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Spring 2012 25
In early November 1918, Marion BackuswasstationedasanurseinVillers-Daucourt,France,nearthefrontlines.Tocelebratetheru-morsofanarmistice,theFrenchandAmericansoldiers“gotdrunkand...wild,”shewrote.Mar-ionchoseinsteadtotakealongwalkwithafriend,
andasshereturned,justbeforemidnight,shewasstruckbythesightofherhospitalandthenearbycemeterynestledinthevalley.“Aswestoodthereonthisnight,lookingdownonthehospitallightedforthefirsttimeinfouryearsandknewthatnowweweresometimegoinghome...thethoughtoftheotherboysandfromthem,totheirfolksandwhattheywouldhavetosuffer,madeamixtureoffeelingsthatIwillnotforgetforsometime.Andanycelebrationafterwardneverdidmeanwhatthosefifteenminutesoutthereinthequietthatnight,didtome.”1
ForMarionanddozensofotherMinnesotanwomen,theexperienceofworkingwiththeRedCrossinFranceduringWorldWarIwasasignificantpersonalmilestone.Fromthefrontdesktothefrontline,thesevolunteersofferedaninvaluableservicetotheircountrythathis-toryhasoftenoverlooked.WarriorsonthefrontlinesofFrance,theywerealsopioneersongenderfrontiers,andmanyreturnedtobeleadersintheirhomestate.
InMinnesota,asacrossthenation,theAmericanRedCrossquicklyemergedasthelargestsocial-welfareagencysupportingthewar.ChaptersinbothSt.PaulandMinneapolishadformedbyApril1917,whentheU.S.en-teredthewar,andtheRedCrossbegantofocusitseffortsbothinMinnesotaandabroad.Bythefallof1918,theTwinCities’RedCrosschaptershadenrolledmorethan150,000membersandraisednearlytwomilliondollarsforforeignandlocalwarrelief.Bytheendofthewar,20percentofallMinnesotanshadjoinedtheorganization.Locally,thesevolunteersoperatedcanteensatrailroaddepotstoassistsoldiersintransit,offeredmonetaryandtransportationsupporttosoldiers’families,andorganizedrecreationforthemenatFortSnelling.TheyraisedmoneybyrunningasalvageshopinMinneapolisandofferedclassesinfirstaid,elementaryhygiene,and
homedietetics.Overseas,theMinneapolis,St.Paul,andRochestermembersandmedicalleaderssponsoredBaseHospital#26inAllerey,France,raisingnearly$50,000tosupplyitwithequipmentandbandages.Membersdonatedandthenpaidtoshipnewandusedtrucks,am-bulances,andcarstoEurope.Inaddition,Minnesotansproduced5,842,078surgicaldressings,knitted94,439sweatersandotheritems,produced14,522garmentsforrefugees,andpacked38,551comfortkitswithshavingsupplies,cigarettes,chewinggum,andotheressentials.2
Themostcompellingactofvoluntarygenerosity,however,wasundoubtedlysigninguptoserveinEurope.ThoughtheworkofRedCrossnurseshasbeenstudied,theeffortsofotherwomenhavereceivedlessscholarlyat-tention.Morethan120Minnesotawomenenrolledtobeclerks,searchers,canteeners,socialworkers,supply-truckdrivers,nurses’aides,recreationalvolunteers,stenogra-phers,secretaries,andchemists.3
Theworkofthesevolunteerswasstaggering.InFrancealone,fromJuly1,1917toFebruary28,1919,theAmericanRedCrossestablished551stationsfromwhichitofferedservice.Twenty-fourofthesewerehospitalsrunjointlywiththeU.S.Army.Thesehospitalshad14,890beds,served91,356patients,andsawjust1,457deaths.TheRedCrossalsoran12convalescenthomesforsol-diersandorganizedreconstructionandre-educationeffortsforcrippledanddisabledmen.ItmaintainedemergencydepotsofmedicalsuppliesfortheAmericanarmyandmedical-supplydepotsforFrenchhospitalsandproducedallsplints,nitrous-oxideanesthetic,andoxygenforthearmy.4
TheRedCrossalsooperated130canteens—servingmorethan6millionmealsand12milliondrinks—onthefrontlines,alonglinesofcommunication,ataviationcamps,evacuationhospitals,andmetropolitancenters.Beyondthat,itprovidedrecreationandwelfareservice;hospitalfarmsandgardens;movingpicturesforhospitals;gravephotography;reliefforcivilians,Frenchsoldiers’families,andchildren(includinghospitals,clinics,canteens,expositions,andadoptionassistance);andanti-tuberculosisefforts.
Nancy O’Brien Wagner is a local historian and proud St. Paulite.
facing: St. Paulites who served in France: ( front, from left)
sisters Lucile Davis and Marguerite Davis, Alice O’Brien, Mary
Morissey; (back) Anna Corcoran, Jessie Moberg, Anne Williams.
26 Minnesota History
warandFIGHTfortheUnitedStates.I’mcominghome,I’mcomingrighthomeandapplytotheRedCross...togooverseas.”7Margaretdroppedherstudiesandbeganthecumbersomeapplicationprocess,coordinatingherapplicationwiththatofafriendfromChicago.Apply-ingingroupsoftwoorevenfourwascommon,andthelettersthewomenexchangedtellusmuchabouttheirfriendships.
Forsome,suchasvocational-guidanceassistantHelenScriverofMinneapolis,thefirsttaskwastocon-vincetheirbrotherstodelayenlisting.AftersecuringherpositionandarrivinginParis,HelenwrotetoherbrotherEugene,bythenatmachinegunofficerstrainingcampinGeorgia:“IcannottellyouhowmuchIappreciateyourwaitingformetogetoffandwhatagoodsportyouare.Isendyouheapsofloveandwishyouthebestofsuccessingettingyourcommission.”8
Thelargerfamilyhadtobeconsidered,too.Eachofthesewomenwaswellawareoftheattitudesoffamily
Thisworkwasallcompletedby5,860maleandfemalevolunteersandpaidstaff.Practicallyspeaking,commandinggeneralsofvariousarmyareasapprovedorcontrolledtheeffortsofRedCrossfielddirec-tors.5RedCrossworkerswereassubjecttomilitaryordersasanysoldier.
