Language Teacher Research

Raising Critical Consciousnessvia Creative Writing in the

EFL Classroom

SCOTT STILLARUniversity of Tsukuba

This study discusses a method to promote raising criticalconsciousness in the English as a foreign language (EFL) class-room via creative writing activities by having students writejournals and/or personal letters from the perspective of individ-uals from outside groups that have been marginalized or vili-fied in the students’ dominant culture. These activities areintended to encourage students to adopt new perspectives onpolarizing topics while also being an enjoyable and effectivemeans to practice English writing. Furthermore, it is recom-mended that these activities also be used to serve as segues todeeper critical discourse on related issues. The author incorpo-rates several examples of implementation as well as studentimpressions of the activities taken from surveys in a Japaneseuniversity EFL context.doi: 10.1002/tesj.67

In a culture such as Japan, where the academic tradition puts aheavy emphasis on examinations, it may be easy for instructors tolose sight of other important goals such as promoting creativity andcritical thinking. In my experience teaching English writing, I havefound that creative writing exercises can be used not only to engagestudents’ imaginations and increase enthusiasm for writing skillsdevelopment, but also to raise critical consciousness. This is doneby assigning creative writing exercises that encourage temporaryemancipation from one’s identity as a member of a dominantculture and creatively envisioning new viewpoints regardingsensitive political or sociocultural issues. I apply this pedagogicalapproach by having students write journal entries and personalletters from the perspective of individuals whose backgrounds and

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worldviews sharply contrast with those of the dominant group inthe students’ culture. Through this approach, I aim to promoteempathy and a better understanding of groups that have beenmarginalized, ignored, or vilified in the dominant culture of thestudents in order to facilitate greater critical awareness and opendialogue concerning issues pertaining to these groups.

In this study, I will detail my experience using creative writingassignments in an attempt to raise the critical consciousness ofnine ethnic Japanese students at a foreign language college inJapan.

BACKGROUND LITERATURE

Creative WritingCreative writing can be loosely defined as the writing of anoriginal composition that primarily serves the need for recordkeeping, sharing experiences, and free individual expression(Marksberry, 1963). Although creative writing is still widely taughtas an academic subject, some researchers oppose teaching creativewriting in an academic setting because it is viewed as a sub-discipline of English that does not conform to the traditional“critical study of literary forms,” due to its focus on creation(Menand, 2009). However, proponents of teaching creative writingargue that creativity is a fundamental aspect of education andshould be promoted accordingly (Engle, 1999). This viewpoint haslong held sway, with Johnson (1934) noting that the merits ofcreative writing in academia can resonate strongly for itsproponents:

Somewhere in the educational scheme there must be encourage-ment for the dreams and imaginings of youth. The student mustbe permitted emotional expression in order that he [sic] may betaught to discipline his emotions. His shy fancies must bedrawn out of him for the good of his soul. (p. 7)

Critical ConsciousnessThornton (2006) describes critical consciousness as “the ability tostep back from the passions and prejudices of the moment and

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look at events from a larger perspective that illuminates thecommon human condition, the way even an enemy suffers andgrieves just as we do” (p. 5). Rooted in Freire’s (1970/2006) ideason critical pedagogy, the raising of critical consciousness centerson promoting a deeper and multifaceted understanding of thesociocultural and political realms. In an educational context,critical consciousness raising is viewed by many practitionersof critical pedagogy to be important because educationalenvironments are affected by a wide variety of social, economic,political, cultural, and even religious influences (Kincheloe, 2008).Accordingly, some feel educators have a responsibility tochallenge the status quo by infusing their curriculum with criticaldiscourse in order to call attention to societal inequality and therole of power in its continuance. While it may be argued thatschools are an inappropriate venue for such practices, otherscontend that by not raising critical consciousness, one tacitlysupports the continuation of inequality via maintenance of thestatus quo (Campbell, 2004). Therefore, as an instructor, I adhereto the idea that it is necessary to inject the curriculum with contentthat aims to raise critical consciousness. I shall outline a method ofimplementation in the following sections.

