REGIONAL REGIONAL INTEGRATION IN INTEGRATION IN

AFRICA: AFRICA: DECONSTRUCTING DECONSTRUCTING

THE STATE, THE STATE, CONSTRUCTING A CONSTRUCTING A PARADIGM SHIFTPARADIGM SHIFT

The main contention in this paper is that in The main contention in this paper is that in terms of policy making and execution state terms of policy making and execution state actors must accommodate other integrative actors must accommodate other integrative forces at work at different levels, whether forces at work at different levels, whether at the form of micro-regions, cross border at the form of micro-regions, cross border operations, regional public goods, and non-operations, regional public goods, and non-state actors in general. That is, a multi-state actors in general. That is, a multi-pronged approach, including the pronged approach, including the reconstituted state, would better reflect reconstituted state, would better reflect reality and be more useful. reality and be more useful.

Predominant characteristics of Predominant characteristics of the post-colonial state in the post-colonial state in Africa:Africa: It has been omnipresent, omnipotent, It has been omnipresent, omnipotent,

and omniscient.and omniscient. The common qualities usually attributed The common qualities usually attributed

to the state are that it must have to the state are that it must have territory, people, government, and territory, people, government, and authority for the legitimate use of authority for the legitimate use of coercive force. Arguably, this is not coercive force. Arguably, this is not always been applicable to states in always been applicable to states in Africa Africa

Post-colonial African political elites Post-colonial African political elites attempted to build on the inherited attempted to build on the inherited colonial state and in the process colonial state and in the process transform it into a replica of the Western transform it into a replica of the Western model. The results have been disastrous model. The results have been disastrous as the latter had distinctly different as the latter had distinctly different origins and reference framework.origins and reference framework.

Political independence was not Political independence was not accompanied by a reconstruction of the accompanied by a reconstruction of the colonial state, a European construct, to colonial state, a European construct, to make it more relevant to the environment make it more relevant to the environment and better respond to the needs of the and better respond to the needs of the indigenous peoples. The post-colonial indigenous peoples. The post-colonial state remained not as an alternative but state remained not as an alternative but as a successor to the colonial state.as a successor to the colonial state.

What were some of the preeminent What were some of the preeminent manifestations of the colonial state that manifestations of the colonial state that were inherited by the post-colonial were inherited by the post-colonial state?state?

First, the colonial state was authoritarian First, the colonial state was authoritarian and repressive. and repressive.

Second, it played a major role in the Second, it played a major role in the economy, with an all-dominant public sector.economy, with an all-dominant public sector.

Third, the colonial bureaucracy, as a major Third, the colonial bureaucracy, as a major component of the state, was highly component of the state, was highly centralized.centralized.

Fourth, the Western state system coexisted Fourth, the Western state system coexisted with indigenous governance systems and with indigenous governance systems and models.models.

Fifth, vast amounts of resources were directed Fifth, vast amounts of resources were directed at eliminating all contending political at eliminating all contending political authorities or divesting them of any meaningful authorities or divesting them of any meaningful functionsfunctions.. This included not only opposition This included not only opposition political parties but non-state actors of all hues, political parties but non-state actors of all hues, traditional institutions and socio-economic traditional institutions and socio-economic bodies. bodies.

Sixth, the spread of the African state resulted in Sixth, the spread of the African state resulted in its presence being felt in all areas of socio-its presence being felt in all areas of socio-economic life. Not only within what was economic life. Not only within what was traditionally the public sector but also in most traditionally the public sector but also in most parts of the private sector.parts of the private sector.

In terms of performance the state in In terms of performance the state in Africa has fallen far short of the Africa has fallen far short of the basicsbasics: :

It has not proven to be developmentalist – It has not proven to be developmentalist – in this area it is more a part of the in this area it is more a part of the problem than a solution to the problem. problem than a solution to the problem. Neither have the economies impacted Neither have the economies impacted positively on the vast proportion of the positively on the vast proportion of the populations; rather, poverty has populations; rather, poverty has deepened.deepened.

Capacity for policy implementation has Capacity for policy implementation has been considerably limited and substituted been considerably limited and substituted by non-governmental and faith-based by non-governmental and faith-based organizations, and an informal sector organizations, and an informal sector growing at exponential rates.growing at exponential rates.

