REDUCING AIR POLLUTION IN URBAN CHINA

By

Tate Townsend

University of Florida

2020

Contents

ABSTRACT AND METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................... 3

Reducing Air Pollution In China’s Urban Populations ............................................................... 3

CHAPTER I .................................................................................................................................... 4

INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 4

Air Pollution Damages ................................................................................................................ 4

Sustainability and Air Pollution .................................................................................................. 7

CHAPTER II ................................................................................................................................... 8

GOVERNMENT INTERVENTION .......................................................................................... 8

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)................................................................... 9

Five Year Plans (FYPs) ............................................................................................................. 11

Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan.................................................................... 13

Wind Power Laws and Programs .............................................................................................. 15

Overall Progress ........................................................................................................................ 18

CHAPTER III ............................................................................................................................... 19

SUSTAINABLE SOLUTIONS ................................................................................................ 19

Green Spaces ............................................................................................................................. 20

Transportation ........................................................................................................................... 25

Renewable Energy..................................................................................................................... 32

CHAPTER IV ............................................................................................................................... 43

Application to Gainesville ......................................................................................................... 43

CHAPTER V ................................................................................................................................ 50

Closing Remarks ....................................................................................................................... 50

References ..................................................................................................................................... 52

ABSTRACT AND METHODOLOGY

Reducing Air Pollution In China’s Urban Populations

This essay will review methods of reducing air pollution in urban Chinese populations.

The purpose behind the intended research is to identify and apply sustainable solutions to real-

world areas in need of a change. This essay will begin with an explanation for why air pollution

is so harmful, followed by existing articles regarding the amount of pollution, its effects, and

what substances the Chinese citizens are breathing in. This will be done by collecting statistics

and reports on medical issues resulting from exposure to China’s air, as well as examining the

excess consequences of mass industrialization. Because maladies resulting from this pollution

are not unknown to the people, the Chinese government has been implementing laws and

regulations in an effort to mitigate their pollution issue. This essay will also analyze the

government’s effectiveness in curbing the mass issue by citing their laws and reports that follow

them. Finally, this essay will propose multiple techniques for pollution reduction. This includes

in-depth case studies of successful methods in other countries that will be applied to China,

research on current sustainable processes in China, and suggestions for improvement. An

ultimate review of China’s progress and potential will round out the end of this research,

bringing about the ultimate goal of this essay. The methodology for these approaches is

concentric around deep research by reputable journals and articles, most of which originate from

Chinese scholars who are tackling a similar issue.

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The World Health Organization’s (WHO) most recent collective study of air pollution

was conducted in 2016, in which China’s cities were surveyed for ambient air pollution. These

studies were conducted by measuring the PM2.5, or particulates in the air per cubic meter. In their

report, the WHO acknowledged that air pollution is inevitable, and suggested that a level of 10

parts per million of particulates can be found in the air at any given time. The maximum amount

that should be detected is 20 PM2.5. However, China’s urban population averages on a level of 51

PM2.5, with a maximum of level 128 (WHO, 2005). This is a danger to all who reside in urban

areas, as both long-term and short-term exposure can lead to “chronic asthma, pulmonary

insufficiency, cardiovascular diseases, and cardiovascular mortality” (Manisalidis et al., 2020).

Air Pollution Damages

Air pollution can have many sources, though the most common ones are produced

through smoke, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from fossil fuel burning, and

volcanic activity (Sharma et al., 2013). This particulate pollution directly results in 2.4 million

premature deaths worldwide, with the diagnosable causes relating to lower levels of lung

function, associable pollution-caused cancers, and coronary strokes. Furthermore, exposure to

intense levels of air pollution in children increase their potential for developing asthma,

pneumonia, and other respiratory infections.

A case study of the Great Smog of London in 1952 reveals an increased mortality rate

when, a dense fog of pollutants, primarily SO2, caused by rapid industrialization and high-

pressure weather conditions had engulfed England’s capital. As a result, death rates reached up

to 12,000 fatalities, and can be seen below in Figure 1. The smog clouded London for five days

starting December 5 and ending December 9, meaning the damage that was done to the city

occurred in the short span of five days.

Furthermore, exposed and surviving children in utero were reported being born with

cases of childhood asthma (Polivka, 2018). Recorded causes of death during this period included

bronchitis, pneumonia, respiratory tuberculosis, and lung cancer – all of which are clearly

diseases afflicting the respiratory system (Logan, 1953). This evident decline of human health

serves as an obvious indicator that air pollution in large quantities, no matter how short of a

period one is exposed, can be life-threatening. With Chinese citizens in urban populations

spending their everyday lives in pollution levels deemed dangerous by the WHO, it is imperative

that solutions are put in place to minimize the issue before it has the opportunity to get any

worse.

Figure 1: Figure displays the correlation between the polluting SO2 levels and the weekly mortality of Greater

London during late 1952 to early 1953. (Bell & Davis, 2001).

One study in Shenzhen, China was conducted to demonstrate the short-term effects of

ambient air pollution exposure at the PM2.5 level. It is important to note that due to Shenzhen’s

southern coastal status as a city prone to monsoons, their air quality is much better than other

urban centers in China, although still trespassing the safe levels recommended by the WHO. Yet,

a collection from 2015-2016 shows that exposure to Shenzhen air when PM2.5 levels are higher

due to season changes for one to four days results in increased hospitalization cases, with

patients being diagnosed with pneumonia, asthma, COPD, and respiratory tract infections –

much like the instances in London’s 1952 incident (Zhang, et al., 2020).

Aside from the bodily harm pollution incites, there is also an economic detriment at stake

due to the high capacity of patients per hospital. A small study centered around 10 Chinese urban

communities surveyed both indirect and direct economic loss of 195 surviving lung cancer

patients. Direct economic loss refers to the money spent on medical bills and nonmedical costs,

whereas indirect economic loss accounts for the human capital approach, which regards the time

Figure 2: Shows the relationship between exposure to PM2.5 pollutants and the odds of developing COPD or

pneumonia. (Zhang, et al., 2020).

spent recovering over the potential time one could have been working and benefiting their

homelives. On average, these recovering individuals owed $42,540.00 over their full period of

recovery on direct costs for their condition, with $795.00 making up their indirect costs. Within

just the first year of hospitalization for lung cancer, their economic burden was made of an

insurance-reduced price of $30,277. The overall cost amounted to 171% of the average Chinese

resident’s annual income. Even after insurance had taken on a hefty amount of the bills,

individuals were still forced to resort to spending 107% of their yearly income (Zhang, et al.,

2017). This is money that cannot be recirculated back into the economy, as well as puts a hefty

debt on the cancer survivors that they will need to work to pay off.

Sustainability and Air Pollution

The definition of sustainability varies from person to person, as it is a concept reflecting

the culture of present times. However, the rough idea is the efficient use of available resources to

accommodate current and present needs, without compromising the present or future

generations’ ability to meet their own needs. Based on this, sustainability is a philosophy and

application based on three primary components, or pillars: economic, social, and environmental.

Essentially, sustainability as a study focuses on creating thriving systems that intermingle with

one another in a person’s everyday life (UCLA, 2018).

At a basic sense, air pollution may appear to only appeal to the environmental pillar of

sustainability, but when one pillar is affecting by an extenuating circumstance, all others are

influenced, as well. As explained, air pollution is a driving concern for human health regarding

illnesses of the lungs. Already, this is a social danger for all affecting citizens, especially in

densely populated urban areas of China. Furthermore, the hospitalization rates and costs greatly

burden citizens of China, as time recovering at home or in a hospital is time lost making money

and contributing to China’s economy. Lastly, the environment is at risk, as PM2.5 easily turns

into a thick smog that not only reduces visibility, but chokes out natural wildlife and runs the risk

of contaminating soil or bodies of water during rainy seasons (Marcie, 2008).

