Radar Report

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REPORT ONDISPLAY OF SRE

RADARS

July 7, 2012Bharat Electronics LimitedNikhil Luthra (UPT- 2727/BTech/2012)


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CONTENTS

1 : PREFACE

2 : ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

3 : CERTIFICATE

4 : BHARAT ELECTRONICS INDUSTRY

5 : COMPANY PROFILE

6 : FORMATION OF GHAZIABAD UNIT

7 : ROTATION PROGRAMME

8 : INTRODUCTION TO RADARS

9 : SRE RADARS

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PREFACE

With the ongoing revolution in electronics and communication where innovations are taking place

at the blink of eye, it is impossible to keep pace with the emerging trends.

Excellence is an attitude that the whole of the human race is born with. It is the environment that

makes sure that whether the result of this attitude is visible or otherwise. A well planned, properly

executed and evaluated industrial training helps a lot in developing a professional attitude. It

provides a linkage between a student and industry to develop an awareness of industrial approach

to problem solving, based on a broad understanding of process and mode of operation of

organization.

During this period, the student gets the real experience for working in the industry environment.

Most of the theoretical knowledge that has been gained during the course of their studies is put to

test here. Apart from this, the student gets an opportunity to learn the latest technology, which

immensely helps in them in building their career.

I had the opportunity to have a real experience on many ventures, which increased my sphere of

knowledge to great extent. I got a chance to learn many new technologies and also interfaced too

many instruments. And all this credit goes to organization Bharat Electronics Limited.

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ACKOWLEDGEMENT

I take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude towards T&P CELL, AKGEC

GHAZIABAD for providing me with the training letter to BHARAT ELECTRONICS LIMITED,

GZB and also to my father who forwarded the letter to the Human Resource Development

Department of BEL through Mr. G.S. Pal of PCR Department. I thank the HRD department for

accepting the letter and allowing me to complete the training at their organization.

I am deeply indebted to Deputy General Manager of PA-R1, Mr. Pramod Saxena for helping me

and making me learn under D.E. of PA-R1, Ms. Apoorva Gupta who gave her most precious time

in providing guidance to us regarding this project.

Further and most importantly, I would like to thank all the other employees and staff of different

departments in BEL. Without their inestimable encouragement and support, it would have been

difficult for me to have knowledge of the functioning of various types of electronics equipment

particularly radars.

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CERTIFICATE

TO WHOM SO EVER IT MAY CONCERN

This is to certify that Nikhil Luthra, student of B.Tech(Electronics

Engineering), AKGEC Ghaziabad has undergone an industrial training at

BHARAT ELECTRONICS LIMITED, GHAZIABAD from July 3,

2012 to August 11,2012 and made a project on DISPLAY OF SRE

RADARs under the guidance ofMr. Pramod Saxena , Deputy General

Manager and Er. Apoorva Gupta.

He worked diligently and made valuable contribution during this period. All his

work is genuine and original.

Mr. Pramod Saxena Ms. Apoorva

Gupta

(D.G.M. PA-R1) (D.E. PA-R1)

(PROJECT GUIDE)

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BHARAT ELECTRONICS LTD

INTRODUCTION

India, as a country, has been very lucky with regard to the introduction of telecom products. The

first telegraph link was commissioned between Calcutta and Diamond Harbor in the year 1852,

which was invented in 1876. First wireless communication equipment were introduced in Indian

Army in the year 1909 with the discovery of Radio waves in 1887 by Hertz and demonstration of

first wireless link in the year 1905 by Marconi and Vacuum Tube in 1906. Setting up of radio

station for broadcast and other telecom facilities almost immediately after their commercial

introduction abroad followed this. After independence of India in 1947 and adoption of its

constitution in 1950, the government was seized with the plans to lay the foundations of a strong,

self-sufficient modern India. On the industrial front, Industrial Policy Resolution (IPR) was

announced in the year 1952. It was recognized that in certain core sectors infrastructure facilities

require huge investments, which cannot be met by private sector and as such the idea of Public

Sector Enterprises (PSR) was mooted. With telecom and electronics recognized among the core

sectors, Indian Telephone Industry, now renamed as ITI Limited, was formed in 1953 to undertake

local manufacture of telephone equipment, which were of electro-mechanical nature at that stage.

Hindustan Cable Limited was also started to take care of telecom cables.

Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) was established in 1954 as a public Sector Enterprise

under the administrative control of Ministry of Defence as the fountainhead to manufacture and

supply electronics components and equipment. BEL, with a noteworthy history of pioneering

achievements, has met the requirement of state-of-art professional electronic equipment for

Defence, broadcasting, civil Defence and telecommunications as well as the component

requirement of entertainment and medical X-ray industry. Over the years, BEL has grown to a

multi-product, multi-unit, and technology driven company with track record of a profit earning

PSU.