Unlikethesoldiers,however,RedCrossvolunteerswerenotalwayspaid,andmanyofthosewhowerepaidreceivedonlylivingexpenses.Inrecruitingfemalevolunteers,theRedCrosslookedfora“certaintypeofgirl.”WhiletheStateDepartmentdecreedthatwomenvolunteerscouldnothaveafather,son,husband,orbrotherinthearmedservices,RedCrossheadquartersclarifiedthatgoodtemper,discretion,andself-reliancewereessential,andthatwomenhadtobewillingtoworkfora“nominalsalary.”Officeworkershadtobe28through35yearsold,andsimilaragerulesappliedtootherpo-sitions.Preferably,volunteersshouldalsohavesomeknowledgeofFrenchorItalian.6
Theserestrictionslargelylimitedthevolunteerpooltounmarried,educated,upper-classwomen—thosewithoutspousalobligationsorsignificantfinancialneeds.Whiletheirwealthmightsuggestthatthesewomencamewithromanticizedassumptions,theireducation,age,andsinglestatussuggestedindependentminds.Indeed,therecordsshowthateachwomanheldherown—sometimesunconventional—attitudesandbeliefs,thoughcertaincommoncharacteristicsappear.Thesewomenweretough,creative,patriotic,anddetermined.
The women who volunteered for Franceconsciouslysetasidetraditionalclassandgenderrolestoclaimnewones.St.PauliteMargaretMacLarenwasstudyingorganinNewYorkwhenthewarbegantogobadlyfortheUnitedStates.Inthespringof1918,shede-cided,“Idon’twanttobeanorganist,Iwanttogotothe
Recruitment posters encouraged women
to volunteer locally and overseas.
Spring 2012 27
wrestlingwithBoardofEducationproblems,thatweshouldbetalkingatthistimeaboutourworkinParis,&actuallybeinParis.”11
Tolivefrugally,mostwomensharedroomsinmod-estboardinghouses.St.PauliteandformerteacherGraceMaryBellwroteaboutadjustingtohernewroommateinBrest:“WeareputondifferentworknowsoIdon’tsup-poseI’llseeherexceptwhileshe’stakingabath.Wegetalongfinebecauseweneveragreeaboutanythingandthesametypeofmanneverlikesbothofus.”12Evenpreviouslygoodfriendshipsfacedthechallengesofclosequarters.DeeSmithrelated
Ruby[Applebee]andI
satupuntil1:30Satnight
aweekagoarguingabout
whetherornottherewas
suchathingasHeaven&
finallyItoldherifwewere
tobefriendsanylongerit
wasuptoustogotobed.
SheisarankSocialist&
doesn’tbelieveinHeaven
orapersonalGod&you
canimaginewhatlivelyar-
gumentswehave.Wenever
getmad,luckily,butshe
thinksmyideasarequeer
&Ithinkhersareawful.13
Onraredaysoff,manyvolunteershurriedtofindtheirfriendsandpackin
members—whethersupportiveorskeptical.DeeSmith,previouslyaclerkattheMinneapolisBoardofEduca-tion,wrotehome:“HadaverynicelongletterfromAuntLou—shesaidshewasveryproudthata‘female’ofthefamilyhadhadthegreatopportunity.”ThoughAliceM.O’BrienleftSt.PaulforParisdespiteherfather’sdisap-proval,shestillhopedtoconvincehimofthevalueofherefforts:“MaxwrotethathecalledandfoundyouallathomeandthatDadwasstillsayingthatIhadnobusinessinFrance.Iwishhecouldseemeforabouttwelvehoursoutofthetwenty-fourandhemightchangehismind.”9
ApprovalfromtheRedCrossandtheWarDepart-mentcouldbeequallydifficulttoget.Theapplicationrequirementsweredemanding:recommendations,four“loyaltyletters”fromprominentpeoplewhowouldvouchforthevolunteer,interviews,vaccinations,inocula-tions,proofofbirthintheUnitedStates(noGermanorAustrianancestryallowed),thenpassports.Oncetheap-provalandapreliminaryjobassignmentcame,thefinaltaskwastogetauniform.“Nobodylikesouruniforms—theyarenotbecomingtoanyoneandthehatsaremostunbecoming,”DeeSmithcomplained.Othersenjoyedtheformality;“OuruniformscamelastnightandwefeellikethreestiffsoldiersbutitisverynicetohavethembecauseeveryoneinParisisinuniform,”AliceO’Brienwrote.Herfriend,NewYorkerDorisKellogg,describedthefirstdayinuniformandherexperiencebeingsaluted:“Icouldhardlybelievemyeyes,andreallydidn’t.Thentoday...aYMCAmanpresentedmewiththenoblestsaluteintheworld.Iwaspanic-strickenandjustfeeblysmiled....WhenafewminuteslateranothersalutecamealongIwasweakasarag—reallystillam.”10
In Paris, the process of acclimatization trulybegan.SomeofthevolunteershadtraveledtoParisbe-fore,butforothers,beinginaforeignlandwasanentirelynewexperience.Whilewaiting—sometimesweeks—fortheirfinaljobandlocationassignments,theyhadtofindtemporaryhousing,adjusttoanewlanguage,andlearnanewcity.“It’sagreatlife,”wroteDeeSmith.“ButIcouldn’thelpthinkingtonightasHelen&Isat&talked,howlittlewedreamedsixmonthsagowhenwewere
I want to go to the war and FIGHT for the United States.''