These implications have extreme negative effects long-term consequences should they go

unchecked. So, this capstone seeks to call out provisions made by the Chinese government in an

attempt to remedy these rising conflicts, as well as where they fall flat and solutions they can try

to implement for better results.

CHAPTER II

GOVERNMENT INTERVENTION

China’s urban population amounts to approximately 843 million people (The World Bank

Group, 2019) who run the increased amount of potential for developing serious respiratory issues

in their lifetime. Aware of this disparity, the People’s Republic of China (PRC) have enacted

numerous interventions in an attempt to curb air pollution and increase public health. Some of

these attempts include forming the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQSs)

regulations, Five Year Plans (FYPs), and the Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan.

While some of these implementations have proven to make in impact on the PM2.5 levels of

pollutants in the air, others have proven ineffective.

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)

NAAQS was created as part of the Clean Air Act in 1990, which required the

Environmental Protection Agency to set national air quality standards. These standards operate

by two categories: primary and secondary standards. Primary is in regard to public health –

bodily harm, sensitive populations, etc.; whereas secondary deals with public welfare – visibility

impairment, vegetation deficiencies, building damage (EPA, 2016).

February 29th, 2012 marks the day that PM2.5 is first included into NAAQS for the first

time. While the WHO has set recommended levels for the PM2.5 set by the standards of safety,

NAAQS acknowledges that the average level of gaseous pollutants is exceeds WHO’s maximum

range by 37 levels and strives to set a more realistic goal of 25 PM2.5 per cubic meter of air. Still,

after these standards were put in place, 165 urban cities were not be able to meet the revised

NAAQS, let alone get close to lowering their levels accordingly. In fact, less than one percent of

China’s 500 largest cities could adjust their air pollution to the revised guidelines (Zhang & Cao,

2015). Figure 3 below shows the intensity of air pollution by millionth of a gram PM2.5 per cubic

meter, where a direct correlation between heavily populated cities and high PM2.5 levels can be

drawn. The data was collected between 2014-2015, two years after NAAQS regulations were put

into place. The darkest spot on the map is the megacity of Beijing, which continues to display

hazardous levels of pollutants in the air.

Simply setting a standard does not mean that a city will be able to reduce their pollutant

emissions, especially given that less coal usage may inhibit the production efficiency and power

sources of industries. Some cities, like the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, have the highest density

major industries and the largest coal consumption rate (Zhang & Cao, 2015). Beijing is also a

megacity, meaning this city’s population alone has over 10 million residents that get their

electric energy from the burning of coal, which heavily adds to the air pollution. While there is a

possibility that residents may slightly reduce their coal usage to aid in the city’s NAAQS goal,

this is not enough of a change to close the level of Beijing’s 162 PM2.5 level to the proposed 25.

Figure 3: Map of average intensity for PM2.5 in urban China by millionth grams per cubic meter (Zhang & Cao,

2015).

Five Year Plans (FYPs)

Every five years, the PRC forms a plan to tackle a rising issue regarding sustainability.

As of 2020, there are 13 plans in existence, with the most recent taking on air pollution with an

intensity that has not been seen in past plans. Gradually, China has been working on raising the

standards of air quality throughout each plan, with FYP 13 including a binding new requirement

that “by 2020 Chinese cities meet ‘good’ air quality ratings more than 80% of the time,”

(Koleski, 2017). This is a slight increase from the 76.7% previously allowed by the Chinese

government, accompanied by the subjective use of the word “good” that may allow too much

leeway with implementing effective changes regarding China’s air quality improvement.

However, the days when the daily PM2.5 air pollutants exceed allowable limits have fallen

by 18%, giving cities less leeway in their unruly emissions. Previous specific gaseous pollutants

being targeted are sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, continuing the trend from FYP 12, in

which they even exceeded their set goal. China is now increasing the astringency of that goal,

with a new target of volatile organic compounds (VOC), which is one of the three main sources

of air pollution. These are emitted through fossil fuels, paints, solvents, and industrial processes

like mass manufacturing – all of which create PM2.5 pollution. The difficult with lowering VOC

emissions, however, comes from its deep integration in the heavily industrialized Chinese society

that prioritizes mass quantity productions for international trade. Nevertheless, the PRC aims to

lower the emissions rate by 10% by the 14th Five Year Plan (Koleski, 2017).

PM2.5, when found in large quantities as it is in China, creates visibility issues. Smog – a

dense cloud formed of meteorological fog and polluting smoke – becomes thick enough to

inhibit sight. Much of the smoke found in these tangible clouds come from low-quality gasoline

and diesel emissions used in transportation. Thus, China’s FYP 13 includes a call to action for oil

refiners to produce higher quality gas, specifically in diesel trucks and automobiles, which are

the most common private vehicle uses in urban China (Koleski, 2017). On top of that, China has

estimated that limited coal consumption to five billion tons will further lower their energy use for

a better economy through lower energy bills, as well as lower the pollution rate to meet their goal

(Baxter & Yao, 2019). Figure 4 below shows the density of smog that China is prone to

receiving, emphasizing the genuine dangers that pollution can pose on the country’s residents

and visitors.

As 2021 is fast-approaching, China has begun to bring ideas to the table and draw drafts

for their 14th Five Year Plan. One of the leading ideas includes capping carbon emissions

Figure 4: an individual crosses a street, with walk signs and stoplights barely visible,

highlighting the potential danger pedestrians face (Associated Press, 2016).

entirely. This is a change from limiting emissions in FYP 13, to studying successful methods in

other countries, to completely cutting it off once it hits a certain point.

Another key target China wishes to reach it to set a minimum percentage of the rate of

non-fossil fuel incorporation in their power sources. Precisely, the country wishes to expand its

capacity to 20% energy generation and use by 2030. Though the FYP is still in the works, there

have been talks of harnessing hydropower and nuclear power, with methods of using windmills

and solar panels already in the mix (Baxter & Yao, 2019).

Five Year Plans focus on the environmental impact of pollution. With volatile chemicals

and coal emissions creating clouds of dense fog thick enough to impair sight, these clouds also

possess the ability to smother the limited green spaces in urban China, too. While the humanistic

and social effects of pollution are obvious in terms of protecting the health of citizens, the

economic pillar of sustainability is indirectly addressed in the proposals made by China. When it

comes to lowering the burning of coal and switching to refined fuels, the flow of money is

altered in China’s economy. Producing refined fuel costs more money to make and purchase, and

strictly enforcing the carbon emissions cap likely means reducing coal burning, which is the

primary source of energy in China. Just by creating a few new standards to abide by, China

already has an entire fluctuation of its existing systems.

Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan

June 27th, 2018, China’s cabinet released an action plan of three years with the sole focus

of minimizing air pollution. Previous regulations focusing on air pollution did not include PM2.5

monitoring until 2013. After its inclusion, China saw a significant reduction in gaseous

pollutants between 2013-2017, seeing a drop of 15% emissions in the Pearl River Delta and 33%

drop in Beijing while emphasizing the driving force of coal carbon emissions pollution. Still, the

amount of PM2.5 did not satisfy WHO requirements of retaining a maximum level of 20

regarding ambient pollution presence, and the existing levels were still deadly to Chinese urban

residents. With the 2018 Air Pollution Action Plan, cities besides the overly dense hubs of

Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei will be put under pressure to reduce their emissions, as well – expanding

the population that needs to be monitored (Hao, 2018).