The company has a unique position in India of having dealt with all the generations of

electronic component and equipment. Having started with a HF receiver in collaboration with T-

CSF of France, the companys equipment designs have had a long voyage through the hybrid,

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solid-state discrete component to the state of art integrated circuit technology. In the component

arena also, the company established its own electron value manufacturing facility. It moved on to

semiconductors with the manufacture of germanium and silicon devices and then to the

manufacture of Integrated circuits. To keep in pace with the component and technology, its

manufacturing and products assurance facilities have also undergone sea change. The design

groups have CADD facility, the manufacturing has CNC machines and a Mass Manufacture

Facility. QC checks are performed with multi-dimensional profile measurement machines,

Automatic testing machines, environmental labs to check extreme weather and other operational

conditions. All these facilities have been established to meet the stringent requirements of MIL

grade systems.

Today BELs infrastructure is spread over nine locations with 29 production divisions

having ISO-9001/9002 accreditation. Product mix of the company are spread over the entire

Electro-magnetic (EM) spectrum ranging from tiny audio frequency semiconductor to huge radar

systems and X-ray tubes on the upper edge of the spectrum. Its manufacturing units have special

focus towards the products ranges like Defence Communication, Raders, Optical & Opto-

electronics, Telecommunication, sound and Vision Broadcasting, Electronic Components, etc.

Besides manufacturing and supply of a wide variety of products, BEL offers a variety of

services like Telecom and Radar Systems Consultancy, Contract Manufacturing, Calibration of

Test & Measuring Instruments, etc. At the moment, the company is installing MSSR radar at

important airports under the modernization of airports plan of National Airport Authority (NAA).

BEL has nurtured and built a strong in-house R&D base by absorbing technologies from

more than 50 leading companies worldwide and DRDO Labs for a wide range of products. A team

of more than 800 engineers is working in R&D. Each unit has its own R&D Division to bring out

new products to the production lines. Central Research Laboratory (CRL) at Bangalore and

Ghaziabad works as independent agency to undertake contemporary design work on state-of-art

and futuristic technologies. About 70% of BELs products are of in-house design.

BEL was among the first Indian companies to manufacture computer parts and peripherals

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under arrangement with International Computers India Limited (ICIL) in 1970s. BEL assembled a

limited number of 1901 systems under the arrangement with ICIL. However, following

Governments decision to restrict the computer manufacture to ECIL, BEL could not progress in

its computer manufacturing plans. As many of its equipment were microprocessor based, the

company continued to develop computers based application, both hardware and software. Most of

its software requirements are in real time. EMCCA, software intensive navel ships control and

command system is probably one of the first projects of its nature in India and Asia.

BEL has won a number of national and international awards for Import Substitution,

Productivity, Quality, Safety, Standardization etc. BEL was ranked No. 1 in the field of Electronics

and 46th overall among the top 1000 private and public sector undertakings in India by the

Business Standard in its special supplement The BS 1000 (1997-98). BEL was listed 3rd among

the Mini Ratanas (Category II) by the Government of India, 49th among Asias top 100

worldwide Defence Companies by the Defence News, USA.

CORPORATE MOTTO , MISSION AND

OBJECTIVES:

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The passionate pursuit of excellence at BEL is reflected in a reputation with its customers that can

be described in its motto, mission and objectives:

CORPORATE MOTTO

Quality, Technology and Innovation.

CORPORATE MISSION

To be the market leader in Defence Electronics and in other chosen fields and products.

CORPORATE OBJECTIVES

To become a customer-driven company supplying quality products at competitive prices at the

expected time and providing excellent customer support.

To achieve growth in the operations commensurate with the growth of professional electronics

industry in the country.

To generate internal resources for financing the investments required for modernization,

expansion and growth for ensuring a fair return to the investor.

In order to meet the nations strategic needs, to strive for self-reliance by indigenization of

materials and components.

To retain the technological leadership of the company in Defence and other chosen fields of

electronics through in-house research and development as well as through Collaboration/Co-

operation with Defence/National Research Laboratories, International Companies, Universities

and Academic Institutions.

To progressively increase overseas sales of its products and services.

To create an organizational culture which encourages members of the organization to

realize their full potential through continuous learning on the job and through other HRD

initiatives.

MANUFACTURING UNITS

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BANGALORE (KANARATAKA)

BEL started its production activities in Bangalore on 1954 with 400W high frequency (HF)

transmitter and communication receiver for the Army. Since then, the Bangalore Complex has

grown to specialize in communication and Radar/Sonar Systems for the Army, Navy and Air-

force.

BELs in-house R&D and successful tie-ups with foreign Defence companies and Indian

Defence Laboratories has seen the development and production of over 300 products in Bangalore

alone. The Unit has now diversified into manufacturing of electronic products for the civilian

customers such as DoT, VSNL, AIR and Doordarshan, Meteorological Dept., ISRO, Police, Civil

Aviation and Railways. As an aid to Electorate, the unit has developed Electronic Voting Machines

that are produced at its Mass Manufacturing Facility (MMF).

GHAZIABAD (UTTER PRADESH)

The second largest Unit at Ghaziabad was set up in 1974 to manufacture special types of

radar for the Air Defence Ground Environment Systems (Plan ADGES). The Unit provides

Communication Systems to the Defence Forces and Microwave Communication Links to the

various departments of the State and Central Govt. and other users. The Units product range

included Static and Mobile Radar, Tropo scatter equipment, professional grade Antennae and

Microwave components.