PARTICIPANTSThe students were all in their second year and enrolled in anadvanced English course at a Japanese foreign language specificjunior college. The majority of the students were either 19 or20 years old; however, two students were of nontraditional age(late 30s and late 50s). The class consisted of seven females andtwo males. The class was an elective.

PROCEDURESThree times during the semester in a creative writing class, I askedstudents to write a simple journal entry or personal letter from theperspective of an individual belonging to a marginalized orvilified group in their culture. Each exercise was assigned to thestudents as homework, and they were given one week to completeit. I encouraged the students to research the topic before writing inorder to enhance the verisimilitude of their new identity. Upon

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completion of the assignment, the students each read their journalentry in front of the class and discussed their feelings regardingtheir composition. Although I gave students who wereuncomfortable with this exercise the option to decline readingtheir journal in front of the class, all the students consented to readtheir compositions aloud. At the end of the semester, Iadministered a questionnaire survey to the students on theirimpressions of the activities. The students were not explicitlymade aware of my efforts to promote consciousness raising.

AssignmentsAssignment 1: A day in the life of a North Korean. Students

were given the following assignment: Write a journal entry of atleast 400 words about an average day from the perspective of aNorth Korean living in Pyongyang.

Background. Japan’s strained relationship with North Korea iswell known, and it conjures strong feelings of hate and fear amongmany Japanese citizens. In the Japanese media, nearly daily newsexpos�es cover the latest North Korean threat or provide updateson the many continuing conflicts between the two nations. Thus,despite some efforts to ease tensions between the twogovernments, North Korea has unsurprisingly been vilified andlittle distinction is made between the citizenry of North Korea andits ruling dictatorship in the media (Wada, 2009). Therefore,through this exercise, I aimed to humanize and foster increasedunderstanding of the North Korean people.

Assignment 2: A Buraku tragedy. Students were given thefollowing assignment: Your family hired a detective to conduct abackground investigation on the family of your fianc�e/fianc�ee. Thedetective found that your betrothed is a member of the Burakucaste, and your parents will not allow you to marry that person.Write a letter of at least 400 words informing your fianc�e/fianc�eeof this news and your decision.

Background. The Burakumin or Buraku are a caste in Japan, thedescendants of laborers such as undertakers, butchers, and tannerswho dealt with “death” and “unclean rituals” during Japan’sfeudal period (Su-lan Reber, 1999, p. 298). Until the MeijiRestoration beginning in the 1860s, the Buraku lived in

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communities segregated from greater Japanese society. Eventoday, most Buraku choose to keep their ancestry secret due tocontinued prejudice and discrimination that remains strongenough to negatively affect both their employment and marriageopportunities. However, this secret is not easily kept becauseJapanese family registries are publicly available and may be usedby potential in-laws and employers to investigate a person’sancestry for an undesirable lineage. Even former prime ministerTaro Aso publicly made derogatory comments about a politicianof Buraku descent, stating, “Buraku cannot become primeminister” (Uozumi, 2004).

Assignment 3: Sea Shepherd crewman journal. Students weregiven the following assignment: Write a personal diary or journalentry of at least 400 words from the perspective of a member ofthe Sea Shepherd Conservation Society protesting Japanesewhaling operations.

Background. The environmental activist group Sea ShepherdConservation Society has received extensive negative mediacoverage in Japan as a result of multiple confrontations withJapanese whaling vessels. The Japanese media often present theSea Shepherd group as a terrorist organization whose actions havegalvanized Japanese public opinion on the issue of whale anddolphin hunting (Morikawa, 2009). Because of the minimal publicattention given to the protesters’ motives, some Japanese haverationalized these anti-whaling activities as stemming solely fromracial discrimination (“Japanese whaling advocates gather inTokyo,” 2009). The portrayal of the group in the Western mediaoffers a stark contrast: The Sea Shepard group’s leader andmembers have starred in their own reality television series WhaleWars, in which they are depicted as heroic vigilantes fighting tosave the marine ecosystem.