Dee Smith, who served as a
secretary, described her
uniform as “very business
like and unbecoming . . .
tho now that I am getting
used to it, it isn’t so bad &
I guess I can stand it.”
28 Minnesota History
Late train arrivals were just one of manywartimeannoyances.Flies,lice,fleas,hives,chilblains—nearlyeverywomancomplainedofthese.Foodshortages,foodandcoalrationing,andhighpriceswerepopulartopics,too.MarionBackuswrote:“Betweencuties[sic],flees[sic],andhivesIamhavinganinterestingtime.Thelasttwobothermemost....theonlythingsImissarepieandcake.WhenIgethomeamgoingtoeatadozenpiesrightstraightatonelick,andthenastrawberryshortcake.”19
AliceO’Briendismissedthesediscomfortswithsuspi-ciouslyadamantprotests.
AllyourletterscarrymessagesofSympathysuchas—
Imustbeworkingsohard—notenoughfood—not
enoughsleep—feetmustbesore,etc.etc.Iamsorry
ifmylettershavegivenyouthatimpressionbecauseit
isnotatrueone.Ofcoursewedoworkhardbutwelove
itandnothingisashealthyashardwork.Wehavefine
beds,andIassureyouweusethemalot.Ihavenever
beenbetterinmylife—never—andIhaveeverything
Ineed.20
Everythingbutintactsocks,itappears.InJuly,Alicewrote,“Mugs[MargueriteDavis]cameintotheroomlastnightandsawmedarningsocksbythefeeble[can-dle]lightandsaidthatsherealized,forthefirsttime,howfarwewerefromhome.Youbetwe’realongwayoff
asmuchsightseeingastheycould.Thoughthecathedrals’stained-glasswindowswereboardedoverandmanystoreswereclosedandstreetsquiet,itwasstillFrance.14TheywrotehomeaboutvisitingNotreDame,Napoleon’stomb,theTuileries,anddaytripstoFontaine-bleauandVersailles.Theymetforluncheons,walksthroughtheparks,andwindowshopping.
Alongwiththetraveloguesthatpepperedthewomen’sletters,theytriedtoassuagefamilyconcernsabouttheirsafetyandsocialimpropriety.AssoonasMarionBackusarrivedinParis,shewrotehomeabouthertransatlan-ticcrossing:“Oneofthe[fellowpassengers]wasamanaboutmiddleageandatruegentlemanandisgoingtogetmyaddresshereandhasgivenmehissothatifatanytimehecanbeofanyassistancetomeIcancallonhimsonowIfeelasifIhadonefriendhere.Ifanyonegetsworriedaboutthisjusttellthemheismarried.”15
Marion’sfathermusthavegivenheradditionalsecu-rityintheformofarevolver.Intwodifferentlettersshecrypticallydescribeshergunasababy.“TheothernightIwasoutforawalkwithoneoftheboysandItookmybabyandexercisedhim.Afterwardstheyounggentlemantookhim(thebaby)andcleaneditupallnice.Thoughtthiswouldinterestfather.”16
Mostwomenapparentlytrustedthechivalryofthemenaroundthemandwrotehomefrequentlyoftheirconsideratetreatment.DeeSmithmentionedtwiceinoneletterhowsafethestreetswere.“Youcan’tgoany-wherewithoutseeingakhakiuniform,&wehaven’thadtheleastthingunpleasanthappen.TheFrenchlikeus.”17
Likeallcorrespondents,however,thewriterssome-timesomittedinformation.HelenScriveradmittedtoherfriendDeeSmith,“Ican’ttellmymotherIgottoMarseilleat3a.m.Shehasn’tgottenovermyarrivinginN.Y.at11p.m.yet,(Iwasn’tmet).”18
Alice O’Brien wrote home from Orry-
la-Ville, “Enclosed find a photo of Dode
[Doris Kellogg] and me taken in the
woods just outside the Canteen, with a
group of men who are guards . . . . My
hands are behind me because they are
covered in doughnut dough.”
Spring 2012 29
Aloneinaforeignland,fightingawarwithanun-certainoutcome,thesewomenweredeterminednottolettheircomradesortheircountrydown.HelenScriversummeduptheseattitudes:“Myconclusionsarealwaysthesame,namelyifotherscanspeakthislanguage,Ican,iftherestcanliveinthesehouses,socanIandiftherestcanholdtheirjobs,Imustbeabletoholdmine.Itisagoodphilosophy.”23
Helen’ssteadfastdeterminationwascommon,andthevolunteers’unflinchingeffortsmadetheworkoftheAmericanRedCrosspossible.Forexample,nurseMarionBackuswastransferredtoEvacuationHospital#110inVillers-DaucourtinSeptember1918.Afteralongdayoftravel,shewentondutythatnightandstayedonfortwoweeks.“IfanybodyhadtoldmethatIcouldtakecareofmorethantwoetherpatientsbeforeIcameoverhereIwouldhavelaughedandthoughtthemjoking.ButnowIcanwatch45inoneward,36inthenext(eachseparatebuildings)and30inthenextandneverwinkaneye.”24
Inthefallof1918,MargueriteDavisandAliceO’Brienwatchedastrainaftertrainofmenunloadedat
theircampnearChantilly.“Weareawfullybusythesedays,”Alicewrotehome.OnSeptember7,theirfriendDorisKelloggreportedthat,withjustthreeotherwomen,theyserved1,157mealsintheircanteeninthree-and-a-halfhours;onSeptember18,theydishedup1,300meals,andonOctober20,morethan1,600.25
whenIstartdarning.”ShewentontorequestthatsocksbesentfromSt.Paul.Theyarrivedfourmonthslater,inthehandsofGraceMaryBell,anacquaintancewhohadsignedonasacanteener.ShedescribedthemeetingforAlice’sparents:“Ideliveredsafelyintoherhandssundryarticlesatwhichpointshedevoutlyremarked‘ThanktheLord,Icanstopdarning!’”21
Casesofhomesicknessdeveloped,too,thoughfewwouldadmitit.DeeSmithwrotefromPariswithinsight-fulcandor:
Thewholeideahereisanythingtokeepthemoraleof
themenashighaspossible,&everyoneissoproudof
themthatnoonebegrudgesthemagoodtime.Itis
fineforthegirls,too,thonooneeverseemstothink
theymaygetlonelyanddiscouraged.Ihavemetanoc-
casionalonewhowasfranklyhomesick,&don’tdoubt
thereareotherswhoare,butkeepittothemselves.