PUNE (MAHARASHTRA)

This Unit was started in 1979 to manufacture Image Converter Tubes. Subsequently,

Magnesium Manganese-dioxide Batteries, Lithium Sulphur Batteries and X-ray Tubes/Cables were

added to the product range. At the present the Laser Range Finders for the Defence services.

MACHILIPATNAM (ANDHRA PRADESH)

The Andhra Scientific Co. at Machilipatnam, manufacturing Optics/Opto-electronic

equipment was integrated with BEL in 1983. the product line includes passive Night Vision

Equipment, Binoculars and Goggles, Periscopes, Gun Sights, Surgical Microscope and Optical

Sights and Mussel Reference Systems for tank fire control systems. The Unit has successfully

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diversified to making the Surgical Microscope with zoom facilities.

PANCHKULA (HARYANA)

To cater the growing needs of Defence Communications, this Unit was established in 1985.

Professional grade Radio-communication Equipment in VHF and UHF ranges entirely developed

by BEL and required by the Defence services are being met from this Unit.

CHENNAI (TAMIL NADU)

In 1985, BEL established another Unit at Chennai to facilitate manufacture of Gun Control

Equipment required for the integration and installation and the Vijay anta tanks. The Unit is now

manufacturing Stabilizer Systems for T-72 tanks, Infantry Combat Vehicles BMP-II,

Commanders Panoramic Sights & Tank Laser Sights are among others.

KOTDWARA (UTTER PRADESH)

In 1986, BEL STARTED A unit at Kotdwara to manufacture Telecommunication

Equipment for both Defence and civilian customers. Focus is being given on the

requirement of the Switching Equipment.

TALOJA (MAHARASHTRA)

For the manufacture of B/W TV Glass bulbs, this plant was established in collaboration

with coming, France in 1986. The Unit is now fully mobilized to manufacture 20 glass bulbs

indigenously.

HYDERABAD (ANDHRA PRADESH)

To coordinate with the major Defence R&D Laboratories located in Hyderabad, DLRL,

DRDL and DMRL, BEL established a Unit at Hyderabad in 1986. Force Multiplier Systems are

manufactured here for the Defence services.

JOINT VENTURES

BE-Delft Electronics Limited

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BE-Delft Electronics Limited, Pune, the first joint venture of the company with Delft Instruments,

Holland and UTI was established in the year 1990 for conducting research, development and

manufacture of Image Intensifier Tubes and associated high voltage power supplies for use in

military, security and commercial systems. Its products include night vision goggles and

binoculars, night vision weapon sights and low light level input applications.

GE BE Private Limited

GE BE Private Limited, Bangalore, a JV with General Electric Medical Systems, USA has been

established in 1997-98 for manufacture of High End Routing Anode Medical Diagnostic X-ray

tube called CT MAX, which is used in CT Scanners. The joint venture unit will also establish a

reloading facility for X-ray tubes and will also market the conventional X-ray tubes made at Pune

Unit of BEL. South East Asia market are addressed by this joint venture.

BEL- Multitone Private Limited

A joint venture between Bharat Electronics and Multitone Electronics Plc, UK has also been

established in Bangalore in 1997-98 to manufacture state-of-art Mobile Communication for the

workplace. Multitone invented paging in 1956 when it developed the worlds first system to serve

the life or death environment of St. Thomas Hospital, London. With the strength of Bharat

Electronics in the Radio Communications fields and the technology of Multi-tone, in the field of

Radio Paging, the joint venture company is in a position to offer tailor made solution to the Mobile

Communication needs at workplace in various market segments.

CUSTOMER PROFILE & BEL PRODUCT

RANGE

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Equipments:

DEFENCE

ARMY Tactical and Strategic Communication Equipment and

Systems, Secrecy Equipment, Digital Switches, BattlefieldSurveillance Radar, Air Defence and Fire Control Radar, Opto-

Electronic Instruments, Tank Fire Control Systems, StabilizerSystems, Stimulators and Trainers.

NAVY Navigational, Surveillance, Fire Control Radar, IFF, SONAR

Systems, Torpedo Decoys, Display Systems, EW Systems,Simulators, Communication Equipment and Systems.

AIR FORCE Surveillance and Tracking Raiders, Communication Equipmentand Systems, IFF and EW Systems.

NON-DEFENCE

PARA-MILITARY Communication Equipment and Systems.

SPACE DEPARTMENT Precision Tracking Radar, Ground Electronics, Flight and On-

board Sub-Systems.

ALL INDIA RADIO MW, SW &FM Transmitters.

DOORDARSHAN

(TV NETWORK)

Low, Medium and High Power Transmitters, StudioEquipment, OB Vans, Cameras, Antennae, Mobile and

Transportable Satellite Uplinks.

NCERT TV Studios on turnkey Basis for Educational Programs.

DEPARTMENT OF

TELECOMMUNICATION

Transmission Equipment (Microwave and UHF) and PCM

Multiplex, Rural and Main Automatic Exchanges, Flyaway

Satellite Terminals, Solar Panels for Rural Exchanges.

