Reading Assessment and Instruction

Using Levels of Functioning to Assess Reading and Determine Instructional Expectations

Factors in Deciding How to Teach Reading Student attitude, energy, and motivation Effectiveness of previous approaches Clear diagnostic information of specific

reading problems (of the individual) Teacher knowledge of reading strategies Matching appropriate reading program

with the student.

Functioning Levels Operationalized for Reading Independent: >98% word recognition +

>90% comprehension. Thumbnail: @95% overall

Instructional: 95% word rec. and >75% comprehension. Thumbnail: @ 80 - 90% overall

Frustration: <90% word rec. and <50% comprehension. Thumbnail:<80 % overall

Hierarchy of Instruction Reading for accuracy Reading for fluency

Strands of Reading Curriculum word attack word recognition reading comprehension

Word Attack Definition

Analysis of words Represent discrete oral sounds associated

with letters or groups of letters Scope and Sequence

Should be developed according to observed needs of the student and/or in relationship to curriculum

Major Approaches Phonics Structural Analysis

Performance Measures

Isolated sounds - 70 spm @ 98%accuracy Words in a list - 80 wpm @ 98% accuracy Words in text - 100 wpm @ 98% accuracy

Sequence of Fluency Measures

Sounds in isolation Saying nonsense words Saying phonetically regular words Oral reading from text Isolated prefixes and suffixes endings, prefixes , & suffixes with

nonsense roots Structural analysis of words

Word Attack Levels of Assessment Knowledge

Associate letters with sounds Recognize beginnings and endings

Application Apply rules for decoding

• familiar words• unfamiliar words

Error Analysis Topology

reproduction errors Miscue analysis

errors in grammar and/or meaning Specific word attack errors

based on what has been taught

Word Recognition Definition:

treating a group of letters as a single unit Scope and sequence

Curriculum types• Developmental • Functional

Major Approaches Student-specific words in the curriculum Overall fluency

Performance Measures Latency and rate

words in isolation Passages in text

Levels of Assessment Associate letters in sequence as

words 95% accuracy

Do so to automaticity 95% fluency

Reading Comprehension Definition

ability to obtain meaning from print. Scope and Sequence

Word attack and recognition are important prerequisites

Literal, inferential, and critical comprehension

Little consensus on what skills to teach and in what sequence

Performance Measures of Reading Comprehension Comprehension is measured indirectly:

that is, they are inferential Often measurements of RC are more

accurately influenced by Language Cognition/reasoning Memory Literary skills Prior Knowledge

Language Influences on Reading Comprehension To comprehend text requires

knowledge of vocabulary (semantics) and grammar (syntax)

the student must know what words mean• apart and in conjunction with other words

language competence of the learner must match the language demands of the text

Reading comprehension cannot exceed general language competence.

Cognition/reasoning Influences on Reading Comprehension

Prediction/extrapolation prediction requires

going beyond information presented extrapolationn reqires prediction plus

making unstated conclusions Higher order skills

summarize, analyze, synthesize

Memory Influences on Reading Comprehension

Immediate or long term recall/retell Recognition of main ideas or details

Literary Skills Influences on Reading Comprehension

Recognition of literary devices satire, irony, sarcasm similes, metaphors

Interpretation literary devices poetry

Influence of Prior Knowledge on Reading Comprehension

Students can comprehend new material if it covers something they already know

New material that covers something unexperienced may be more difficult

CBA Data collection of performance

results Display of data Based on extant curricula

Guidelines for Measuring Reading Comprehension

Measures should match vocabulary and syntax of the material covered

Assessments should measure comprehension (not analysis, synthesis, or evaluation)

Assessment should measure literal comprehension

Assessment should allow the student to see the passages to avoid recall/memory influences

Assessment of comprehension should account for prior knowledge pretest or provide relevant background information

Common Performance Measures of Reading Comprehension

Sentence verification tests Student retelling Time oral reading Cloze procedures Text comprehension quesitons

Sentence verification tests (Prompted Written Recall) A group of sentences

drawn from a passage with changed meaning distractors

Student reads and answers (from memory) whether information in sentences was part of the original passage or is the same in meaning.