Specific pollutants the action plan seeks to reduce are sulfur dioxides and nitrogen oxides

– which are most commonly found in fossil fuel burning and industrial production. Because the

Beijing region and Pearl River Delta have already drastically decreased their PM2.5 levels, five

new key cities are to be added on China’s watchlist. These include the Fen-Wei Plain (population

167.83 million), the Xi’an (population 12 million), and targeted areas of Shaanxi and Henan,

which are cities included in the Fen-Wei Plain. Furthermore, the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region is

to be expanded to include other parts of nearby provinces, umbrellaing them into the Beijing

region’s current goal of keeping emissions at their lower state (Zhang L. , 2018).

Also included in this action plan is a focus on VOCs, similar to FYP 13. Reasoning for

this focus is further elaborated in the plan’s release, explaining how when VOCs come into

contact with nitrogen oxides, they react to create ozone, which is a deadly polluting chemical

that eats away at earth’s protective ozone layer (Zhang L. , 2018). Environmentally, this is cause

for severe concern, as ozone depletion reduces the amount of protection one receives from the

sun’s ultraviolet (UV) rays. As the number one polluter in the world, China is largely responsible

for the current state and potential harm of the ozone, and their neglect to increase their air quality

will have a negative impact on the entire globe. This clearly fails the sustainable definition of a

thriving and efficient natural environment, as the current rate of VOC emissions is toxic enough

to warrant its own section in this new action plan.

While this plan does take a great step towards reducing China’s air pollution, it is still

not getting Chinese cities to the levels of safety they need to be at. While emissions in the

targeted cities have been alleviated to an extent, there is still an overabundance quantity of PM2.5

in the air. Based on in-depth research of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei, the control of VOCs needs to

be increased, as well as the nitrogen oxides they react with. An effective way would be to crack

down on industrial boilers and transportation methods, as well as transition into district heating

instead of coal combustion in winter seasons (Cai, et al., 2017).

Wind Power Laws and Programs

Despite China being the number one consumer for coal, efforts to exploit their abundant

wind energy have been made, including the implementation of a series of programs and laws to

remove any barriers to harnessing the renewable energy source.

In 1996, the Ride the Wind Program was developed with the goal for importing foreign

technology to create improved and more efficient turbines for converting kinetic wind energy to

electrical power. This was also a part of the 9th Five Year Plan, which sought out to create more

wind farms with the specific purpose of increasing alternative energy sources through the wind.

As an unintended benefit, the economic market for making locally-crafted parts for turbines –

which accounted for about 40% of each new turbine – increased. Jobs in the wind manufacturing

sector saw a drastic increase (Changliang & Zhanfeng, 2009).

With the technology in China’s hands, the next phase of the wind energy project was to

increase the desire for domestically developed wind energies. This included making the National

Debt Wind Power Program, which used the national debt as a subsidy to build wind farms, using

a generous interest to incentivize turbine parts manufacturers and wind farm builders. This

incensed four new pilot wind farm projects that have, since the 2000 program installation, seen

completion (Changliang & Zhanfeng, 2009).

Now that domestic wind power was being created and purchased, China’s next step was

to expand their initiatives and bounty beyond their borders. The Wind Power Concession Project

was put into place in order to commercialize wind power over the course of 20 years. This would

begin by selecting potential investors for large-scale purchases of wind energy. Then, China

ensured with government guarantees that in-grid power prices will be set upon contracting with

an investor, which ensures that all electricity will have been generated by wind farms. This

reduces marketing risks for all parties involved, which was yet another tactic for encouraging the

expansion of wind markets. By the end of 2006, 15 more wind farm projects echoing the designs

of the National Debt Wind Power Program pilots were created. However, only 25% of these

farms have since been completed (Changliang & Zhanfeng, 2009).

Lastly, China enforces the Renewable Energy Law in 2005. This law is simple and

requires that power grid operators purchase a full amount of wind power generated by producers

who are registered to do so. This law, like others before it, also uses incentives – like creating a

national fund to foster renewable energy development and tax preferences for renewable energy

products – to facilitate continual interest in renewable wind energy (Changliang & Zhanfeng,

2009).

Below, Figure 15 details the amount of cumulative installed capacity – or wind energy –

over the years, marking the monumental regulations and laws China installed to create a

relationship between production and governmental intervention.

Compared to the other efforts the PRC had made in order to reduce air pollution, their

greatest success can be seen with the wind power efforts. Though the policies experienced a flop

in their later years, China has realized that they are in possession of a great deal of alternative

energy sources, and have created an entire sector for employment and provided themselves the

opportunity of global economic expansion. Environmentally, wind energy is a renewable source

Figure 15: shows a positive relationship between wind power created and government installations of laws

and regulations (Changliang & Zhanfeng, 2009).

of power and causes no harm to the natural world while supplementing standard sources of

power such as coal.

Overall Progress

The People’s Republic of China have been working fervently to rectify their air pollution

issues, specifically by targeting major urban centers. Most of the more progressive regulations

have come into place around 2012 and have been improving since, which means many of their

plans tend to overlap with similar focuses and goals, and yet their WHO PM2.5 levels are still

incomprehensible. Though China has had better luck creating a culture that supports wind energy

as a sustainable solution – though it was not created in order to combat ambient air pollution –

there are still obvious gaps in the regiment that require attention. The bright side is that there are

a lot of resources and tools at China’s disposal that are not properly being used at this time.

Figure 5 below illustrates the PM2.5 levels of major Chinese cities, comparing the Air

Pollution Control and Action Plan and FYP 13, as well as providing levels in intermediary years.

Here, it is easy to see that active enforcement of Chinese law and capping is effective in lowering

pollutant emissions, and while the PM2.5 levels are nowhere near perfect according to the WHO

standards, China is at least taking a step in the right direction.

CHAPTER III

SUSTAINABLE SOLUTIONS

Given the background of information regarding the dangers of air pollution and the trying

efforts to fix them by the Chinese government, it is important to look towards the future and

begin to plan for sustainable solutions that can be upheld in populous urban environments. It is

also crucial to note that the solutions presented are versatile and adaptable to other cultures and

countries outside of China.

Figure 5: PM2.5 levels in major urban cities are displayed by million grams per square meter (Hao, 2018).

Green Spaces

China’s urban hubs experience an immense amount of PM2.5 air pollution that has been

proven harmful to both the environment and people. One sustainable solution to help reduce the

particulates in the air would be the implementation of various forms of green spaces.

One study in southeast urban China reveals a strong correlation between green spaces and

PM2.5 intensity in the area. While meteorological influences heavily determine the concentration

of gaseous pollutants, green spaces have been found to have a greater reduction rate in the area

that in non-green spaces. Furthermore, forestland proved to have a greater change in the

reduction of PM2.5 than grasslands, and even greater rates of reduction when compared to non-

green spaces at all (Cai, Zhuang, & Ren, 2020).

Overall, more green space results in lower PM2.5 concentrations with the gaseous

pollutants being absorbed into plants and eventually completely adsorbed. The same study

analyzes the cost analysis of feasible economic implementation should the PRC decide to act

upon the findings of beneficial green spaces. The installation of entire forests does not have a

place in any urban setting – let alone one that encompasses the workspaces, homes, and

recreation of over 800 million people. On top of that, is also a pricey should the space be

reserved for such a plan. The best option would be to plant grasses in widespread plains, ranging

with a sizable amount of 1000-3000 meters, as this does reduce pollution while being

significantly cheaper than a forested idea (Cai, Zhuang, & Ren, 2020).

A suggestion for urban China that would be somewhere in the middle of these two

choices would be to install more parklands amongst their lightspeed industrialization. Parks are

the lungs of a city, with their greenery cycling through transpiration and evaporation, which

ultimately reduces temperature. This is pertinent because high temperatures stimulate humidity

in longer durations, and particulates stick together and coagulate into a smog cloud of PM2.5.

Thus, park implementation would decrease the extent of a humidity cloud and filter gaseous

particles out of the air (Chen, et al., 2014).