VIDESH SANCHAR

NIGAMAND OTHER

CORPORATE BODIES

MCPC VSAT, SCPC VSAT, Flyaway Earth Stations. Hub

Stations, Up/Down Converters, LNA Modems.

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CIVIL AVIATION Airport Surveillance Radar, Secondary Surveillance Radar.

METEOROLOGICAL

DEPARTMENT

Cyclone Warning and Multipurpose Meteorological Radar.

POWER SECTOR Satellite Communication Equipment.

OIL INDUSTRY Communication Systems, Radar.

FOREST DEPARTMENTS,

IRRIGATION &

ELECTRICITY BOARDS

Communication Systems.

MEDICAL & HEALTH

CARE

Clinical and Surgical Microscope with Zoom, Linear

Accelerators.

RAILWAYS Communication Equipment for Metros, Microwave Radio

Relays and Digital Microwave Radio Relays.

Components:

DEFENCE Transmitting Tubes, Microwave Tubes, Lasers,

Batteries, Semiconductors-Discrete, Hybrid and

Circuits.

NON-DEFENCE

All India Radio,Doordarshan

(TV Network),

Telecommunications and

Civil Industries

Transmitting Tubes, Microwave Tubes, andVacuum Tubes.

Entertainment Industry B/W TV Tubes, Silicon Transistors, Integrated

Circuits, Bipolar and CMOS, Piezo-Electric

Crystals, Ceramic Capacitors and SAW Filters.

Telephone Industry Integrated Circuits, Crystals.

Switching Industry Vacuum Interrupters.

Instrumentation Industry Liquid Crystal Displays.

Medical & Health Care X-ray Tubes.

System/Networks:

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Identity Card Systems Software, Office Automation Software, LCD On-line Public Information

Display Systems and Communication Networks / VSAT Networks.

FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE

BEL has a unique history of profit making Public Sector Enterprise right from its inception. There

have been events of decrease in turnover and profit after Tax due to reasons beyond reasonable

control of the company. But the companys strength lies in its capability to combat the threats, for

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example US Embargo on exports to BEL.

BEL hopes to generate 25 per cent increase in turnover with a 15 per cent rise in net profit

in the current fiscal year over the previous. Corrective measures against western sanctions have

been undertaken, which are likely to translate into higher turnover and profitability. The company

is putting all efforts to minimize the effect of the restrictions by early establishments of alternative

arrangements. The Defence Research Laboratories and Academic Institutions are also being

persuaded with for indigenisation of certain special category of devices and components. The

company is also opening an office in Singapore to procure components from Asian markets. Thus

in the long run the restrictions will prove as blessings resulting in self-dependence and better profit

margins.

Also several R&D projects with long gestation periods will go into commercial production during

the current fiscal.

BEL GHAZIABAD UNIT

Formation

In the mid 60s, while reviewing the Defence requirement of the country, the

government focused its attention to strengthen the Air Defence system, in particular the ground

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electronics system support, for the air Defence network. This led to the formulation of a very major

plan for an integrated Air Defence Ground Environment System known as the plan ADGES with

Prime Minister as the presiding officer of the apex review committee .At about the same time,

Public attention was focused on the report of the Bhabha committee on the development and

production of electronic equipment. The ministry of Defence immediately realized the need to

establish production capacity for meeting the electronic equipment requirements for its plan

ADGES.

BEL was then inserted with the task of meeting the development and production

requirement for the plan ADGES and in view of the importance of the project it was decided to

create additional capacity at a second unit of the company.

In December 1970 the Govt. sanctioned an additional unit for BEL. In 1971, the industrial

license for manufacture of radar and microwave equipment was obtained, 1972 saw the

commencement of construction activities and production was launched in 1974.

Over the years, the unit has successfully manufactured a wide variety of equipment

needed for Defence and civil use. It has also installed and commissioned a large number of

systems on turnkey basis. The unit enjoys a unique status as manufacture of IFF systems needed to

match a variety of primary raiders. More than 30 versions of IFFs have already been supplied

traveling the path from vacuum technology to solid-state to latest Microwave Component based

system.

PRODUCT RANGES

The product ranges today of the company are:

RADAR SYSTEMS

3-Dimensional High Power Static and Mobile Radar for the Air Force.

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Low Flying Detection Radar for both the Army and the Air force.

Tactical Control Radar System for the Army.

Battlefield Surveillance Rader for the Army.

IFF Mk-X Radar systems for the Defence and export.

ASR/MSSR systems for Civil Aviation.

Radar & allied systems Data Processing Systems.

COMMUNICATIONS

Digital Static Tropo scatter Communication Systems for the Air Force.

VHF, UHF & Microwave Communication Equipment.

Bulk Encryption Equipment.

Turnkey communication Systems Projects for Defence & civil users.

Static and Mobile Satellite Communication Systems for Defence.

Telemetry /Tele-control Systems.

ANTENNA

Antennae for Radar, Terrestrial & Satellite Communication Systems.

Antennae for TV Satellite Receive and Broadcast applications.

Antennae for Line-of-sight Microwave Communication Systems.

MICROWAVE COMPONENT

Active Microwave components like LNAs, Synthesizer, Receivers etc.

Passive Microwave components like Double Balanced Mixers, etc.