RESULTS

Student Writings and ReactionsAssignment 1: A day in the life of a North Korean. Generally,

the students wrote stories about being hungry and having generaldisdain for the oppressive government regime. A common theme

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was the desire to leave the country and anger toward theirgovernment’s leader (e.g., “I am so hungry today but there isnothing to eat. Why don’t we have food like others?”). Onestudent, however, wrote about his unyielding faith in the “DearLeader” and expressed the sentiment that all the problems in hiscountry are the result of foreign interference:”There was no poweragain today, but it is OK. I know that Dear Leader will solve theproblem of the Americans taking our power.”

The post-reading discussion began on an empathetic note. Thestudents discussed the difficult lives of many North Koreans, notingthat the problems in North Korea were not the fault of the averagecitizens. The remaining discussion centered on how North Koreans’view of the world is largely shaped by state media reports whichoften are biased or wholly untrue. This discussion morphed intodiscourse on how popular public opinion, as well as theunderstanding and acceptance of facts, are strongly influenced bythe media and state propaganda. We then discussed the differingpolitical leanings of Japanese and foreign media outlets. We finishedwith a dialogue on the illusiveness of objective truth and the meansby which a dominant power group greatly affects one’s world view.

Assignment 2: A Buraku tragedy. Each student wrote agenuinely heart-wrenching letter detailing the importance offamily and the hopelessness of the situation. Interestingly, thestudents’ willingness to obey their parents differed markedly. Somestudents acceded to their parents’ wishes and opted to end therelationship, while others defied their parents and decided to elope:

I should consider this seriously because my parents are sayingthey will never call me their “son” if I get married with you.Please understand I cannot leave my parents.

My father doesn’t want such a family to enter our family. But Idon’t care about such an old story. I will persuade my father toallow our marriage. If I fail then I will cut my relationship withmy family and get married with you.

The ensuing class discussion focused on discrimination in all itsforms. I began by having the students list as many different types ofdiscrimination as they could and give examples. The majority of thestudents were able to name the major types of discrimination (e.g.,

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racism and sexism), but most were unfamiliar with the concept ofcaste discrimination. The students then discussed their personalfeelings about the Buraku caste and the reasons behind thesefeelings. This led to a discussion on the educational roots ofprejudice, with all the students reaching a consensus that any formof discrimination is unfair; however, they were unsure of how tostop discrimination, considering its deep roots in culture.

Assignment 3: Sea Shepherd crewman journal. Surprisingly,in comparison with the other two assignments, the studentsappeared to have greater awareness of the rationale behind theactivities of the Sea Shepherd group. The journals generally had anangry tone and indicated that the students had researched the issue:

The most significant reason why we are opposed to the catchingof whales is that catching whales is disturbing the balance ofthe marine ecosystem.

There seems to be information controlled by the governmentwhich intends to justify the activity of catching whales.

Whales are very clever animals and are also in danger of extinc-tion. Whaling is prohibited all over the world. We must fightagainst all whaling countries until they stop whaling.

The ensuing class discussion revolved around the differentcultural values and perceptions around the world regarding theuse of various animals as food. The majority of the students wereupset with the anti-whaling groups only because the groupappeared to be anti-Japanese and not because the students wantedto eat whale. In fact, all the students admitted to not beingparticularly fond of whale meat. However, when I directed thetopic to tuna conservation, many students claimed that tuna wasan integral part of their culture and that they would rather see themarine ecosystem harmed than be deprived of delicious tuna. Thediscussion finished on the topic of the price individuals must bearin order to protect the environment.

SurveysAt the end of the semester, I administered a questionnaire surveyto the students on their feelings regarding the critical pedagogy

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activities. The questions are listed below along with selectedresponses.

1. Did the critical writing activities make you uncomfortable? Why or why not? Thestudents had mixed feelings about the activities. The majority felt they werefun; for example, one student wrote, “It was a chance to think about peoplein unusual situations.” Other students, however, noted feeling uncomfort-able due to a lack of knowledge regarding the topics: “It made me feeluncomfortable due to my insufficient knowledge about the topic.”