IthinkImightbeifIdidn’thavelotsofwork,butI
haven’ttimetothinkofbeinghomesick.Isometimes
evenforgetthereisawar.22
If others can speak this language, I can,
if the rest can live in these houses,
so can I and if the rest can hold their jobs,
I must be able to hold mine.''
Hospital ward, Tours, where Verna
Halsted distributed “every known variety
of tobacco and the pipes to smoke with,”
as well as cigarettes, gum, stationery,
pencils, handkerchiefs, chocolate,
newspapers, magazines, shaving kits,
eggs, fruit, and fresh flowers
suchasallotmentsnotbeingpaid,providingthemwith
legaladviceifsuchwereneededconcerningtheirprop-
ertyets.[sic]“backhome.”Ifboyswereworriedthru
lackofmailabouthomefolkswewouldcabletoascer-
tainifallwerewell....Wehadlistsofmissingmensent
tousfromHeadquartersevery15days&wewouldtry
togetinformationconcerningthesemenfrompatients
thatwereinsamecompanies,ets.&wereoftensuccess-
fulintrackingmenthathadbeenreportedmissing.26
Atbasehospitalsandalongtransportationlines,RedCrossvolunteersworkedhardtoentertainthesoldiers.MaryWhiteJones,ateacherfromMinneapolis,servedasarecreationalhutdirectoratAllereyandBeauDes-ertfromAugust1918toApril1919.Keepinghundredsofmenentertainedwasnosmallfeat.Herhuthadalargereadingroom,theaterdressingroom,kitchen,andcanteen.Achaplain,barber,andtailorwereavailable;churchserviceswereheldonSundays.Therewereusu-ally400soldiersinthehutatatime,withmorecomingandgoing.Sheorganizedtheatricaleventsusingthesol-diers’talentsandalsoexchangedorchestras,minstrels,vaudevilleshows,andconcertswithotherunits.Maryandherstaffofthreeoffereddoughnuts,hotchocolate,cigarettes,andtobaccotofillouttheday.Eachevening,sheorganizedsing-alongs,andWednesdayswerere-servedforadanceorshow.27
Attheotherendofthespectrumwerethenecessaryofficejobs.HelenScriveracknowledgedthedullnessofherposition.
EventhoughmyjobbordersdirectlyontheclericalI
thinkIhavebeenbetterplacedthanthemajority.Over
hereyougetwhatyougetandmakethebestofit.Ifeel
thatIhavebeenexceptionallywellassignedconsider-
ingwhatIhopethatIcandoandforthatreasoneven
thoughitseemslessromantictoyouinthestatesthan
bringingintherefugeesIamsatisfied.28
“The Red Cross is truly marvelous,”GushedAliceO’Brien.“EverythingthearmycannotdotheyturnovertotheRedCrossandithasneverfailedyet.”Evenasshewasworkingbehindthelinesandherbrotherwasenlisting,shestillwonderedifherfamily’scontributionswereadequate.“Doyouthinkthat,asafamily,wehavegivenenough?...Sellmycar&givetheproceedstotheR.C....IworkashardasIcan,liveeconomically,andtrytohelpfinanciallywhenIcanbut
Thehospitalswerecrowdedwithmenneedingmorethanmedicalcare.Previouslyadoctor’sassistant,VernaHalstedwasfamiliarwithsickpatients.InFrance,shewasresponsiblefor“writingmortalityletterstothenear-estofkinofboysthatdied.”Inaddition
Asweusuallysawtheboyseachdaytherewereusually
messagesgiventousfortheir“homefolks.”Wealsotook
careofanylegalmattersthatmightcomeupfortheboys
15 wHo ServedThe experiences of these women, a sampling of the female
Red Cross volunteers who returned the four-page ques-
tionnaire about their service to Minnesota’s War Records
Commission, provided the basis for this look at the spec-
trum of women’s war work.