Most of these products and systems are the result of a harmonious combination of

technology absorbed under ToT from abroad, Defence R&D Laboratories and BELs own

design and development efforts.

THE ORGANIZATION

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The operations at BEL Ghaziabad are headed by General Manager with Additional /

Deputy General Manager heading various divisions as follows:

1. DESIGN & ENGINEERING DIVISIONS

Development and Engineering-R

Development and Engineering-C

Development and Engineering-Antenna.

2. EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING DIVISIONS

Radar

Communication

Antenna

Systems

Microwave Components

3. SUPPORT DIVISIONS

Material management

Marketing & Customer Co-ordination

Quality Assurance & Torque

Central Services

PCB & Magnetics

Information Systems

Finance & Accounts

Personnel & Administration

Management Services.

DESIGN & ENGINEERINGThe pace of development and technological obsolescence in their field of electronics

necessitates a strong Research and Development base. This is more important on the area of

Defence Electronics. BEL Ghaziabad has since its inception laid a heavy emphasis on indigenous

research and development. About 70% its of manufacture today relate to items developed in-

house. For the development and production of the Mobile Torpo scatter System and the equipment,

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BEL was awarded the Gold Shield for Import Substitution.

Design facilities are also constantly being modernized and substantial computer-aided

design facilities are being introduced including installation of mini- and microcomputers and

dedicated design application. About 170 graduate and post-graduate engineers are working on

research and indication of the importance R&D has in BELs growth.

Three Design and Engineering group are product based viz. Communication, Radar and Antenna.

These divisions are further divided into different departments to look after products of a particular

nature. each of them has a drawing office attached to them, which are equipped with latest drafting

and engineering software. The PCB layout and PCB master making is done at CADD Center. A

central Records & Printing section takes care of the preserving the engineering documents and

distribution thereof. Most of the engineering documents are available online.

EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING DIVISIONS

As a supplier of equipment to the Defence services and professional users, strict adherence

to specifications and tolerances, has to be in-built into the design and manufacturing process. For

this BEL Ghaziabad has well defined standards and processes for as well as manufacturing and

testing activities. Activities are divided into various departments like Production Control, Works

Assembly, and QC WORKS. The manufacture and control of production is through a central

systems, BELMAC, BELs own homegrown ERP system.

Apart from conventional machines, BEL Ghaziabad has been equipped with several repeat

occurrences and increased throughput. A separate NC programming cell has been set up to develop

the programs for execution on the CNC machines.

MICROWAVE COMPONENT GROUP

Frequencies greater than 1 GHz are termed as Microwaves. Microwaves Integrated Circuits (MIC)

used extensively in the production of subsystems for Radar and Communication equipment

constitutes a very vital part of the technology for these systems and is generally imported. Owing

to the crucial and building block nature of the technology involved, BEL is currently setting up a

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modern MIC manufacturing facility at a planned expenditure. When in full operation, this facility

will be the main center for the MIC requirements of all the units of the company.

The manufacturing facilities of hybrid microwave components available at BEL,

Ghaziabad includes facility for preparation of substrates, assembly of miniaturized component viz.

directional couplers, low noise amplifiers, phase shiftier, synthesizers etc. involves scalar as well

as vector measurements. For this state of the network analysis are used.

MATERIAL MANAGEMENT

Material Management division is responsible for procurement, storage handling, issue of

purchased parts as well as raw materials required to manufacture various equipment and spares. It

also takes care of disposal of unused or waste material.

The division is divided into purchase, Component store, Raw material store, Chemical

store, Custom Clearance Cell, Inventory management & disposal.

MARKETING AND CUSTOMER CO-ORDINATION

This division is responsible for acquisition and execution of customer orders and customer

services. Marketing department looks after order acquisition. Commercial department looks after

order execution. Shipping takes care of packing and dispatch of material to customer.

QUALITY ASSURANCE & TORQUE

In the area of professional Defence electronics, the importance of Quality and Reliability is

of utmost importance. BEL has therefore established stringent processes and modern facilities and

systems to ensure product quality- from the raw material to the finished product. IGQA,

Environmental Labs, Test Equipment Support and QA departments are grouped under this

division.

All material for consumption in the factory passes through stringent inward goods

screening in IGQA department before being accepted for use.

Subsequent to manufacture and inspection, the end product is again put through a rigorous

cycle of performance and environmental checks in Environmental Labs.

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The testing, calibration and repair facility of test Instruments used in the factory is under

the control of Test Equipment Support. All the instruments come to this department for periodic

calibration.

Quality Assurance department facilitates ISO 9000 certification of various divisions. All

production divisions of BEL Ghaziabad are ISO9000 certified. The microwave division is

ISO9001 certified whereas the remaining three division viz. Radar, Communication and Antennae

are also ISO9002 certified.

CENTRAL SERVICES

Central services Division looks after plant and maintenance of the estate including

electrical distribution, captive power generation, telephones, transport etc.

PCB FABRICATION & MAGNETICS

PCB Fabrication, Coil and Magnetics, Technical Literature, Printing Press and Finished

Goods are the areas under this division.