The sovereignty of the post-colonial The sovereignty of the post-colonial African state is compromised by the African state is compromised by the fact that itfact that it is so deeply dependent on is so deeply dependent on the ex-colonial powers and the the ex-colonial powers and the international community to solve its international community to solve its developmental and other problemsdevelopmental and other problems including those directly associated including those directly associated with regime survival.with regime survival.

The inability of the African state to The inability of the African state to prevent, manage and resolve most prevent, manage and resolve most conflicts, especially resource-based conflicts, especially resource-based conflicts, has been a burden to the conflicts, has been a burden to the international community. international community.

Similarly, the post-colonial state has Similarly, the post-colonial state has demonstrated limited competences demonstrated limited competences to effectively resolve post-elections to effectively resolve post-elections and border conflicts.and border conflicts.

The state and regional The state and regional integrationintegration

Regional integration has always Regional integration has always been regarded as a panacea for been regarded as a panacea for resolving Africa’s multiple resolving Africa’s multiple predicaments, particularly through predicaments, particularly through economic and political unification. economic and political unification. As such, states have enjoyed almost As such, states have enjoyed almost absolute monopoly of action. absolute monopoly of action.

They were:They were: The sole parties to the creation of a The sole parties to the creation of a

multiplicity of specialized, single-purpose, multiplicity of specialized, single-purpose, multi-purpose, and general-purpose bodies multi-purpose, and general-purpose bodies for implementing a diversity of integration for implementing a diversity of integration policies and programmes at continental, policies and programmes at continental, regional, sub-regional and bilateral levels. regional, sub-regional and bilateral levels.

At the regional level the landscape has At the regional level the landscape has been littered with inter-governmental been littered with inter-governmental organizations (IGOs), usually of a technical organizations (IGOs), usually of a technical character; they also were created by states character; they also were created by states which have policy-making, management which have policy-making, management and oversight responsibilities on their and oversight responsibilities on their operations. operations.

States were the sole actors in the States were the sole actors in the formulation and implementation of such formulation and implementation of such seminal documents embodying collective seminal documents embodying collective self-reliance and regional integration as self-reliance and regional integration as the Lagos Plan of Action (LPA, 1980) and the Lagos Plan of Action (LPA, 1980) and the Abuja Treaty Establishing the African the Abuja Treaty Establishing the African Economic Community (AEC, 1991). Economic Community (AEC, 1991).

Abundant are the resolutions, Abundant are the resolutions, declarations, protocols, plans of action, declarations, protocols, plans of action, statements, and charters adopted by statements, and charters adopted by member states of equally abundant member states of equally abundant organizations, all purporting to further organizations, all purporting to further regional integration in the continent.regional integration in the continent.

In terms of the actual performance of these In terms of the actual performance of these regional integration entities the results have regional integration entities the results have been mixed. But the overwhelming verdict from been mixed. But the overwhelming verdict from among a wide and varied range of students of among a wide and varied range of students of African integration is that the realization of the African integration is that the realization of the fundamental end-goals is as distant as they fundamental end-goals is as distant as they ever were. ever were.

Persistent problems include:Persistent problems include: The perennial pressing business of the The perennial pressing business of the

rationalization of the institutional rationalization of the institutional arrangements for continental integration arrangements for continental integration persists, first, in terms of the overlapping persists, first, in terms of the overlapping memberships of the regional communities and, memberships of the regional communities and, second, in the sheer numbers of IGOs in each second, in the sheer numbers of IGOs in each sub-region; what is termed elsewhere as the sub-region; what is termed elsewhere as the ‘African Spaghetti Bowl’.‘African Spaghetti Bowl’.

Ratification of protocols has been another Ratification of protocols has been another area of concern. Of the 34 protocols and area of concern. Of the 34 protocols and conventions that had been ratified and conventions that had been ratified and entered into force as at May 2005 there was entered into force as at May 2005 there was an average of three-and-a half years between an average of three-and-a half years between signing and ratification. Nine protocols took signing and ratification. Nine protocols took five years or more to come into force and a five years or more to come into force and a similar number have not been ratified by the similar number have not been ratified by the required number of states to come into required number of states to come into effect. effect.

Some of the economic communities have too Some of the economic communities have too wide-ranging objectives and programming wide-ranging objectives and programming requirements covering economic, political, requirements covering economic, political, legal, social, cultural and other sectors.legal, social, cultural and other sectors.

