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14
t { t rs {rqtv}l '4 . - , ' , . , . " . , , fa. l i , . ' ]
Formal instruction and secondt .ranguage acqutsrtlon
trnmoduction
In previous surveys of the research that has investigated the effects of formalsr.struction (for example, Long 1983c and 19gg; Ellis 19g5a and 1990a;L^arsen-Freeman and Long 1991), the term 'formal instruction' has beenmderstood to refer to grammar teaching. This reflects both the importancerhich has been traditionally attached to grammar teaching in language ped-rgofry, and also the centrality of grammar in SLA t.r"urch. Th! fo.,rs ongrammar has had both a practical and a theoretical motivation. It has helpedmachers to understand the factors that determine whether instruction is suc-msf'I, and it has helped researchers to explore a number of issues of import-ence for theory building-in particular, the relationship between theninguistic environment and the learner's internal processing mechanisms.
k is useful to take a broader look at the role of formal instruction. To thisEo4 it is helpful to identify_ a number of general areas of language pedagogy.Fryure 1 4. 1 distinguishes between formal ingqpg1,.rpn direcleJai cg*tii.goals, where the foc.us is on dev_eloping linguistic or i-ommunicative compet-ttrce, and SSggmuyssoals, where ihe'focus isbn the uS pffiEr ii-IEg_Yglegtes. Uognrtrve goals can be divided inro two types, depending onwherher the instruction is language-c,eaq-49-!=g.1*1.94!n.%:9gntred. In language_*xntred instruction, the goal is ro*. utpeii tfptffinG;,ffi, grammar, ordiscourse, where all learners receive the same inslru_ctigrn. In leainer-centredinsrucdon, the instruction is still directed ut ro-. ,tf..t of language, but anetrcmpt is made to match the type_of instrucrion to the learnet. ro th"t differ-cnt learners are taught in diff.ereng ways. Formal instruction directed at meta-cognitive goals is concernedwith attempts to train learners to use effectivelearning strategies. overall, then, this framework allows us to address the fol-I,owing three questions:
To what extent does instruction directed at teaching specific linguisticitems or rules work? Do learners learn what they are taught?Does learner-instruction matching result in improved language learn-ing?
3 Does learner training enhance learners' ability to learn from formalinstruction?
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Formal instruction and second language acquisition 613
m*rq &e effects of instruction are demonstrated by showing that there are
'fficnces in the proficiency or in the sequence of acquisition of the two sets
'd$cerners. Such comparisons are not easy to interpret, given that any differ-r!nu'*, rn4v be the result of general differences in the learning environments{rrfficr San of focusing on specific properties of the target language. Otherurmrchers have designed experiments to study whether instruction directedm *pocific features results in their acquisition. These experiments provicieChmrreridence, but they are subject to the problems that arise with this kindu[ nqarch in educational settings, in particular the difficulty of controllingGilmr.'Fo'us variables (for example, factors affecting the learners and the
-[*.r as individuals).&rxeerchers have also measured learning outcomes in different ways. In
rum s$res a formal language test has been used (for example, a multiplecfurisE rEst or a grammaticality judgement test). In other studies, spontaneoushmmgnrge use has been elicited by some kind of communicative task and oblig-nnrqv sasions for the use of specific features identified. As we shall see later,mfupossible that formal instruction will show an effect in the case of tests butmin oatural production-as is predicted by some theories of L2 acquisition
f es Krashen's Input Hypothesis (see page 273).Thb diversity in research methodology can be justified by the need to con-
'ryelize the relationship between formal instruction and acquisition in dif-humt ways. Teachers use formal instruction because they want to developlknnmas'general proficiency, to improve the accuracy with which they useW.'ifrr features, and to help them acquire new linguistic features. However,rdhrdirersiqv also makes it difficult ro compare the results obtained by differ-mrnrgndies and, therefore, to reach firm conclusions. For this reason. we will" msider each major area of research separately.