Furthermore, tree concentration that is often found in parks generate winds, which push

and disperse PM2.5 particulates. This both reduces the visibility impairment as well as allows for

the pollutants to scatter and disappear at a faster rate. Given the nature of transportation being a

prime suspect behind nitrogen oxide PM2.5 emissions, planting parks alongside heavy traffic

would be most beneficial to take away the immediate exhaust of gaseous particles. Furthermore,

this would generate more aesthetic value in urban China, as it does with tree-line boulevards in

places like Palace of Versailles in France. Further studies show that the Jardin du Luxembourg is

so efficient in reducing pollution that through tree-lined roads, that sulfur dioxides do not even

penetrate the planted spaces (Makhelouf, 2009).

In some other countries, these methods are already in full effect. Research in Strasbourg

City, France, reveals that public tree plazas greatly improve residential health due to the

reduction of pollutants in the air. One situation that needs to be paid mind to when planning

parks in urban areas is that PM2.5 does not spread evenly through an area. The proportion in

which the gasses linger and amass into smog is uneven and influenced by many factors (i.e.

meteorological influences, traffic, industrial wastes), and thus needs to be strategically placed in

a way that benefits the citizens and ambient air quality (Selmi, et al., 2016). This can include

using data for predictable weather patterns, as well as tracking which roadways see the most

traffic and thereby see the most pollution.

An innovative technique for implementing greenery in the urban environment is the use

of green walls – or using plant life along the facades of buildings. Economically, installing green

walls are low-cost, energy-efficient, and effective in reducing PM2.5. Using non-exotic plants to

curtain buildings is the wisest move, as they rarely require an irrigation system and artificial

lighting cycle. Couple this with the strategic placement of walls on buildings most likely to emit

gaseous particulates or exist near places that do, such as smaller buildings surrounding coal

plants and heavy manufacturing sites, and there is a strong possibility that PM2.5 particles will be

reduced by 25% (Srbinovska, Andova, Mateska, & Krstevska, 2020). Below, Figure 6 illustrates

the appearance of a green wall and how it can mesh seamlessly with urban life.

Another worthwhile green investment that would benefit China are green rooftops. They

have a similar functionality to green walls, but serve a stronger purpose in reducing the urban

heat island effect.

Figure 6: example of an urban wall that neither impedes traffic or takes away from urban life (Biotecture,

2020).

The urban heat island effect is a phenomena that occurs when islands of urban areas

experience higher temperatures than areas around them. This is due to structures made of

pavement or concrete absorbing and re-emitting the sun’s heat. Common urban infrastructure,

like buildings and roads, are to blame for this effect. Because the heat island effect induces

higher consumption of energy to combat the heat through air conditioning, it therefore increases

the amount of pollutants in the air. And, as discussed before, the burning of coal produces

volatile organic compounds that diminish the ozone. (EPA, 2020). Thus, green rooftops

positively contribute to both the human health and environmental pillars of sustainability.

In Chicago, green roofs had a successful run in removing pollutants in the heavily

urbanized city. 19.8 hectares of green roofs were monitored for a year after their implementation,

when at the end of observation, 1675 kilograms of air pollutants were removed with a total of

86% of that belonging to the PM2.5 category. Below, Figure 7 visual for the concentration of

green rooftops in Chicago has been provided in order to understand the density of rooftops in

relation to their effectiveness.

Figure 7: a map of green roofs in Chicago, where density of rooftops can be related to dust rate of effectiveness

(Chicago Data Portal, 2020).

Based on these statistics, if all rooftops in Chicago were covered in greenery,

approximately 2046.89 tons of pollutants would be removed from the atmosphere. In crowded

areas like urban China and Chicago, planting trees and reserving spaces for parklands can be

difficult. The space might already be allotted elsewhere, or could be better used to serve flows of

traffic or accessibility for the people. However, using rooftops would be out of the way while

still effectively serving the purpose of other green spaces (Yang, Yu, & Gong, 2008).

Furthermore, green roofs can intercept dust and other similar particulates that make up

PM2.5. On average, a standard 1000 m2 roof can capture about 160-220 kg of particulates per

year. For a town that does not have any trees or green spaces, as many cities in China do not, the

daily amount of dust that drops is 850 milligrams per meter. Meanwhile, a green area reduces

that number to just 100 milligrams per meter. On top of reducing the pollution in the ambient air

and thereby reducing the risk of lung-related illnesses, plants can sterilize and inhibit bacteria

and pathogens. This is done by plants absorbing nitrogen and releasing oxygen, as well as some

mild antibacterial gasses (Xiao, Lin, Han, & Zhang, 2014).

Currently, China is behind on regulations and implementation for green roofs. Beijing’s

green roof regulation of 2005 is a detailed account of ideal plant types, construction processes,

and maintenance, yet the amount of green roofs in China is considerably lower than other

countries. This may also be because of Beijing’s 2009 “urban greening ordinance,” which does

not actually provide any legal provisions on roof greening, which means that nothing has been

addressed when it comes down to construction companies being qualified to install these

rooftops (Xiao, Lin, Han, & Zhang, 2014).

This information is out there and sitting in China’s lap, yet their widespread or even

experimentational implementation is yet to be realized. Despite success stories coming from all

around the globe and the science to prove that green spaces immensely improve upon air quality,

there has been little action from the PRC.

Transportation

China’s urban centers expand far and wide, and combined with the rapid industrialization

in the cities, efficient transportation being a necessity in everyday Chinese life with little

advanced planning for movement infrastructure. Since the 1980’s, automobiles have seen a 12%-

14% increase in road presence. In 1994, the transportation sector of China alone amounted to

5.4% of the world’s total carbon dioxide emissions. As the years progressed, this number only

increased, with 2008 being a peak year of transportation emissions as numbers hit 10.6% of total

global emissions. While this number is obviously alarming on a global scale, in individual cities

in China, the amount of which ambient air pollution is held accountable to transportation can

reach up to 80%. While policies such as emission tax per ton of carbon dioxide emitted have

been trialed in China, levels only continue to rise (Mao, Yang, Liu, Tu, & Jaccard, 2012).

In order to reduce emissions, a conversion to electric transportation could prove to be

beneficial for China. As of recent, China has promoted clean energy development, starting with

the clean energy vehicle subsidy (CEVS). Now, plug-in hybrid vehicle owners can get at least a

50,000-yuan subsidy upon purchase, whereas other clean energy vehicles can receive 3,000-yuan

compensation. For purely electric buses, the subsidy is 500,000 yuan per vehicle with a reduction

in ticket pricing – including public bus and subway tickets – to be discounted by 60%. The exact

qualifications for a “clean energy vehicles” are hybrid electric vehicles, compressed natural gas

vehicles, and bio-diesel vehicles. While estimates based on China’s growth as an industrial hub

suggest that carbon emissions will continue to grow, the rate at which it will be done will

exponentially decrease should China uphold these subsidies and economically encourage sectors

to use clean energy (Mao, Yang, Liu, Tu, & Jaccard, 2012). Below, the projected increase in

emissions and decrease in growth rate can be adequately explained in Figure 8.

Luxembourg is not only renowned for its incorporation of green spaces, but it is also a

frontrunner for successful sustainable transportation. The focus in this country was to maximize

the usage of mass transit systems. This meant extremely accessible trains, trams, and buses were

to be implemented throughout the country through thorough urban design infrastructure. On top

of that, Luxembourg generously made all public transport free by financing the systems through

the government, which encouraged more people to leave behind private cars and opt for a more

sustainable method of movement. While this is not directly a movement against emissions

reduction by switching to clean energy, it is generating less emissions by having less vehicles on

the road (World Bank, 2018).

Figure 8: periodic yearly estimate of carbon dioxide emissions in comparison to its growth rate (Mao, Yang, Liu,

Tu, & Jaccard, 2012).