There has been a massive increase in ‘loads’ There has been a massive increase in ‘loads’ assigned to the regional secretariats just as in assigned to the regional secretariats just as in the instance of the national states themselves. the instance of the national states themselves. These emanate from four sources, namely, the These emanate from four sources, namely, the original economic integration agenda, new original economic integration agenda, new political/human security engagements political/human security engagements (conflict prevention and management), the (conflict prevention and management), the expanded mandates of existing treaties, and expanded mandates of existing treaties, and continental demands especially as regards the continental demands especially as regards the AEC Treaty and the AU. AEC Treaty and the AU.

There has been a tendency for member states There has been a tendency for member states to assign responsibility for emergent areas of to assign responsibility for emergent areas of cooperation to the regional organizations.cooperation to the regional organizations.

The expansion in the scope of the integration The expansion in the scope of the integration agenda is not commensurate with the financial agenda is not commensurate with the financial and other wherewithal at the disposal of and other wherewithal at the disposal of regional secretariats. There remain inadequate regional secretariats. There remain inadequate capabilities and limited resources both for capabilities and limited resources both for strengthening internal capacities and for strengthening internal capacities and for programme implementation.programme implementation.

The problem of inadequate capacities and The problem of inadequate capacities and capabilities for formulation, implementation, capabilities for formulation, implementation, coordination and monitoring of integration coordination and monitoring of integration policies and programmes is also prevalent at policies and programmes is also prevalent at the national state level, i.e.,the national state level, i.e., the institutional the institutional architecture at this level is woefully fragile. architecture at this level is woefully fragile. Yet, it is precisely at this level that ultimate Yet, it is precisely at this level that ultimate responsibility for implementing protocols etc. responsibility for implementing protocols etc. and integration programmes rests.and integration programmes rests.

An integral aspect of this condition An integral aspect of this condition is the problem of building regional is the problem of building regional integration objectives and integration objectives and programmes into national programmes into national development frameworks. Or, at a development frameworks. Or, at a minimum, the coordination of minimum, the coordination of policies and programmes so as to policies and programmes so as to ensure consistency between ensure consistency between governmental actions at national governmental actions at national levels and commitments at regional levels and commitments at regional levels.levels.

Contours of a Paradigm Contours of a Paradigm ShiftShift

The evidence adduced in the paper The evidence adduced in the paper reveals some of the shortcomings of reveals some of the shortcomings of state-managed regional integration in state-managed regional integration in Africa. To a great extent, the inherent Africa. To a great extent, the inherent drawbacks are to be found in the drawbacks are to be found in the character of the post-colonial state for character of the post-colonial state for in this approach it is assumed that an in this approach it is assumed that an effective regional integration can only effective regional integration can only be built on an effective and capable be built on an effective and capable state system.state system.

Through the decades the limelight Through the decades the limelight has been heavily focused on states has been heavily focused on states and the formal actions adopted by and the formal actions adopted by them in furtherance of integration them in furtherance of integration goals and objectives at sub-regional, goals and objectives at sub-regional, regional and continental levels. regional and continental levels. Inter-governmentalism and Inter-governmentalism and institutionalism held sway - on the institutionalism held sway - on the part of academics and researchers, part of academics and researchers, non-academic commentators, and non-academic commentators, and policy analysts alike.policy analysts alike.

The last two decades or so have seen The last two decades or so have seen attempts by a dedicated group of attempts by a dedicated group of academic researchers to shift the focus academic researchers to shift the focus away from the state to other actors and away from the state to other actors and from the centre to other levels of from the centre to other levels of activity. According to this New activity. According to this New Regionalism Approach (NRA) the focus Regionalism Approach (NRA) the focus ‘should not be only on state actors and ‘should not be only on state actors and formal regionalism but also on non-formal regionalism but also on non-state actors and what is broadly state actors and what is broadly referred to as ‘informal regionalism’ or referred to as ‘informal regionalism’ or ‘regionalism from below’.‘regionalism from below’.

Other grounds for the NRA include the Other grounds for the NRA include the following:following:

First, it was importantFirst, it was important that the previously that the previously dominant model which almost exclusively dominant model which almost exclusively concentrates on formal institutional concentrates on formal institutional frameworks should be challenged if for no frameworks should be challenged if for no reason than that states had proven reason than that states had proven themselves not fit for purpose, as glaringly themselves not fit for purpose, as glaringly shown earlier. shown earlier.