Ruby Marie Applebee, 29, Minneapolis: Stenographer,
Paris and Bucharest
Marion Backus, 27, Minneapolis: Nurse in Paris,
Beauvais, Chantilly, and Villers-Daucourt
Grace Mary Bell, 31, St. Paul: Canteener, Brest
Marguerite Davis, 27, St. Paul: Chauffeur with American
FundforFrenchWounded(aFFW),Paris;canteener,
Toul, Chantilly, and Germany with Red Cross
Julia Gray,40,Minneapolis:Canteener,Vierzon;
shipping clerk, Paris
Aileen Hagerty,33,Minneapolis:Secretary,Paris;
canteener, Tours
Verna Halsted, 28, Duluth: Searcher, Tours
Leila Heath, 32, White Bear Lake: Hospital hut director,
Angers and Bordeaux
Mary White Jones, 29, Minneapolis: Recreation
hut director, Allerey and Beau Desert
Margaret MacLaren, 27, St. Paul: Canteener, Brest
Alice O’Brien, 27, St. Paul: Mechanic with AFFW,
Paris;nurses’aidinParis,canteenerinToul,
and truck driver in Chantilly with Red Cross
Helen Scriver, 29, Minneapolis: Office clerk,
Paris and Marseille
Dee Smith, 36, Minneapolis: Secretary, Paris
Winifred Swift, 26, Minneapolis: Chemist, Paris
Rose Walsh, 29, St. Paul: Canteener, Tours and Brest
Spring 2012 31
AnoldFrenchmanwaspassing,manyinfact,butthis
oneinparticularthrewbackhisheadandroared.Ithink
itwasthefirstgoodlaughhehadsincethewarstarted
andhewentdownthestreetdoubledoverinmirth.33
Good humor, resourcefulness, and flexibilitywereinvaluabletraitsforRedCrossvolunteers.Whenasked,thesewomendroppedtheirworkandjumpedtodowhateverwasneeded.MargaretMacLarenenlistedasahospitalworker,thenbeganrunningacanteen.Soon,shewasdrivingasupplytruck.MinneapolitanWinifredSwiftvolunteeredasaphysiologicalchemistatRedCrossHospital#2inParis,helpingtoresearchthenatureandtreatmentofgasgangrene.“Duringtheheavyworkfol-lowingtheoffensiveofspring1918andsummer,researchworkwasabandonedtogivemorehandsforthetaskofcaringforthewounded....allsparemomentsweregiventorelievethenursesofsuchworkasmightbedonebythoselesstrained.”34
AliceO’Brienwasanothervolunteerwhorolleduphersleevesandworkedwhereverneeded.InitiallyhiredasamechanicfortheAmericanFundforFrenchWounded,shetransferredtotheRedCrosswhenworkwasslow.WhilewaitingforherassignmentinParis,shebecameanauxiliarynurse.Monthslater,stationedasacanteenernearChantilly,sheshowedevenmoreversatil-ity:“OurChauffer[sic]isgoodbecause,atpresent,Iamoneofthem.ThedriveroftheFordatCanteen#2wentonaspreeandwasperemptorilydismissedsoIamfill-inghisshoes.Donotknowyetwhethertheyaregoingtosendusanothermanorsendmealicenseanddon’tmuchcare.”35
LeilaA.Heathshowedsimilarimpatiencewithredtapeandacan-dospirit.AsthedirectorofahospitalhutinAngers,shewasresponsibleforseeingthatthemenwereentertainedastheyrecovered.Aftersendingintendifferentrequisitionsforcandyandgumandhavingnoanswerforthreeweeks,Leilatookmattersintoherownhands.ShewasdeterminedtogetcandyforherboysforChristmas,particularlythegaspatientswhocravedgum.SheandadriversetoffforthewarehouseinNantesonDecember22,andafterfivehoursofdrivingtoNantesandanotherfive-and-a-halfofbeinglostinthecity,theyarrivedatthewarehouseafterithadclosed.Theywaited
nothavingaprivatefortuneofmyownorthecapacityforearningone,allIcandoistoremindyouofit,incaseyoushouldforget,andbegyoutoshell overforthenextdrive.”29
Overall,thevolunteers’enormousprideintheRedCrosswasentirelywarranted.AsDeeSmithwrote,“Youcan’tbegintotellthegoodtheRedCrossaredoing.Thereisabsolutelynothinginthewayofhelpforthesepoorpeoplethattheydonotthinkof&do.Itisthemostwonderfulorganizationeverimagined.”Smith’spridewastintedwithadifferentemotion,too.“Iamhappytobehereandneverhasanythingbeensosatisfying,tho’ofcourselikealltheRedCrosspersonnel,I’dlovetogetclosetotheguns.”30
Whileworkatthefronthadadditionalexcitement,italsohadadditionaldanger.InuredtothefrequentairraidsoverChantilly,AliceO’BrienandMargueriteDavisbegantoremainintheirroomsduringthebomb-ingratherthanseekshelterinanunderground“cave.”Eventually,Alicewasstickingherheadoutofthewin-dowtowatchthebattles.“Heavens,whatasport,”wrotetheirfriendDorisKellogg,“tothinkthosegunsareaftermen.Isn’tithorrible?Ican’twaittilltomorrowtohearthenews,alsotopickuptheshrapnelthat’sbeenhailingdownonourroofandcourt.”31
Awayfromthefrontandtheshrapnel,therewerestillplentyofdangers.Lifewasstrenuousanddifficult,andmanyofthewomensufferedseriousillnesses.AliceO’Briendevelopedtonsillitis.MarionBackuscamedownwithbronchialpneumoniaandspentnearlytwomonthsinahospital.Theinfluenzapandemicsweptthroughthebases,hospitals,andcanteens.St.PauliteRuthCutlerwasinFranceforapproximatelyfourweeksbeforebe-comingillwithinfluenzaanddying.32
Withtypicalwartimebravado,thewomenoftendownplayeddangerswithhumor.AliceO’BrienwroteanupbeataccountofabombingduringherearlydaysinParis.
Dode[Kellogg],Mugs[Davis]andIwerewalkingalong
thePlacede[la]Concordeyesterdaymorningonour
waytotheRedCross,talkingexcitedlyabouttheoffen-
sive,whentheBigGunlandedashellafewblocksaway
withabangthatmusthavebeenheardinNewYork.
Mugsgaveonewhoopandwentthreefeetintotheair.
I'd love to get close to the guns.''
32 Minnesota History
twohours,untilaworkerhappenedtocomebytogivethemtheircasesofgumandcandy.Ontheirwayback,theytookawrongturninthedark,thenranoutofgas.Theyspentthenightinthecar,itsroofleakingrain.At4:30thenextmorning,Leilabeganaseven-milewalkinthemudtogetgas.Fueltankfull,theyheadedhome,onlytobestymiedagainbyfourpuncturedtiresandonlythreetubes.Leilaabandonedthedriveroncemoreandhitchedaridebacktoherhospital.Uponarrival,shesentanothercarbackforherdriverandthecandy.“Icanassureyou,”sheconfided,“despiteallthetrouble,ifyoucouldhaveseentheboys’faceswhenIsaid‘Ihavecandy.’Itwasworthit.”36
Keepingupthesoldiers’moralewasanimportanttask.Forsome,likerecreationhutdirectorMaryWhiteJones,itwasaformaljob;forothers,itwasinformal.Manyexpressedmixedemotionsaboutthisexpectation:theyenjoyedtheattentionbutacknowledgedtheunder-lyingfrustrationofbeingvaluedchieflyfortheirfemininecharms.AliceO’Brienpredictedthattheattentionshe
Canteens such as this one in Vierzon served hundreds of men quickly, cafeteria style. Besides meals,
many also offered hot chocolate and light refreshments out a side window.
