earth Sci. 5(1), 1-19)

12. Mishra D K, A Kumar and C C Pant, op. cit. pp 41-43

13. Valdia K S (1963) – “The Stratigraphy and Structure of the Lagaghat

subdivision, Dist Almora”, Quart. Jour. Geol. Min. Metal. Soc.

Ind. 35, 167-180

14. Tiwari M M (1982) - Trends of Urbanization in the U P Himalaya, PhD

thesis, Kumaon University Nainital

15. Kharkwal S C (1971) – “The U P Himalaya in India: Regional

Geography”, R L Singh et. al.(eds), Silver Jubilee Pub. Nat.

Geog. Soc. Of Ind. Varanasi, p 451

16. Tiwari M M (1982) - Ph D thesis

17. Kharkwal S C, 1971: The U.P. Himalaya

18. Freeman, O W and Raup, H F (1949): Essentials of Geography, London,

p 65

19. Joshi, D R and Joshi, S C (1983): General Characteristics of Climate in

Kumaon, Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital

20. Sankhikiya Patrika-Almora: 2008

21. Tiwari, P S (1973): Agricultural Atlas of Uttar Pradesh, G B Pant

University of Agri and Tech, Pantnagar, p 24

22. Bose S C (1972): Geography of the Himalaya, National Book Trust,

New Delhi, p 58

23. Tiwari P S, op. cit. p 26

24. Singh R L (1968) - Applied Geography, Nat. Geog. Soc. Ind. Varanasi, p

169

25. Audyogic Margdarshika: janpad Almora, 2008-09

Estelar