Second, older approaches do not reflect what Second, older approaches do not reflect what is happening on-the-ground but accept is happening on-the-ground but accept without questioning the ‘often optimistic and without questioning the ‘often optimistic and unrealistic accounts of what state actors say unrealistic accounts of what state actors say they are going to do to build regions.’ they are going to do to build regions.’

Third, these other approaches do not Third, these other approaches do not have any relationship with the realities have any relationship with the realities of regionalism besides demonstrating of regionalism besides demonstrating the chasm between ideal and reality. the chasm between ideal and reality.

Fourth, most mainstream studies are of Fourth, most mainstream studies are of Western origins (dealing with the Western origins (dealing with the European Union) which serve as European Union) which serve as reference models and ideal types; it is reference models and ideal types; it is against these experiences that against these experiences that regionalism in Africa is often assessed. regionalism in Africa is often assessed. On the contrary, the NRA is grounded on On the contrary, the NRA is grounded on the need to ‘unpack’ the state ridding it the need to ‘unpack’ the state ridding it of Western conceptions.of Western conceptions.

Fifth, the track record of formal Fifth, the track record of formal regionalism and intergovernmental regionalism and intergovernmental regional organizations has not been regional organizations has not been impressive, resulting in a lack of real impressive, resulting in a lack of real genuine interest in them by both national genuine interest in them by both national policy makers and regional/continental policy makers and regional/continental policy implementors. In contrast, informal policy implementors. In contrast, informal processes are dynamic and produce processes are dynamic and produce visible results. visible results.

The conclusion that follows is that the The conclusion that follows is that the conventional ‘top-down’ preoccupations of conventional ‘top-down’ preoccupations of the institutionalists/intergovernmentalists the institutionalists/intergovernmentalists need to be domesticated through a need to be domesticated through a ‘bottom-up’ emphasis. ‘bottom-up’ emphasis.

In line with reality on-the-ground In line with reality on-the-ground linkages between the two must be linkages between the two must be established, both for more meaningful established, both for more meaningful theory-building and for policy design. theory-building and for policy design. Not only is the state in Africa here to Not only is the state in Africa here to stay (as elsewhere) but it will continue stay (as elsewhere) but it will continue to play a leading and dominant role in to play a leading and dominant role in defining, supervising and directing defining, supervising and directing regional integration. As shown in the regional integration. As shown in the massive body of literature, non-state massive body of literature, non-state and mixed-state actors are also here to and mixed-state actors are also here to stay. So it is a question of straddling the stay. So it is a question of straddling the two and building bridges. two and building bridges.

The challenge is to recognize the existence The challenge is to recognize the existence and contributions of other actors than states, and contributions of other actors than states, to accommodate them, and to maximize their to accommodate them, and to maximize their contributions. As formal and informal contributions. As formal and informal dimensions of integration are commonly dimensions of integration are commonly intertwined, a fuller picture of regional intertwined, a fuller picture of regional integration can emerge only when the two integration can emerge only when the two sets of processes are accepted as sets of processes are accepted as overlapping. Needless to argue that the overlapping. Needless to argue that the separation between state and non-state separation between state and non-state actors is artificial, worse still where the actors is artificial, worse still where the place of non-state actors is completely place of non-state actors is completely ignored, as happens in conventional ignored, as happens in conventional approaches to regional integration.approaches to regional integration.

The paper ends with an outline The paper ends with an outline discussion on regional public goods discussion on regional public goods as a case illustrating many of the as a case illustrating many of the arguments made in this paper and to arguments made in this paper and to which precious little attention has which precious little attention has been paid in the literature.been paid in the literature.

An increasingly related subject is that of the An increasingly related subject is that of the cross-order economy and the ‘ghost trade’, cross-order economy and the ‘ghost trade’, that is, unrecorded unofficial trade which is so that is, unrecorded unofficial trade which is so prominent across African borders. In order to prominent across African borders. In order to incorporate the benefits therefrom regional incorporate the benefits therefrom regional economic communities such as ECOWAS and economic communities such as ECOWAS and SADC have designed programmed activities SADC have designed programmed activities and set up appropriate structures within their and set up appropriate structures within their secretariats to deal with the subject. Within secretariats to deal with the subject. Within the context of regional integration in Africa the context of regional integration in Africa the erstwhile Cross-Border Initiative, the the erstwhile Cross-Border Initiative, the Growth Triangle Project, and the West African Growth Triangle Project, and the West African Borders and Integration Initiative are Borders and Integration Initiative are experiences worthy of closer study. experiences worthy of closer study.