This is opposed to Norway’s method of clean transportation, where their primary focus is

to utilize their ability to harness alternative energy sources. Like China, they provide incentives

for their citizens, although they are exponentially more generous. Norway does not tax for

electric vehicle imports, value added tax, or road taxes. Instead, they allow for electric vehicles

to freely traverse all over the country without the concern of paying for tolls or having fines for

plugging in their cars at electric stations, as they are publicly financed. This extreme incentive

results in Norway having the highest per capita number of electric cars in the world (World

Bank, 2018).

While China could consider removing toll taxes and financing charging stations, the

heavy emphasis on strictly electric vehicles may not work for them. Norway is a smaller country

of 148,729 square miles, whereas China is a staggering 3.705 million square miles. This means

that to get from one place to another, Chinese citizens would have to stop and recharge their

vehicles frequently to traverse the urban landscape of China. Paired with the average charge time

of eight hours for a completely spent electric vehicle that only gets an estimate of 100 miles on

the road, China might see overcrowding at stations and a slowdown in the economy from people

scrambling to get to jobs and marketplaces to keep cash flowing (World Bank, 2018).

One of China’s most utilized forms of transportation is the bus transit system. While

incentives for electric busses have already been discussed, there might be simpler ways that

China can leverage an already-great system: using big data to improve transit service. This can

be done by documenting which bus stops have the highest amount of people waiting to get on, as

well as surveying from which neighborhoods they are coming from. This type of tracking would

contribute to altering the stops that busses make. This way, a bus can make the same amount of

stops, only their revised schedule would become more efficient by concentrating them in more

populous areas and thus making the usage of their fuel the most efficient. Naturally, which stops

are the most in demand will fluctuate during different times of days: some stops are more

populated during rush hour, whereas during work days people who are recreationally travelling

during to stores and parks might be different. This means that bus schedules will change

throughout the day in order to service a larger amount of people who would be more encouraged

to use the bus rather than personal vehicles (Lewis & Raulerson, 2017).

Making urban China more multimodal friendly would be another way to leverage China’s

expansive land coverage. As it stands, 8% of traffic deaths in China are cyclists, and in 2013,

85% of Chinese residents were surveyed and found to be unsatisfied with their cycling

environment (Lua & Li, 2017). This makes it difficult for citizens to use alternative travel

methods when they do not feel safe enough to do so. In order to facilitate a culture in which

pollutants can be combatted simply by choosing to bike or bus to work, China needs to work on

its urban road designs (NACTO, 2020).

A few safety elements to be implemented are things like buffers at intersections, biking

boulevards, and cycle tracks. Buffers are crescent-shaped segments of pavement meant to outline

specific turn lanes for bicyclists. This would not only prevent cars from wildly swinging on their

turns and putting cyclists at risk, but it creates another barrier between bikes and cars that is not

currently widespread in any part of China (NACTO, 2020). With these kind of safety

precautions, one could see more pedestrians taking to the street rather than utilizing private cars

or less efficient vehicles, thus lowering emissions by not creating any in the first place. Figure 9

below illustrates what these buffers would look like at an intersection.

On the flipside of sharing a road with cars are biking boulevards. These are wide

expanses of roads that are exclusively for bikes so civilians do not have to worry about car

accidents. Wisely, these roads can work in junction with smartly placed bus stops, where these

boulevards can lead to popular stops. And for those who do not own a bike or do not want to deal

with the hassle of toting one around, China can invest in bike-sharing apps that, when used

efficiently and placed in a populous area, can be cheap per use but lucrative to the government,

should masses of people adopt the system. Furthermore, because bikes do not reach the speeds of

cars, scenery and green spaces can be a highlighted focus along these boulevards, such as tree-

lined pavements. This would create a small, contained utopia of extremely clean air in contrast to

the rest of urban China (NACTO, 2020).

Figure 9: buffers serve as a physical safety barrier between cars and bicycles, as well as guide bikes

around turns on populated intersections (Momentum Staff, 2016).

The city of Berkeley in California has already taken advantage of this idea. Seven

intersecting boulevards cross through the dense city, leading to mass transit waiting areas, the

city-named university, include safe crossing over heavily used highways, and bring cyclists to

the beach. The plan had been gradually implemented in phases starting in 1999 and ending in

2003 with small, ongoing improvements as the city sees fit. Over the years, $333,000 were spent

on the project, though 90% of that came from grant sources that funded official statewide acts for

transportation development, safe routes to schools, and clean air. To make their efforts loud and

clear, Berkeley has also invested in a simple signage system, associating the color purple with

traffic signs for bike boulevards and painting large sections of the road with cyclists

(Transportation Division, 2005). Below, Figure 10 displays the various ways in which Berkeley

has emphasized its dedicated boulevard in an effective manner.

Figure 10: Images drawing importance to Berkeley’s bike boulevard, highlighting color

coordination and bold symbology (Transportation Division, 2005).

By far, the easiest and most obvious improvement any country can make is the use of

bicycle tracks. These are biking lanes separated from the vehicular road by a simple barrier,

texturized pavement, or a brightly painted strip of pavement. These obvious tells convey to both

drivers and cyclists that they are sharing the road with traffic and increase awareness of the space

around them. While the integration of this element with an existing road might not appear

seamless, it is far better than the alternative of continuing the trend of high death rates by

cycling. A simple, narrow outline of a biking lane is the most common form of cycling

accessibility as seen below in Figure 11 (NACTO, 2020).

Overall, there are a plethora of avenues China can implement in order to maximize their

land usage and existing systems in the goal to lower PM2.5 pollution. One of the more

rudimentary ways is to simply put pedestrians back on the street by increasing the safety of

bikers and walkers, which would in turn bring back the comfort of sidewalk accessibility. Simple

urban design tactics for streetscapes make a big difference, and it is in these small details that

Figure 11: simulated image of a common bike track found in urban areas (NACTO, 2020).

moving forward with plans such as electrifying the bus system or rescheduling their stops to

leverage the population’s natural flow possible.

The overall ideas mentioned improve upon the social pillar of sustainability by promoting

physical movement through multimodality, as well as instating more direct and efficient routes

of mass transit systems. Any one of these ideas will significantly lower the air pollution in lower

China, which is an obvious win for their suffering environment pillar. Economically, however,

the placement of buffers, biking lanes, and boulevards might make a dent in China’s wallet. For

a mile alone in the United States, a bike lane can range from $5,000-$50,000 dollars. But should

China choose to invest in bike-sharing apps through a government-mandated system, they could

see some coin replenishing their money reserves.

Renewable Energy

As of 2019, China had set the goal of generating and using renewable energy to power

15% of its country’s total power usage by the end of 2020. While the year is still ongoing and so

far indeterminable whether China will be accomplishing this goal, its slowness to update and

improve previous policies regarding pollution dangers and incentives for green energy lead to the

assumption that the green movement in China is losing momentum. Yet China has such a variety

of topography and meteorology that harnessing natural resources to generate and use renewable

energy should be a breeze for the country. If China were to lean more on these non-fossil fuel

sources, the consumption of coal in both private facilities and coal power plants would

dramatically decrease, which would significantly reduce the amount of PM2.5 pollution. In fact,

in China alone, coal burning accounts for 33% of PM2.5, while making a large splash in all of

China’s total emissions with a major 6% impact. And in China alone, coal consumption for

energy amounts to a total of 60% (Science Daily, 2019).

Renewable energy can help China get off the crutch of coal, and it is a solution that can

take its time for full implementation, which would put less of an economic strain on China. As it

stands, China is a country with sunny deserts, airy mountains, and a whole ocean on its southern

border. Currently, these resources are direly underused in the realm of renewable energy.