Tslaeffects of formal instruction on general language proficiency
-filfrItrrsudies reviewed in this section have considered learners'general profi-''affir{T. measured in a variety of ways. These studies did not investigateffidrr formal instruction affected learners' ability to perform specific lin-fiullnirharures.
ln rre of the first reviews of the literature on formal instruction, LongI$nikt considered a total of eleven studies that had investigated whether
lkmnr.rs who receive formal instruction achieve higher levels of proficiencyrdhm 6ose who do not. He concluded that six of the studies (Carroll1967;ffima and Oller 1978;Briere 1978; Krashen, Seliger and Harrnett 1974;K,,rdre'n, Jones, Zelinksi, and Usprich 1978) lent support to formal instruc-mmrn Three mrdies (Upshur 1968; Mason 1,971,; and Fathman 1975) indic-md 6et instruaion did not help, while one study (Martin 1 9 8 0 ) showed thatryonurc without formal instruction was beneficial. Long considered twomnfliimr mudies to be 'ambiguous cases' because, although they produced
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uotLtstnbco aZan&uo1 puolas xuootssply VI9
Fryrnul instruction and second language acquisition 61-
ffilffiuruu wmudliw--nrxr Long's and Krashen's subsequent debate-are basedr*n,Luiwrimmxrym* of se relative effects of formal instruction and exposure.It{ltilunmumom- mm1-karners-including many of those i" tt r rt.rai.s Long re_**/M*-W-r'ced both together. It is conceivable, therefore, that whatwmf\mtfu or sm tbrm of combination of the rwo. This porriliiiry has beenlffid[nmnrlr in three other studies.*mm tr9-2r. rn a frequently cited study of communicative language
ryrhe rhe grammatical and communicarirr. ,t iil. of three*ttilhmm errne'' of French as a foreign language *n. rr"J.".eived four**'qjrmnrrstion per week. The ."p.ii*.rrll g-roup, -t
i.i *", grven anumn hm u communicative tasks, outperformeitn. ottr.. t-o g..rrrp, o' urdur of 'communicative' measures, b.rt not on,linguistic, meisures. This{ndtm- ' suggesrs that a combination of formal ".ri
i.rro.-"t irrstruction
ro dcrelopmenr of communicative language skills in fo;.i; language
Ulillllliiliil*
qpildfr- i1986l sought to establish whether there was any inreraction be_ilm!!!
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Fwrrntl instruction and second language acquisition 61,7
"Sir s rcnrh- n'e do not know for certain, whether the instructionorcommunication-orientated. I7e cannot be sure whether
hrrners did better than the naturalistic learners because of for_nttliltl uunrtnummrumor t'ecause of access to comprehensible input.tffiuro'umnmgrng is the evidence provided by the three later studies, which
progress most rapidly when they experience both formalcommunicarive exposure. It should be noted that this accords
exrtopporrunities for communicating in the L2. As we will see inir is possible that the long-term effectiveness of formal instruc_
nm,,,rqm'r'mg*nr on the availability of opportunities to communicate in the
'llMflumdies referred to in this section are summarized in Tabre 14.1.
oi formal instrwction on production accuracy
m dhb rorcrion $€ rurn our attention to studies that have investigated the ef-&unm otr tormal insrruction on learners' ability to produce tp..ifi. linguisticmmm
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Fornal instruction and second language acquisition 61.9
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Fcrrmal instruction and second language acquisition 621
dm@ it should be noted that the structures that schumann andm''q.dt'n m'**mgmd are comprex and typicaty ".q,rir.a
tut*l;;; pica study,ilmm'' i'il flI €nr€cts w-ere evident in unplanned rangrage "r.;i;"
the target'iMl@l R r?S ers-T tO aCquire.
u,nnnnm'' "flfoa;r irs e*:ects may become evident only some time after the instruc_ffirymial er-idence for such a rrypothesis is limited and difficurt ro col_ilhilq' iM frR hypothesis is compatibl.'*ith a number ot r"r""r.rrlndings. As' mil$ strdr s€e' aftempts to teach specific gr"--uri."r Jrr-*r,rr., whichlllhmmrmrr, a6 a6s r-et developmentaily .."dy ,o process may not prove success_f,t [fu'*rcr- srudies ,u.h u, mine in Etiis rgsgu and, 1992bindicate thatllhirimri'.nilho receive such instruction may stiil do better than untutored learn_{uqnm*Fsing that they may have been able ro make "r;
;i;i;l;formationffi ummired firough instru*ion at aratertime. A d.l"y.d.ff..iiypotrr.ris,''" h umparible with the general finding that instruction accelerates learn_ry'mnxfl 6*rols in higher proficiency leverslsee previous section) even though@q nar fail to immediately learn *hai they have been taushr.tftuere rs a]so some.evig-:" io ,ugg.rt ,h";i;;;;i;r;r;;;;:"" have a
n' ffisr 6rsr vear of a German high schoor, found that drilling in negarivesmmmilTmg the auxiliary 'doesn't'reld to erro.s in declarative sentences such asdhfroil'owing:
Doesn'r she eat apples.