receivedwouldincreasewhenshewentfromservingataFrenchbasetoanAmericanbase.“ItwillbefuntobewithourownboysandmostofthemaresodelightedtoseeanAmericangirlthatyoufeelasthoyouwerehelp-ingyourCountryjusttotalktothem.Mostofthemaresolonesomethattheytrytoputonaskitwitheveryoneinskirtssoitisnotarealcomplimenttohavethemfallatyourfeet.”37
GraceMaryBellhadasimilarreaction.
Idancemyfoolheadoffandgrowtolikedancingmore
andmore—whateverwillIdoshouldIreturntodear
oldJohnson[highschool]wherenoonethinksofme
asan“AmericanGirl?”Really,mostofusgotoabout
fourdancesaweek!There’saneworderaboutsending
officerstobedatteno’clocksomaybewe’llkeepbetter
hours.38
AtthebaseinBrest,MargaretMacLarenfacedhaz-ardsbesideslatehours.
Spring 2012 33
Ofcourse,youhadtodanceeverynight...andthere
wereaboutfivegirlsandaboutfivehundredboys,and
youjustthinknothingof,changepartners,changepart-
ners,andIdancedin...whatyou’dcallnow,ahunting
boot.Iwrotemyfamilytosendmesomeheavy,heavy
shoes,becausetheywerewalkingalloverourfeet.39
MargaretandtheotherRedCrosswomenwerebothchallengingexpectationsandfulfillingthem.Theyweresingle,welleducated,risktaking,and“modern”enoughtosignonforforeignwarservice,buttheyalsogamelymetthegenderexpectationsofthetimes.Ifthevolun-teerssawacontradictionbetweendrivingsupplytrucksbydayanddancingallnight,theydidnotexpressit.
OnthefrontlinesofFrance,thesewomenprovedtheirmettletimeandagain.Whenfacedwithsexism,theyrespondedpragmatically.AliceO’Brientookontheroleoftruckdriverforhercanteenbutforweekswasnotofficiallyassignedthatposition,asitwasaman’sjob.Whenshefinallywasassigned,shewrote
[Maj.Osborn]hasalwaysbeenprejudicedagainst
womendriversandeveryonesaidthathewouldnever
havetheminhisdepartmentbutevidentlyhehad
changedhismind.Perhapshasbeenforcedintodoingit.
However,IamaChauffer[sic]—havebeenforthepast
twoweeks...IfeelexactlylikeanArmysupplywagon
driver,which,ofcourse,indirectly,Iam.40
ThevolunteerswerewellawareoftheiruncommonstatusasindependentAmericanwomen.Some,suchasDorisKellogg,hopedtoinspirechange.“YouknowIcan’tstandtheattitudebetween[French]menandwomenhereatall,”shewrote.“Thementreatthewomenjustasthoughtheywereonlymadetobeaplaythingandthesillywomenloveit.IthinkweEnglishandAmericanwomenmaydosomethingmoreforFrancethanwarworkifwecansowsomeseedsofsocialconscienceintheFrenchwomen’sbrains.”MarionBackus,forherpart,ap-
preciatedtheeffortsofherEuropeansisters.“TheFrenchandEnglishgirlshavemadewonderfuldriversontheambulance.Theyhavemorepatiencethanthemenandsodrivesteadier.”41
AliceO’Brienclearlyunderstoodthatidentityandbe-haviorwerebeingshapedbygender,culture,andclass.
TheFrenchwomendowhattheycanbutmostofthem
havenotbeentrainedtobeindependent,astheAmeri-
canshave,soarehamperedintheirwarwork.Theclass
thatishelpingmostarethewomenofthepoorwhoyou
seedoingalmostalltheworkthatwasdonebymen,
runningshops,streetcars,subways,portersinthesta-
tions,drivingwagonsanddoingallsortsofoddjobs.42
ThefreedomandresponsibilitythatRedCrossvol-unteersenjoyedabroadcontrastedsharplywithlifebackintheUnitedStates,wherethenationwiderighttovotewouldeludewomenforanothertwoyearsand
of course, you had to dance every night.
I wrote my family to send me
some heavy, heavy shoes, because they
were walking all over our feet.''
Margaret MacLaren continued to volunteer for
the Red Cross throughout her life. Proud of her
World War I service, she donned her canteener
uniform to talk about her experiences.