One of the more recent trends in the realm of sustainability is the implementation of

photovoltaic panels (PVs), or solar panels. In the urban climate, these are most easily installed on

rooftops where the panels can absorb the sunlight without obstruction, but placement around

buildings or near awning can be done, although with the risk of being shadowed during certain

times of the day. The increase in PVs and their consistent installation have been gradually

bringing the cost of implementation down, while technological advances with the panels – such

as expanding their lifespan to a confident 20 years – have only been increasing.

There are two primary forms of solar panels regarding their placement in the built

environment. There are BIPVs and BAPVs. The former stands for Building-Integrated

Photovoltaics, in which solar panels are a functioning part of a building. For example, having

solar panels serve as a rooftop rather than being added onto one is a BIPV. Meanwhile, a BAPV

stands for Building Applied Photovoltaics. This is opposing to the BIPV, where the panels serve

no purpose aside from converting solar energy into usable energy. Here, an example would be

installing panels onto an existing roof, adding an extra layer to the building. BAPVs serve an

extension of a building while BIPVs are the building. While both methods are beneficial to the

environment, BIPVs are significantly more expensive and the use of panels as walls or rooftops

of a building limits their primary function. BAPVs are ideal for China as they are cheaper to

implement and have the option of being placed with more versatility, as well as have the option

of solar cells being cylindrical to harness sunlight during all hours of the day (Peng, Huang, &

Wu, 2011). Below, Figure 12 is an illustration that compares the two methods and accurately

depicts their differences in appearances.

While concerns for sunlight reaching the panels in the midst of the China’s ever-present

smog may result in hesitancy to install panels in urban China – or even rural China, in which the

government can transfer the energy to urban areas – there is no reason to fret. As of March 2020,

Germany had installed 1.8 million solar array systems, earning them the title of one of the largest

solar power producers worldwide, in spite of being one of the countries that receives the least

amount of sunshine in the world. Notwithstanding this obstacle, 8% of the country’s total power

consumption is covered by entirely renewable resources while creating about 36,000 new jobs

for solar panel installers, repairmen, and contractors. So, not only is Germany sustainably

lowering pollution rates by siphoning power from natural resources, but they are improving their

economy by creating jobs in a new employment sector. Currently, Germany’s solar panels have

Figure 12: BAPV installation can be seen attached to a rooftop on the left; BIPV installation can be seen attached to a rooftop on

the right (Science Daily, 2019).

the capacity to produce 49 gigawatts under standard meteorological conditions. Yet despite this

already outstanding achievement, Germany is looking to further expand upon their fortune by

doubling their gigawatt capacity by 2030. Their immense success with solar power has

eventually resulted in cheaper prices for installing panels than that of consuming hard coal or

getting power from gas plants (Wehrmann, 2020).

But China is not completely deficient of sunlight in all of its regions. In fact, areas in

China like Tibet and southeast Qing-Zang altiplano receive, on average, an annual total of 3,200

sunlight hours. Though these are rural regions, the energy can be collected and distributed to

urban hubs, making them ideal plains for photovoltaic panel farms (Liu, Liu, Sun, & Han, 2011).

If this type of accessibility was taken advantage of in China, residents would be more inclined to

adopt solar panels and use them alongside coal, or as a total substitute. If China followed

Germany’s lead in allowing for competitive prices on solar, they could potentially see an

economic undercut to fossil fuel plants and tip the balance of their economy. Though workers at

plants can transitionally be retrained to work in solar should they choose, older generations

might not be able to grasp onto the new concepts as quickly, and this would be a loss in terms of

the social and economic pillars of sustainability.

But solar energy is not the only type of renewable energy source that China has the

option to engage in. Another strong candidate for China’s energy source comes from an

abundant resource that surrounds a large portion of the country’s border: the ocean.

Harnessing the ocean for tidal energy is, essentially, harnessing gravity, naturally

occurring temperature differences in the water, and monsoon winds and salinity. This is a

beneficial source of power as all of these elements are highly predictable, meaning that reliance

on this as an energy source is unwavering and can be broadcast to its users about its

functionality. China is lucrative in shorelines, as it has 18,000 kilometers worth, and is in

possession of thousands of islands not included in this shoreline estimate. Due to its broad

coverage, only an approximation based on existing channel measurements can be made

regarding how many watts China can produced with tidal energy alone. The recorded channels

boast a wattage production of 13,940 megawatts through around 130 water channels. This data

obviously does not include tidal patterns that have not been observed over long periods of time,

insinuating that the total amount of megawatt productions is even higher (Liu, Ma, Gu, Lin, &

Sun, 2011).

To cite more specific areas of focus, rather than an entire border, power densities in the

Jintang, Guishan, and Xihou channels are high enough to produce 15-30 kilowatts per meters

squared of water at a consistent rate. Meanwhile, Zhejiang, an urban province in China, produces

a steady 20 kilowatts per square meter of water. Being that these points of power are all jumbled

together, this makes the eastern archipelago an area of interest with tangible purpose for tidal

energy exploitation. This is especially convenient, as this archipelago butts up to one of China’s

most populous urban hubs, that being the Shanghai area (Liu, Ma, Gu, Lin, & Sun, 2011).

To harness tidal energy, current strengths are used to push the blades of a turbine, which

ultimately converts the physical movement of the turbine into power. Due to the predictable

nature of tidal energy, the subject has become a topic of research for many renewable source

researchers. The USA, UK, Canada, and the Shetland Islands have already started taking

advantage of their respective waterways and have successful turbines up and running. The

United States have the largest ocean current power unit in the world titled the SeaGen system,

which has been operable since 2008 and produces energy at a capacity of 1.2 megawatts (Liu,

Ma, Gu, Lin, & Sun, 2011). Since the US’s success, countries all over the world have been

creating operable and lucrative turbines. However, it seems that China is lagging in this

development.

In the 1950s, China had over 76 tidal energy plants up and running. Though decades

later, only three of those plants are still functioning today. In spite of the lack of commitment to

utilizing a nearly infinite reserve of renewable energy, universities in China – such as Harbin

Engineering University, Zhejiang University, and Ocean University of China – have been

researching successful turbine models and creating some of their own in hopes of revitalizing the

tidal energy movement. Their focal points have been on trialing turbines with variations of blade

sizes and materials, as well as documenting the rates of watts produced during different levels of

tide strengths. Given that it has been over 20 years since China has had a country-wide survey of

ocean energy production since the number of their tidal energy plants have narrowed down to

three, the research done by these students contributes to an actively developing and mainstream

practice that China ought to reinstate. Already, these universities have discovered that novel

blades and air foils are worth conducting in-depth research for, as they appear to maximize the

amount of kilowatts produced at any given tidal strength over previously developed blades (Liu,

Ma, Gu, Lin, & Sun, 2011).

If China puts tidal energy back on the forefront of their power source, more students and

practiced experts can combine their knowledge and use more recent technology to create an

efficient turbine that might help subsidize the coal use in the country. By alleviating the pressure

put on coal plants, less pollutants – especially oxides – will cloud the air and create a healthier

environment, while reopening the tidal sector of China’s economy and providing people with

more jobs.

On top of that, transitioning to tidal energy and dispersal will significantly decrease the

virtual expenditure of fuels that pollute the air. South China is anemic in fossil fuel resources,

and for homeowners to manage the temperatures of their homes or for industries to power their

buildings and machines, mass quantities of coal needs to be transported from coal plants to these

southern urban areas. Billions of tons of coal is transported from North China every year, and

with the quantity being so exorbitant, massive diesel trucks are the transporters, meaning their

fuel expenditures and the cost of fuel to make these trips is through the roof (Liu, Liu, Sun, &

Han, 2011).