Single sided PCB blanks- having circuit pattern on one side of the board and double sided-

having circuit pattern on both sides of the board are manufactured in house. However, Multi-

layered PCBs, having many layers of circuit, are obtained from other sources.

Magnetic department makes all type of transformers & coils that are used in different

equipment. Coils and transformers are manufactured as per various specifications such as number

of layers, number of turns, types of windings, gap in core, dielectric strength, insulation between

layers, electrical parameters, impedance etc. laid down in the documents released by the D&E

department.

INFORMATION SYSTEMSIS Department is responsible for BELs own home grown manufacturing and control

systems called BELMAC.it comprises of almost all modules a modern ERP systems but is Host

and dumb terminal based.

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FINANCE & ACCOUNTS

The F&A division is divided into Budget & Compilation, Cost and Material Accounts,

Bills Payable, Bill Receivable, Payrolls, Provident Fund, Cash Sections.

PERSONAL & ADMINISTRATION DEPARTMENT

There are at present about 2300 employees at BEL Ghaziabad, of which more than 400 are

graduate and postgraduate engineers.

P&A Division is divided into various departments like Recruitment, Establishment, HRD,

Welfare, Industrial Relations, Security and MI Room.

MANAGEMENT SERVICESThis department deals with the flow of information to or from the company. It is Broadly

classified into three major sub-sections Management Information System, Industrial Engineering

Department and Safety.

ROTATION PROGRAM

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Under this students are introduced to the company by putting them under a

rotation program to various departments. The several departments where I

had gone under my rotational program are:

Test Equipment and Automation

P.C.B. Fabrication

Quality Control Works-Radar

Work Assembly- Communication

Magnetics

Microwave lab

Rotation period was to give us a brief insight of the companys functioning

and knowledge of the various departments. A brief idea of the jobs done at

the particular departments was given. The cooperative staff at the various

departments made the learning process very interesting, which allowed me

to know about the company in a very short time.

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TEST EQUIPMENT AND AUTOMATION :This department deals with the various instruments used in BEL. There are 300 equipments and

they are of 16 types.

Examples of some test equipments are:

Oscilloscope(CRO)

Multimeter

Power meter

Power Splitter

Signal Analyzer

Logical Pulsar

Counter

Function Generator etc.

Mainly the calibration of instruments is carried out here. They are compared with the

standard of National Physical Laboratory (NPL). So, it is said to be one set down to NPL. As everyinstrument has a calibration period after which the accuracy of the instrument falls from the

required standards. So if any of the instruments is not working properly, it is being sent here for its

correct calibration. To calibrate instruments software techniques are used which includes the

program written in any suitable programming language. So it is not the calibration butprogramming that takes time .For any industry to get its instrument calibrated by NPL is very

costly, so it is the basic need for every industry to have its own calibration unit if it can afford it.

Test equipment and automation lab mainly deals with the equipment that is used for testing

and calibration .The section calibrates and maintains the measuring instruments mainly used for

Defense purpose.

A calibration is basically testing of equipment with a standard parameter. It is done with the

help of standard equipment should be of some make, model and type.

The national physical laboratory (NPL), New Delhi provides the standard values yearly. BEL

follows International Standard Organization (ISO) standard. The test equipments are calibrated

either half yearly or yearly.

After testing different tags are labeled on the equipment according to the observations.

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Green O.K , Perfect

Yellow Satisfactory but some trouble is present.

Red Cant be used, should be disposed off.

The standard for QC, which are followed by BEL are:

WS 102

WS 104

PS 520

PS 809

PS 811

PS 369

Where, WS = Workmanship & PS = Process Standard

After the inspection of cables, PCBs and other things the defect found are given in following

codes.

A --- Physical and Mechanical defects.

B --- Wrong Writing

C --- Wrong Component / Polarity

D --- Wrong Component / Mounting

E --- Bad Workmanship/ Finish

F --- Bad Soldering

G --- Alignment Problem

H --- Stenciling

I --- Others (Specify)

J --- Design & Development

After finding the defect, the equipment is sent to responsible department

which is rectified there.

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MAGNETICS

In this department different types of transformers and coils are manufactured , which are

used in the various defense equipments i.e. radar , communication equipments.

This department basically consists of three sections:

1.) PRODUCTION CONTROL :- Basic function of production control is to plan the

production of transformer and coils as per the requirement of respective division (Radar and

Communication). This department divided into two groups:

(a) Planning and (b) Planning store.

2.) WORKS (PRODUCTION) :- Production of transformers and coils are being carried out

by the works departments.

3.) QUALITY CONTROL :- After manufacturing the transformer/coils the item is offered

to the inspection department to check the electrical parameters(DCR , No load current , full

load current , dielectric strength , inductance , insulation resistance and mechanical dimension

as mentioned in the GA drawing of the product.

The D&E department provides all the information about manufacturing a coil and the

transformer.