34 Minnesota History
Russia.She,too,wasinvolvedinmanycivicandculturalorganizations,includingtheWomen’sOverseasServiceLeague,theBusinessandProfessionalWomen’sClub,andtheMinneapolissymphony.Shecontinuedtotravelandsocializeuntilherdeathin1963.46
AliceO’BrienreturnedtoSt.Paulandturnedherat-tentionstoactivism,travel,artcollecting,philanthropy,andherbelovedWomen’sCityClub.Intheearly1920s,AlicetraveledtoChina,whereshecollectedfineart.In1927shejourneyedwiththreefriendsandaprofessionalphotographertoAfrica,trekkinguptheCongoRiverandacrosslandtothecontinent’seasterncoast.BackinSt.Paulin1928,shetookupthecauseoftheWomen’sCityClub.Aschairmanofthebuildingcommitteefrom1929to1936,Aliceledtheeffortstochooseasite,selectanarchitect,drawuptheplans,andraisemoneyforaclubhouse.ShecompletedallofhertasksinthefirsttwoyearsoftheGreatDepressionandoversawtheopeningofafashionableandpopularclubin1931.Throughoutherlife,AlicecontinuedtoadvocateforcausessuchastheChildren’sHospitalofSt.Paul,CampCourage,andsurgicalresearchattheUniversityofMinnesota.Herloveforconservationledhertodonate180acresoflandtothestateinhonorofherfather,WilliamO’Brien,andshecontinuedtoworkwiththeJayN.(Ding)DarlingFoun-dationinFloridauntilherdeathin1962.47
As these examples show, many of the women
whoservedintheRedCrossinFrancecontinuedtotacklesocialandcivicchallengesintheirhomestate.Afterentertainingmorethan400men,serving1,600meals,nursing111etherpatients,dealingwithkilometersofredtape,walkingthroughmilesofmud,orpickingshrapneloutoftheirgardens,theywerenotgoingtobeheldbackbyconventionalattitudesaboutwhatwomencouldachieve.MostwomenreturnedwiththeircourageandresolvestrengthenedbytheirserviceinFrance.Theirexperiencesmadethemstrong,andtheyleftalegacythatcontinuestoinspireusnearly100yearslater. a
anti-suffragistswerestillarguingthatwomenlackedthementalfacultiestobeabletofollowcomplexpoliticaldebates.Thechairofthewoman’sauxiliaryoftheMin-nesotaCommissionofPublicSafetywasassertingthat“thehighestpatrioticservice[women]canrendertheircountryistokeepitswomanhoodcleaninthoughtanddeed.”43ThewomenvolunteersoftheRedCrossignoredthelimitingrolesandlimitedexpectationsfortheirsex.Theyknewtheyhadahigherpatrioticservice:work-ingbehindthebattlefields.Theywerecrossinggenderboundaries,notjustinternationalones.
Their experiences in World War I becamecentraltouchstonesinthelivesofmanyofthesewomen.Immediatelyafterthearmistice,somereturnedhomeandtookuptheirformerlives.44Otherscompletedalon-gerservice,stayingabroaduntillate1919.ManybecameactiveintheWomen’sOverseasServiceLeague.
InspiredbyherexperienceinFrance,hospitalworkerandcanteenerMargaretMacLarenreturnedtotheTwinCitiesdeterminedtocontinuetovolunteerandservehercommunity.ThoughshelatertraveledinEuropeforpleasure,inMinnesotashewasactiveinmanycivic,cultural,andcharitableorganizations,includingtheMinnesotaMuseumofArtandSchubertClub.Hertruepassion,however,wastheRedCross.HerparentshadbeenfoundersoftheSt.Paulchapterin1917,andMar-garetcontinuedactiveserviceinitwellintohereighties.Shevolunteeredinthehomeservicesdepartmentandservedassecretaryontheboardofdirectors.MargaretwasafounderoftheSt.PaulRegionalBloodCenterin1948andprovidedfinancialsupportforthesuccessivelylargerchapterhouses.Whenshediedin1981attheageof90,shewasdescribedinthesamewordsthattypifiedherlifeasavolunteerinFrance:“afighterwhoworkedtogetthingsdone”andan“enthusiastic”and“energetic”“broadthinker.”45
MargueriteDavis,whohadworkedasacanteenerinChantilly,Toul,andthenGermany,returnedtoSt.Paulandtookupwhereshehadleftoff:asatennisstar.Beforethewar,shehadwontheSt.Paul,Minnesota,Northwestern,andWesternchampionships.Afterwards,shewonnumerousstatechampionshipsandheldtheNorthwesterntitleuntil1929.Shewasoncerankedtwelfthnationallyforwomen’ssinglesplayersandwasstillastarinhersixties,winningtheNorthwesterndou-blestitlesin1956and1958.Inaddition,shestartedherowntravelagencyandtraveledtoFinland,Africa,and
Research for this article was financed, in part, by the Minnesota Arts and Cultural Heritage Fund(aCHF),andpublicationwassupported,inpart,bytheEugenieM.andersonWomeninPublic Affairs Fund.
Spring 2012 35
Notes1.MarionBackustoDearFamily,Nov.26,
1918,MarionBackusPapers,MinnesotaHistoricalSociety(MHS);allBackusletterscitedareinthiscollection.Villers-DaucourtEvacuationHospital#110wasnearthetownnowknownasVillers-en-Argonne.
2.H.G.Clemens,“St.Paul’sMostRe-markableAchievement,”St. Paul Daily News,Aug.25,1918;MinneapolisChapterRedCross,“AnnualStatement...October1918”;andMinneapolisChapterChairmantoJ.T.Pearson,May21,1917,BaseHospital#26Papers—allinAmericanRedCrossCol-lection,SocialWelfareHistoryArchives,UniversityofMinnesota,Minneapolis.The Work of the American Red Cross During the War(Washington,D.C.:AmericanRedCross,Oct.1919),11;RedCrossawardcertif-icateforMacLarendonation,AliceandToddJohnsonprivatecollection;AliceO’BrientoWilliamandJuliaO’Brien,May28,1918,AlvinaO’Brienprivatecollection.AllO’Brienletterscitedareinthiscollection.
3.TheWarRecordsCommission’sWorldWarIMilitaryServiceRecords,StateAr-chives,MHS,hasfilesfor120RedCrosswomenwhoservedinpositionsotherthannurse.Certainly,thereweremorevolun-teerswhoneverreturnedaquestionnairetothecommission.Forcomparison,76filesdocumentwomenwhoworkedforotherso-cialagencies(SalvationArmy,YWCA)and256documentmeninsimilarpositions.
4.Hereandbelow,American Red Cross During the War,51–64.
5.American Red Cross During the War,46–47;FosterRheaDulles,The American Red Cross: A History(NewYork:Harper,1950),143–45.