Below, Figure 13 details the various types of tidal turbines that could potentially be used

in China. Here, it is easy to see how the kinetic energy of the currents turn the turbines, thus

creating electrical energy. It is also representative of the versatility a turbine design can adopt in

order to properly adapt to China’s natural landscape and topography, demonstrating the

accessibility that Chinese residents can have to this energy source.

Figure 13: Four types of turbine models are illustrated to show the diversity and applicability of turbines in harnessing

tidal energy (National Geographic, 2014).

Ultimately, restoring China’s interest and investment in tidal energy is beneficial in the

fight to reduce PM2.5 pollution, as well as comes with the benefits of predictability, virtual

emissions reductions, and abundance. Every pillar is satisfied within the realm of sustainability,

as the predictable nature of tidal energy allows for long-term plans for harnessing and

distributing this power. Tidal energy will also create jobs, reinvigorate the renewable energy

sector of the economy, and relieve coal emissions stress on the environment and the people.

Another form of renewable energy for China is wind energy, which is more of a common

practice in China than the previously mentioned alternative energy sources. In fact, China has

been such a keystone of wind power that they have the potential to become a global dominator in

the wind market. Already, they are ranked as the 5th largest wind energy producer in the world.

The amount of which they can harness is in part due to the same reason why tidal energy is so

lucrative for them: miles and miles of extensive coastlines where both winds and waves are

consistently abundant in quantity. On top of that, China’s flat and broad plain of the Gobi desert

is the perfect arena for winds to travel long and far.

Below, Figure 14 shows the distribution of wind energy. Here, there is a strong

correlation between island coastlines and flatlands that are illustrated by the dark blue sections of

the map. There is also a clear depravation of strong winds in central and eastern China, where the

urban hubs can be found. This means that wind energy will, like tidal energy, have to be used in

junction with other energy types, as well as distributed to lacking regions highlighted in the light

blue.

The greatest potential in China to capture wind energy is the Sanbei Region, which

covers a span of cities and provinces that have the strongest winds for the greatest amount of

time. The power wind density ranges in this region from 200-300 W/m2, although in the

mountainous regions of Ala, Dabancheng, and the hunting ground of Chengde, power wind

density can even hit up to 500 W/m2. The amount of wind duration in these mountain ranges can

also hit numbers as high as 5,000-7,000 hours annually, presenting China with a lucrative area

for wind harnessing (Changliang & Zhanfeng, 2009).

Present-day application for wind energy goes into Chinese traffic lights, road signal

detection, and traffic management at sea. The hope is that as air foil is incorporated into primary

Figure 14: illustration of wind strength and prevalence in China (Changliang & Zhanfeng, 2009).

market turbines – which reduces the start times for turbines, and means that even the smallest

winds can generate energy rather than waiting for a strong gust to power up the turbine – the

energy can be incorporated into bigger city projects, like electrical power management in

apartment buildings or industrial business facilities. As it stands, China is still investing in new

technology to make more efficient products. Right now, the country is able to run megawatt

turbines that can experience 600-675p kW. China has also mastered blades, gearbox, converters,

and others important design components of a whole turbine that will help them gather more

energy to convert. Moreover, research is being poured into creating more disaster-resistant

turbines to ensure that previous investors get their wind energy, as China is prone to natural

occurrences like typhoons and monsoons that they can utilize as long as their equipment does not

fail under pressure. The solution so far appears to be creating high efficiency, yet low-cost

turbines that can be easily replaced. These expectations that China has sought out to fulfill has

been put into formal plans that, with innovation and a little bit of luck, will hopefully come into

fruition (Xu, He, & Zhao, 2010).

China has set a target of running wind turbines for both independent properties and

industrial systems at 100 GW until 2020, giving them time to conduct experiments and research

aimed towards improving efficiency until their next goal, which happens to be hitting 150 GW

for the same systems once the year of 2020 has completed. With this easy access to wind energy,

China also plans on the cost for wind energy to be equal and thus competitive with that of

traditional power. With the costs for wind energy and coal energy being equivalent, buyers are

more likely to look at both options and choose to reap the benefits of a sustainable option, rather

than being cornered into only being able to afford the unsustainable option of coal (Xu, He, &

Zhao, 2010).

China has set even later goals, demonstrating the long-term plans and commitment they

have dedicated towards progressing in the wind energy realm. Just like its previous early 21st

century plans, where wind energy was perfected for its time in China before being introduced

beyond its borders, China intends on using its hopefully-completed goals for industrial systems

of wind energy for international market competition. From 2020-2030, China’s industrial and

service systems should reach a capacity above 10,000 MW with a projected growth rate of 20%,

annually. This would increase the presence of wind energy in all forms of existing electricity to

8%, whereas purely electric energy would see an increase of being composed of 4% wind power.

Such a leap in technology would mean an initial leap in pricing, but officials are working on

finding a way to bring prices down to remain in the global market (Xu, He, & Zhao, 2010).

Ultimately, China has a lot of natural and built resources that they could expand upon

when it comes to renewable energy sources. Solar panels could be installed in the cities; tidal

energy could be reinstated as a prime facility of electricity; wind turbines could be perfected with

wind farms being completed and available to the global market. Each of these options creates

new jobs and opportunities for employment, as well as reduces ambient air pollution. While,

despite all of their plans, China remains one of the most polluted countries in the world, it is

important to realize the existing obstacles they have already overcome, as well as note that their

land and population size also pose a more difficult circumstance when it comes to efficient use of

resources and sustainable solutions.

CHAPTER IV

Application to UF, Gainesville

These methods of sustainability for reducing PM2.5 in urban China can also be applied to

other cities around the world. Already, data from Luxembourg, Germany, and Norway have

shown these strategies to be successful with expanding rates of implementation. Despite this

great news from abroad, there is still much work to be done locally.

The University of Florida (UF) is located in Gainesville, Florida. The campus is known

for its swamps and resident alligator, but could be known for more if it utilized its naturally

occurring resources. Despite being known as the sunshine state, UF is significantly lacking in

any major implementation of solar panels. Especially for being the only public university in

Florida that offers two sustainability undergraduate degrees, the campus is severely deficient in

practicing what it preaches. The most obvious proposal for the school is to use its state nickname

and take advantage of their relentless sunshine hours by installing solar panels on rooftops.

Figure 15: both the new and old parts of UF lack any panels on the tops of their buildings, despite

their flatness and vacancy (Google Maps, 2020).

Above, Figure 15 shows a variety of UF buildings that have vacant rooftops that could

effectively be occupied by BAPVs. While flat solar cells are the most common type of panel

installation to date, the university could take things a step further with the use of half-cylinder

solar cells. These cells are a form of thin-film solar cells, which are layers of thinly crafted

photovoltaic materials laid out on any substrate. The difference between these flat cells and

cylindrical ones is that the curvature of the cylinders mean that the cells are absorbing sunlight at

all times of the day, as well as collecting diffuse light. Below, Figure 16 displays the difference

in appearance between cylindrical and flat solar cells.

Though UF has installed experimental panels on buildings like Powell Hall and the Beta

Theta Pi house, there are dozens of more locations for optimal panel additions, especially given

the energy intensive use of the campus as a whole. The collective carbon footprint created from

UF’s energy consumption in its buildings accounts for 75% of the campus’s total use. Of this

percentage, 30%-40% of that is solely derived from plug loads; devices such as printers,

computers, and projectors. The rest of that comes from daily building functions, such as

Figure 16: left: cylindrical solar cells attached to a rooftop; right: flat solar cells attached to a rooftop (Biello,

2011).

managing the indoor temperature and keeping the classrooms lit. The college’s normal block

schedule runs from 7:25 AM to 7:05 PM, meaning that UF is operable Monday through Saturday

for almost an entire half of a day. This consistent usage of energy takes both a toll on the

environment and creates a hefty utility bill. Using solar panels, whether they be cylindrical or

not, would greatly reduce the strain on the electrical and energy systems onsite.