The various types of transformers are as follows :

i) Air cored transformers

ii) Oil filled transformers

iii) Moulding type transformers

iv) P.C.B Mounting transformers :-(a) Impedance matching transformers

(b) RF transformers

(c) IF transformers

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The various types of cores are as follows :

i) E type

ii) C type

iii) Lamination

iv) Ferrite core

v) Toroidal core

Steps involved in the process of manufacturing of transformer/coils:

a.) Preparation of former : Former is made of plastic bakelite comprising a male and

female plates assembled and glued alternately to form a hollow rectangular box on

which winding is done.

b.) Winding : It is done with different material and thickness of wire. The winding has

specified number of layers with each layers having a specified number of turns. The

distance between the two turns should be maintained constantly that is there should be

no overlapping. The plasatic layer is inserted between two consecutive layers.

The various types of windings are as follows :

i) Layer Winding

ii) Wave Winding

iii) Bank Winding

c.) Insulation : For inter-winding and inter layer , various types of insulation sheets viz.

Craft paper , paper , leather , oil paper , polyester film are being used.

d.) Protection : To protect the transformer from the external hazards , moisture , dust and to

provide high insulation resistance , they are impregnated.

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MICROWAVE LABORATORY

Microwave lab deals with very high frequency measurements or very short wavelength

measurements. The testing of microwave components is done with the help of various radio

and communication devices. Phase and magnitude measurements are done in this section.

Power measurements are done for microwave components because current and voltage are

very high at such frequencies.

Different type of waveguides is tested in this department like rectangular waveguides,

circular waveguides. These waveguides can be used to transmit TE mode or TM mode.

This depends on the users requirements. A good waveguide should have fewer loses and its

walls should be perfect conductors.

In rectangular waveguide there is min. distortion. Circular waveguides are used where the

antenna is rotating. The power measurements being done in microwave lab are in terms of

S- parameters. Mainly the testing is done on coupler and isolators and parameters are tested

here.

There are two methods of testing:

1. Acceptance Test Procedure(ATP)

2. Production Test Procedure(PTP)

Drawing of various equipments that are to be tested is obtained and testing is performed on

manufactured part. In the antenna section as well as SOHNA site various parameters such

as gain ,bandwidth ,VSWR , phase ,return loss, reflection etc. are checked. The instruments

used for this purpose are as follow:

1. Filters

2. Isolators

3. Reflectors

4. Network Analyzers

5. Spectrum Analyzers

6. Amplifiers and Accessories

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P.C.B. FABRICATION

P.C.B. stands for Printed Circuits Board. It Consists of the fiberglass sheet having a layer of copper onsides.

TYPES OF PCBs

1. Single Sided Board : Circuits on one side.

2. Double Sided Board : Circuit on Both side.

3. Muti-layer Board : Several layers are interconnected

through hole metalization.

Raw material for PCBs

Most common raw material used for manufacturing of PCBs is copper cladded glass epoxy resin sheet.thickness of the sheet may vary as 1.2, 2.4 and 3.2mm and the standard size of the board is 610mm to 675mm .

Operation in process

Following steps are there for PCB manufacturing :-

CNC Drilling

Drill Location

Through Hole Plating

Clean Scrub and Laminate

Photo Print

Develop

Cu electroplate

Tin electroplate

Strip

Etching and cleaning

Tin Stripping

Gold plating

Liquid Photo Imageable Solder Masking (LPISM)

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Photo print

Develop

Thermal Baking

Hot Air leaving

Non Plated Hole Drilling

Reverse Marking

Sharing & Routing

Debarring & Packing

B. is a non-conducting board on which a conductive board is made. The base material, which is used for PCBare Glass Epoxy, Bakelite and Teflon etc.

Procedure for through hole metallization

ding-Cleaner-Water Rinse-Spray Water-Rinse-Mild Etch-Spray Water-Rinse-Hydrochloric Acid-Actuator-er Rinse-Spray Water-Rinse-Accelerator Dip-Spray Water- Rinse- Electrolyses Copper-Plating-Plating- Spray

r-Rinse-Anti Tarnish Dip-Hot Air Drying- Unloading.

After through hole metallization, photo tool generation is done which is followed by photo printing. In this

PCB is kept b/w two blue sheets and the ckt. is printed on it. A negative and a positive of a ckt. are developed.dentify b/w the negative and positive, following observation is done. If the ckt. is black and the rest of the

t is white, it is positive otherwise negative.

Next, pattern plating is done. The procedure for pattern plating follows :

Loading- Cleaner- Water rings- Mild etch- Spray- Water Rinse-Electrolytic- Copper plating- Water rinse-

uric acid-Tin plating- Water rinse- Antitarnic dip- Hot air dry- Unloading.

ive strength to the wires so that they can not break. This is done before molding. Varnishing is done as antius prevention for against environmental hazard.

After completion of manufacturing proceeds it is sent for testing. This is followed by resist striping and

er etching. The unwanted copper i.e. off the tracks is etched by any of the following chemicals. After this, tinipped out from the tracks.

After this solder marking is done. Solder marking is done to mark the tracks to get oxidized & finally etch.

revent the copper from getting etched & making the whole circuit functionally done.