6.RedCrossForeignService,“Qualifica-tionsnecessaryforwomenstenographers,bookkeepersandclericalhelp,”DeeSmithPapers,MHS.AsofAugust1918,thesistersofsoldierswereallowedtoenrolliftheypromisednottovisittheirbrothers;North-ern Division Bulletin(Minneapolis),Aug.15,1918,p.1.Ofthe5,860whoworkedinFrance,802receivednopay;American Red Cross During the War,45–47.
7.MargaretMacLaren,interviewbyRandiSulkin,1980,transcript,AmericanRedCrossTwinCities’Chapterarchives,Minneapolis.Margaret’slastnamewassometimesrecordedasMcLaren.
8.HelenScrivertoDearEugene,Sept.15,1918,HelenScriverPapers,MHS;allScriverletterscitedareinthiscollection.Whenwomencouldnotvolunteeriftheirbrotherswereenlisted,theoppositewasnottrue.
9.DeeSmithtoDearFolks,Aug.30,1918,Smithpapers;allSmithletterscitedareinthiscollection.AliceO’BrientoJuliaO’Brien,July[~19],1918.
10.BureauofPersonneltoGraceMaryBell,Sept.9,1918,GraceMaryBellfile,RedCrossNorthernDivisionRecords,MHS;
RedCrossForeignService,“Qualificationsnecessary,”Smithpapers;BureauofPerson-nel,“InstructionsregardingFourLoyaltyLetters,”RedCrossLiterature,Women’sDivision,MinnesotaCommissionofPublicSafetyRecords,StateArchives,MHS;SmithtoDearFolks,Sept.28,1918;O’BrientoRobertO’Brien,Apr.23,1918;DorisKellogg,Canteening Under Two Flags: Letters of Doris Kellogg(EastAurora,NY:Roycrofters,1920),35.
11.SmithtoDearFolks,Sept.8,1918.12.GraceMaryBelltoDearEdna,Dec.
27,1918,EdnaMoorePapers,MHS.13.SmithtoDearMotherandCora,
Nov.19,1918.14.O’Brientoherfamily,Apr.211918,
toRobertO’Brien,Apr.23,1918.15.BackustoDearFolks,May19,1918.16.BackustoDearFolks,Aug.27,1918.17.SmithtoDearFolks,Sept.8,1918.18.ScrivertoDearDee,Oct.12,1918.19.BackustoDearFolks,July2,1918.20.O’BrientoWilliamandJulia
O’Brien,Aug.28,1918.21.O’BrientoWilliamandJulia
O’Brien,July16,1918;GraceMaryBelltoMrs.O’Brien,Nov.8,1918,O’Briencollec-tion.
22.SmithtoDearFolks,Oct.9,1918.23.ScrivertoDearEugene,Sept.28,
1918.24.BackustoDearFamily,Nov.26,1918.25.O’BrientoWilliamandJuliaO’Brien,
Aug.18,1918;Kellogg,Canteening,152,156,180.
26.VernaHalstedTurnerfile,WorldWarIMilitaryServiceRecords,MHS.
27.MaryWhiteJonesfile,WorldWarIMilitaryServiceRecords.
28.ScrivertoDearEveryone,Oct.20,1918.
29.O’BrientoWilliamandJuliaO’Brien,Oct.22,1918.
30.SmithtoDearFolks,Sept.8,1918.31.Kellogg,Canteening,141.32.ForCutler,seeDrug & Chemical
Markets (NewYork),Jan.15,1919,p.13,andPassportApplications,Jan.2,1906–Mar.31,1925,NationalArchivesandRe-cordsAdministration,Washington,D.C.,www.ancestry.com(accessedJan.26,2012);forO’Brien,seeKellogg,Canteening,131;forBackus,seeBackustoDearFamily,Nov.26,1918.
33.O’BrientoWilliamandJuliaO’Brien,May28,1918.
34.MacLareninterview;WinifredSwiftTaylorfile,WorldWarIMilitaryServiceRecords.
35.O’BrientoWilliamJohnO’Brien,July31,1918.
36.LeilaA.Heathfile,WorldWarIMilitaryServiceRecords.
37.O’BrientoRobertO’Brienetal.,Oct.17,1918.
38.BelltoMoore,Dec.27,1918,Moorepapers.
39.MacLareninterview.40.O’BrientoWilliamandJuliaO’Brien,
Aug.4,1918.41.Kellogg,Canteening,42–43;Backus
toDearestFolks,July28,1918(letterbeginsJuly26).
42.O’Brientoherfamily,Apr.21,1918.43.“SillyGirlswillbeSentHome,and
DisorderlyOnesArrested,”Minneapolis Evening Tribune,June15,1918,scrapbook,Women’sDivision,MinnesotaCommissionofPublicSafetyRecords,MHS.
44.Proportionatelyfewofthesewomenevermarried;ofthe15inthisarticle,threedidso,sevenremainedsingle,andthemari-talstatusoffivecouldnotbefound.
45.“MacLarenofRedCrossDies,”St. Paul Pioneer Press,Dec.11,1981,clipping,Johnsonfamilycollection;AmericanRedCross,St.PaulAreaChapter,1981–82 Annual Report: Faces Behind the Institu-tion,10.PostcardsintheJohnsoncollectiondescribeMacLaren’sambitioustripsacrossEuropeinthe1920s.
46.St. Paul Dispatch,Mar.24,1961,p.25,Mar.16,1963,p.2.
47.EileenManningMichels,“AliceO’Brien:VolunteerandPhilanthropist,”inWomen of Minnesota: Selected Biographical Essays,ed.BarbaraStuhlerandGretchenKreuter(St.Paul:MinnesotaHistoricalSocietyPress,1977),146–50;St. Paul Pio-neer Press,Nov.11,1962,secondsec.,p.17.
The photo on p. 28 is courtesy the Alvina O’Brien private collection; p. 33, courtesy the Alice and Todd Johnson private collec-
tion. All other illustrations are in MHS collections, including the canteen interior
(Julia Gray file) and hospital interior (Verna Halsted Turner file), War Records
Commission WWI Military Service Records.
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