llcre-'doesn't'has replaced the more normar 'no, as a pre-negator. Eubank' flL9s:br also found evidence of unique negative ,tr,r.t,rr'., i'iii Jroa.r.tror.''d ored adultL2learners of German. Ii this ."r;;rh. i;r".rr"or"..a rrr.mrrror at the end of the sentence,.a phenomenon not attested in naturalistictr'J acquisition. He suggests that this arose when the learners resorted to anupcradng strategy (i.e. preserve the basic word order) r" ,ra., ,. .ope withffic insrrucdonal demand that they compose in complete sentences. In othermwds, when asked to.ngrform beyond ih.i.lrurl, d";";;,,;;ff; and un_un$ral errors occur. Lightbown igg, showed irr", rr""..pii"r learnerssrrerlearnt progressive -ing as a result of teaching. They overgeneralized it,using ir in contexts that required the simple f9r_m of the .r.ru,
-iri.t, they hadursed correctly prior to the instruction. Pica (1983) also found evidence thatun'sruction can trigger the oversuppliance of a number of regular morpholo-gical featureg yuch as pasr tense -ii ydprogressive -ing.\leinert (19g7) and,\ anPatten (1990) also provide evidence ,Jr.rgg.r, that instrucrion can im_pede ac.quisirion of negatives in L2 German arrd"Jitic pro"r;r;;; spanishrespectively. In all these studies the reason given for the failure of the formalinq6uslien is that it distorts the input made"availabre to the learner and thusprevents the normal processes of aiquisition from ,p..";;;;;;rhlr.
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Formal instruction and second language acquisition 623
"John kissed often Mary (SVAO).
omd in reaching these learners to use adverbs between subject and verb, aporition not allowed in French:
*-fean souvent embrasse Marie (SAVO).
uhite argues that the latter structure is learnable through positive input (i.e.fuough input obtained from communicative exposurei, but that avoidance,od the adverb placement error requires negative evidence such as that pro-urdd by formal instruction. The learners were children in Grades 5 and 5 inm intensive ESL program. Two weeks of instruction in the use of frequencymd manner adverbs was provided three months into the program. The in-srugted learners showed significantly greater gains in u..nr".y in a numbermt menipulative tasks (a grammaticality judgement task, a pieference tasknmd a sentence construction task) in comparison to controf groups. Theser srlts held true for both use of sAVo and for avoidance of svAo *ordorrder. white was also interested in whether the learners recognized thatsgmences of the kind:
John ran quickly to the end of the street (i.e. SVApp)
nrre permitted in English even though they had not been taught this. How-erer, rhe subjects did not learn that svApp was possible where SVAo was
ryc. and white suggests that they made 'a conscious overgeneralization' tode effect that 'adverbs must not appear between the ,retb and somethingelse'. This study indicates that the learners responded to instruction, but thaither were unable to make fine distinctions (i.e. between svAo and svApp)that they had not been taught.
The second study (rfhite et al. 1991) studied the effects of instruction onqmdon-formation (wb- and'yes/no') on the same groups of learners as thoseuised in the adverb study. Five hours of instruction over a two-week periodlnere provided. Acquisition was measured by means of a cartoon task, a pref-ef€nce grammaticality judgement task, and an oral communication tark. Incomparison to a control group, the experimental group showed substantialgains in accuracy in all three tasks. The instructed learners in this case showedtrat they had learnt how to use inversion in questions.
The studies considered in this section are summarized in Table 14.2.whatgrneral conclusions can we come to on the basis of the research which has in-restigated the effects of formal instruction on accuracy? There is sufficientcridence to show that formal instruction can result in definite gains in accur-rc-r. If the structure is 'simple' in the sense that it does not involve complexprocessing operations and is clearly related to a specific funcion, and if theformal instruction is extensive and well-planned, it is likely to work. How-erer, if the instruction is directed at a difficult grammatical structure which is 'mbstantially beyond the learners' current interlanguage, it is likely that it willonh- lead to improved accuracy in planned language use, when learners can