2. Did the critical writing activities expand your understanding of the topics? If so,how? All surveyed students indicated that the activities expanded theirunderstanding and that they researched the topics on the Internet beforewriting.

3. Which topic did you feel was the most difficult? Why? A majority of the studentsfelt that the Sea Shepherd activity was the most difficult because they holdvastly different perspectives on acceptable methods of protest compared tothe Sea Shepherd members. One student felt their actions “were far fromlogical and acceptable.”

4. What emotions did you feel when doing the critical writing activity? All studentsindicated that they enjoyed the activity, but none discussed any particularemotions. One student stated, “I was interested in doing critical writing,standing on one side of the topic, as if I were a person on that side.”

REFLECTIONThere were several pleasantly surprising things I learned fromassigning these lessons. Primarily, I was happy to see how openthe students were to adopting new identities and writing fromnew perspectives. In fact, compared to other assignments, therewas a noticeable rise in enthusiasm towards both the writings andthe post-reading discussions. In addition, due to it to the necessityof in-depth research on the topics to better portray their“characters,” during the post-reading discussions the students hada higher-than-expected level of topical and vocabulary knowledgeregarding the issues being discussed.

Despite some of the above-mentioned positive reactions, thisexercise had several noteworthy limitations. Primarily, the smallsize and convenience of the sample group may be seen as limitingits validity. It may also be important to note the role of the“Hawthorne effect” (Landsberger, 1958); that is, the students’ desireto please the instructor, which has been seen to be particularlyprominent amongst Japanese students (Haebara, Ichikawa, &

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Shimoyama, 2001). In addition, from a personal perspective, I feelthat being a foreigner myself may have affected the validity of theactivities. This is because, despite the fact that as a practitioner ofcritical pedagogy I aspire to confront a wide variety of issues withan equally critical eye, as a long-term foreign resident of Japan andan Anglo-American citizen, my viability as such may be called intoquestion. In fact, one of the most common criticisms that I receivedfrom students when teaching critical content is that they feel it isinappropriate for me, as a foreigner, to be critical of issues in aculture of which I am not a member. Moreover, this issue is furthercomplicated when my own cultural background is criticallyanalyzed. Although I am not a member of the dominant group atthe national level in Japan, I am a member of the dominant group atthe global level. Thus, my critique of the dominant local culture canbe perceived as an act of cultural colonialism because I am from amore dominant outside culture. Grande (2009) echoes thissentiment by stating that “the process of interrogation itselfmay encode the same sociotemporal markers of colonialistconsciousness.” I feel this critique would be particularly aproposwith regard to the exercise concerning the Sea Shepherd issuebecause it is a rather polarizing topic between Westerners andJapanese. On the other hand, I feel that being an outsider may alsohave certain benefits with regard to recognizing issues within aculture. This is illustrated by Said’s (1993) statement that “self-consciousness as an outsider can allow you to actively comprehendhow the machine works, given that you and it are fundamentallynot in perfect synchrony or correspondence” (p. 24).

However, despite my misgivings regarding these limitations,from a pragmatic perspective I feel this exercise was satisfactory inincreasing students’ enthusiasm toward development of writingskills. From a critical vantage, I felt I achieved moderate successwith my main objective of engaging the students’ imaginations insuch a manner that they may come to view critical issues fromnew perspectives, thereby gaining insight into how an individual’sbackground and personal experiences can affect their world view.Moreover, based on the post-reading discussions, I truly felt araise in the students’ consciousness regarding the influence thatdominant power groups in all cultures have on public perception

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(Kincheloe, 2008; McLaren, 1997). Overall, the activities appearedto be an enjoyable and welcome change from “safe” noncriticalcontent and at the very least provided strong segues into theexploration of rarely discussed issues of dominance, power, anddiscrimination.

THE AUTHORScott Stillar is currently an assistant professor of foreign languagesat the University of Tsukuba in Ibaraki, Japan. His researchinterests include sociolinguistics, multicultural studies, and criticalpedagogy in EFL.

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