>85% = Independent, 75-85% = Instructional, <65% = Frustration

Student retelling Students read and paraphrase as

they go along Students read entire passage and

paraphrase at the end Procedures for scoring include

Percent total words retold per words in the passage

Percent content words retold per content words in the passage

Timed Oral Reading Fluency of reading is highly

associated with reading comprehension Measure words read correctly per total

words read Correct words per minute

See Salvia and Hughes (1990) for detailed procedures

Cloze Procedures Choose a grade level passage of 250

words Provide a 25-word lead-in

paragraph/passage for reading sense Delete every 5th word and replace with a

blank (@ 15 spaces each) Provide a guided pre-sample for

understanding Make the procedure untimed

Cloze Procedures Student reads the passage and says

or writes the missing words (spelling not a concern)

Exact correct words or close synonyms are accepted

>57% = Independent, 44-56% = instructional, <44% = frustration

Answering Text Questions 5 - 10 questions at appropriate

reading level Use text explicit and implicit

questions >90% = Independent, 75-89% =

Instructional, <75% = Frustration

Other Common Reading Assessments Informal Reading Inventories Content Reading Inventories Textual Reading/Study Strategies Observation/Error analysis

A Classroom Informal Reading Inventory (In the Content Area)

Pick 20-25 words from 2 grade levels to the present (present to 2 grade levels above for potentially advanced readers) using appropriate subject matter texts.

Select passages of 200 -250 words from the same texts.

Construct 5 questions for each passage: include recall facts, inferential questions, and vocabulary definitions.

Observation/Error analysis Checklists/Observational

Instruments Used to identify specific areas of

difficulty Error Analysis

Used for identifying common errors to target for instruction

Levels of Assessment Literal, inferential, and critical

comprehension require different assessments

Beginning students should assessed for literal comprehension

Advance students can be assessed for higher levels of comprehension

Inferential comprehension requires students to analyze, synthesize and draw conclusions

Critical comprehension requires evaluation and judgments of the reading’s worth.

Diagnostic Information Assessment Compare reading proficiency of

students in the class with target student Important to determine proficiency on

what the student can be expected to do.

Reading Instruction for Secondary Students with

Mild Disabilities

Strategies and Models

The Reading Process Motivational Analysis Vocabulary Development

Word Recognition, Word Knowledge (Definition)

Teaching Comprehension Strategic Reading Strategic Teaching

Motivational Analysis Identify why student needs to read in your

content area Identify why student will read in your

content area Identify how student is convinced to read

in your content area (primary and secondary reinforcers)

Attach reinforcers to reading activities

Word Recognition (for highly deficient readers) Identifying words

use of computer assisted instruction or flashcards

Word ID strategies (e.g., DISSECT) Use word banks with motivational

inventories (token reinforcement)

Word Knowledge (Definition) Concept diagramming (mapping)

Computer-generated maps (e.g., Inspiration) Finding synonyms, Contextual analysis Using Reference Sources Morphemic Analysis

Understand the parts, understand the word

Strategic Reading Study Strategies

Analyze sections of the text Comprehension Strategies

RAP• Read the paragraph• Ask yourself what the paragraph is about• Put the main idea and two details in your

own words.

Strategic Teaching Reciprocal Teaching Direct Instruction Adaptation Analysis

Reciprocal Teaching Summarize Question Clarify Predict

Direct Instruction Structure the learning climate into

predictable activities that provide a high level of teacher-student, and student-

student interaction make efficient use of learned strategies

Teacher behaviors include questioning paraphrasing visual imagery

Adaptation Analysis Options

Reduce the expected amount of learning

Match textbooks to learning abilities Enhance content through study guides Provide technology accommodations promote use of appropriate learning

strategies

Writing samples 10 minute probes Story starters (pictures) Calculate the words written and correct

words written correct = spelled correctly and appropriate

mechanics Determine % accuracy of writing sample. Determine most appropriate writing goal

Writing Sample 1: Picture of a flying saucer circling a small town

a green space man comes to boise. he kill boys and girls. there moms and dads are sad.

Writing Sample 2: Picture of a party

its a party and my friends come to my house. we dance and Ill have lotsa fun.

Sample 3: Picture of skier with child

my skisut is red. I go fast on hills. my sisters ski with me. its to cold to ski for a long time.

Reading Comprehension Sample 1

In reading “Mary had a Little Lamb” What do you think the teacher

would say if Mary brought the lamb a second day?

Reading Comprehension Sample 2

In reading “Mary had a Little Lamb” How do you think Mary felt

about her day at school?