Aside from the obvious benefit of a clean source of energy, solar panels also provide a

great deal of HVAC system relief. HVAC stands for heating, ventilation, and air condition; it is

the system that regulates temperature and circulation in a given building. In Florida, where the

year is hotter than not, air conditioning is continuously kicking on every time the set temperature

of a building raises above its setting. This cycling by the HVAC system consumes a heavy

amount of energy, and while solar panels can help subsidize some of this energy, it can also

increase the insulation of a building should they be installed on a rooftop through a BAPV

method. This is done by the panels needing their own hardware and cushioning on top of the

existing roof, adding layers between direct sunlight and the building’s envelope. This decreases

the amount of heat penetrating the building’s façade, thus keeping temperatures lower by

shielding the construction from outside conditions. The panel layering also retains artificially set

temperatures inside by keeping the air within the building and reducing the natural flow of cool

indoor air exchanging with hot outdoor air. With the decrease in altering temperatures in a

building, the HVAC system runs less and therefore consumes less energy. Below, Figure 17

represents a simplified visual of the setup of a solar panel installation and how its layers increase

insulation.

Layer 1 serves as the glass layer for the panels, though it is anti-reflective with the

purpose of maximizing solar panel lifespans through protection while allowing for sunlight to

pass through. Layer 2 is an encapsulate layer that provides adhesion between solar cells, proving

crucial in keeping temperatures high to increase UV exposure for increasing solar energy. Layer

3 are the solar cells themselves, which are sandwiched between another encapsulate sheet in

layer 4 (Honsberg & Bowden, 2020). Though the purpose of the previous layers is to induce

sunlight absorption, layer 5 is the backsheet, which prevents the solar panels from overintense

UV exposure and moisture penetration, as well as offers electrical insulation to keep the panel

components resistant to outside wear and tear. Layer 6 is where the energy is actually converted

into power, as this is where the heat exchanger is. This layer is composed of conductive metals

like aluminum and copper. Finally, layer 7 is strictly a thermal insulation layer with the sole

Figure 17: visual of solar panel layers on a rooftop that heighten the insulation of a building (Lammle).

purpose of reducing heat loss in the exchange of sunlight to power, although this layer indirectly

shields the building’s interior from exterior temperature intensity (Saur News Bureau, 2018).

Aside from energy generation, the University of Florida could stand to improve its safety

measures when it comes to transportation. Though multimodality is encouraged onsite – with its

numerous bike racks and lanes, parking garages, interconnected walkways cutting through scenic

green spaces, and bus stops peppered through the campus – there is a problem of safety when

mixing pedestrian and vehicular pathways together. The university sees mass amounts of foot

traffic in a condensed area, making vehicles a threat to the average pedestrian. Below, Figure 18

shows that though UF has the right idea for multiple modes of transportation, they are

unenforced and disregarded by the general public.

Figure 19: cars parked in the bike lane on Stadium Road at UF (Google Maps 2020).

As observable, cars are parked all along the bicycle lanes. While cyclists could

technically take to the sidewalks, this would be a highly inefficient option, as the sidewalks are

congested with students and faculty zigzagging across campus to get where they need to be.

Options previously suggested for China was the inclusion of bike tracks – and while this

included the simple painted line as seen above – there were other options such as physical

barriers between cars and bike lanes that would be the next best solution for the University of

Florida. These barriers can range from concrete planters to maintain a sense of greenery on the

streets, to simple concrete poles that only bikes can weave in and out of. Not only would this

prevent cars from taking away biking accessibility, but it would increase the safety of cyclists, as

vehicles would be blocked from even swerving incidentally into the dedicated lane. With the

heightened sense of safety, this means that more university travelers may be encouraged to

utilize their bikes rather than choosing another mode of transportation that may emit more

pollutants – such as bussing or private driving.

Due to its condensed size and hopeful bicycle improvements, the campus may

want to create a bike-sharing app and system for on-campus travels. The campus was created in

1853, meaning that as time went on and buildings were added, the university endured its own

urban sprawl. This means that getting from one end of the university in the hot Florida sun to the

other might be too taxing for a brisk walk, but too short a distance to be wasteful with vehicle

fuel. This makes a cheap but heavily utilized campus-centered bike sharing application ideal to

both students and faculty.

This would serve all three pillars of sustainability, as it would benefit the people by

increasing the sense of safety, the alteration for including bike barriers is a highly versatile

project that can be completed at any range of pricing convenient for the school, and more safety

may induce and increase in bicyclists as opposed to maintaining the traffic of fuel-consuming

transportation.

Another urban design feature that would benefit both China and Gainesville are buffers

for pedestrian crossings at intersections. The campus of the university possesses many wide

streets that provide a lot of leeway for cars to swing around corners. This poses a danger to

pedestrians who may not be paying attention to traffic signals, as unaware drivers who may be

just as unconcentrated could get into an accident without any sort of barrier to warn or stop them.

The inclusion of buffers would serve as a physical deterrent for cars that are headed in a

hazardous direction, as well as serve as a mental deterrent for wide-swinging drivers who are

careless with their turns but do not want to curb their car. Similar to bike lane barriers, these

buffers would increase safety and encourage more sustainable travel.

Finally, the University of Florida is in possession of a green roof, as seen below in Figure

20.

Figure 20: green roof at Rinker Hall on UF’s campus (Google Maps, 2020).

Since its installation, the greenery has browned and been neglected in its upkeep. Yet, as

the Chicago green roof project had proved, green roofs have the ability to steal thousands of tons

of air pollutants from the air every year. If UF created a more structured regime for upkeep on

this rooftop and saw the benefits of having it, then perhaps more green roofs could spring up

around campus.

Similar to solar panels, green rooftops also provide their own layers of insulation that

create a more lax HVAC system, on top of previously mentioned benefits like urban heat island

reduction and air pollution mitigation. The University of Florida, like the rooftops in Chicago,

are extensive roofs that exist to better the environment, as opposed to intensive roofs that exist

for scenic or crop purposes. Extensive rooftops come with an additional layer to go on the

rooftop in order to drain excess water away from plant roots, which serves as a parallel to a PV’s

seventh layer of pure insulation.

CHAPTER V

Closing Remarks

China is the world’s number one polluter in the world, with the main causes in urban

areas being transportation and energy use powered by coal. By adding green spaces in urban

settings, improving safety and encouraging multimodality for transportation, and tapping into

their abundance of renewable energy sources, China can significantly reduce their PM2.5

pollution levels. While meeting the air quality standards of the WHO linger like an unattainable

achievement over China’s head, abiding by the suggested sustainable strategies can certainly get

them closer to the desired levels than previous policies have.

Though there have been issues with effective enforcement of previous regulations in the

past, those regulations did manage to improve the air quality to a small extent. Improvement in

the realm of execution of ideas and communications would see China reaching their full potential

in the air pollution revolution.

While Gainesville’s University of Florida nowhere near amasses the population or

landmass that China possesses, it is still an urban climate with urban issues. The applicability

between China’s solutions and UF’s solutions goes to show the versatility of sustainable

solutions and how they can fit in anywhere across the board. At the same time, the fact that

China can experience the same issues as a city 7,886 miles away goes to show that air pollution

is a global problem that requires global action from all.

The concept of sustainability is to create a series of interacting systems that have positive

economic, environmental, and social outputs. Just as sustainable methods can aid in rectifying

China’s urban climates, these same sustainable methods can aid in rectifying the University of

Florida’s urban climate. This is because no matter the country or continent, sustainability is a

global philosophy that all can grasp, as it is in everyone’s best interest to create successfully

efficient and resilient lifestyles that can be passed down through generations of humankind and

civilizations to come.

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