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re are three types of solder marking done in BEL:

solder mask: Due to some demerits this method is totally ruled out. The demerit was

alignment, which was due to wrong method applied or wrong machine.

pin solder mask: Due to wastage of films about 30% this method is also not used now.

uid photo imaginable solder mask (LPISM): In this first presoaking is at 80 degree Celsius for 10 to 20utes. Next, screen preparation is done. The board is covered by a silk cloth whose mesh is T-48. The angle to

f the board is 15 degree to 22.5 degree.

next is ink preparation:

Ink + Hardener

71 % : 29 %

(150 gms.) : (300gms.)+

Butyrate solo solve 50gms/kg.

k preparation-

es :-

---100gm

lyst----10% of total weight

ucer-----10% of total weight

catalyst is used as binder and prevents the following, while reducer is used as thinner. The three things are

fully mixed.

wash out, following procedure takes place.

er-Lactic acid-Water-Bleaching power-Water-caustic Soda-Water-Air dry-TCE.

r wash out, final baking for one hour at the temt. of 20degree C is done. After this shearing or routing is done

h is followed by debarring and packing.

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SURFACE MOUNTING TECHNIQUE FLOW CHART

yes

no

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Start

Baking

Solder Screen

SMT

Component

Placement

Solder

Other

side

needs

SMDs

Solder Printing SMDs

Placement

SolderingClean

Inspection

Needs

Repair

StopRepair


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QUALITY CONTROL

(WORK ASSEMBLY)

According to some laid down standards, the quality control department ensures the quality of theproduct. The raw materials and components etc. purchased and inspected according to the

specifications by IG department. Similarly QC work department inspects all the items

manufactured in the factory. The fabrication department checks all the fabricated parts and ensures

that these are made according to the part drawing, painting, plating and stenciling etc. are done as

per BEL standards.

The assembly inspection departments inspects all the assembled parts such as PCB , cable

assembly ,cable form , modules , racks and shelters as per latest documents and BEL standards .

The mistakes in the PCB can be categorized as:

1. D & E mistakes

2. Shop mistakes

3. Inspection mistakes

The process card is attached to each PCB under inspection. Any error in the PC is entered in the

process card by certain code specified for each error or defect.

After a mistake is detected following actions are taken:

1. Observation is made.

2. Object code is given.

3. Division code is given.

4. Change code is prepared.

5. Recommendation action is taken

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WORK ASSEMBLY

This department plays an important role in the production. Its main function is to assemble variouscomponents, equipments and instruments in a particular procedure.

It has been broadly classified as:

WORK ASSEMBLY RADARe.g. INDRA II, REPORTER.

WORK ASSEMBLY COMMUNICATION e.g EMCCA, MSSR, MFC.

EMCCA:EQUIPMENT MODULAR FOR COMMAND CONTROL APPLICATION.

MSSR: MONOPULSE SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR.

MFC: MULTI FUNCTIONAL CONSOLE.

The stepwise procedure followed by work assembly department is:

1. Preparation of part list that is to be assembled.

2. Preparation of general assembly.

3. Schematic diagram to depict all connections to be made and brief idea about allcomponents.

4. Writing lists of all components.

In work assembly following things are done :

Material Receive:

Preparation- This is done before mounting and under takes two procedures.

Tinning- The resistors ,capacitors and other components are tinned with the help of tinned lead

solution .The wire coming out from the components is of copper and it is tinned nicely by applying

flux on it so that it does not tarnished and soldering becomes easy.

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Bending- Preparation is done by getting the entire documents , part list drawing and bringing all

the components before doing the work.

Mounting- It means soldering the components of the PCB plate with the help of soldering tools.

The soldering irons are generally of 25 W and are of variable temperature, one of the wires of the

component is soldered so that they dont move from their respective places on the PCB plate. On

the other hand of the component is also adjusted so that the PCB does not burn.

Wave Soldering- This is done in a machine and solder stick on the entire path, which are tinned.

Touch Up- This is done by hand after the finishing is done.

Cleaning:

Inspection- This comes under quality work.

Heat Ageing- This is done in environmental lab at temperature of 40 degree C for 4 hrs and three

cycles.

Testing:

Lacquering- This is only done on components which are not variable.

Storing- After this variable components are sleeved with Teflon. Before Lacquering mounted plate

is cleaned with isopropyl alcohol. The product is then sent to store.

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RADAR(RADIO DETECTION AND RANGING)

INTRODUCTIONRadar is an electromagnetic system for the detection and location of reflecting objects such as

aircrafts, ships, spacecraft, vehicles, peoples and the natural environment. It operates by radiating

energy into space and detecting the reflected echo signal from an object, or target. The reflected

energy to the radar not only indicates the presence of a target, but by comparing the received echo

signal with the signal that was transmitted, its location can be determined along with other target

related information. Radar can perform its function at long or short distances and under conditions

impervious to optical and infrared sensors. It can operate in darkness, haze, fog, rain and snow. Its

ability to measure the distance with high accuracy and in all weather is one of its most important

attributes. Although most of the radar units use microwave frequencies, the principle of radar is not

confine to any particular frequency range. There are some radar units that operate on frequencies

well below 100 MHz and others that operate in the infra-red range and above.

RADAR DEVELOPMENT

Although the development of radar as a full-fledged technology did not occur until World War-II,

the basic principle of radar detection is almost as old as the subject of electromagnetism itself.

Heinrich Hertz, in 1886, experimentally tested the theories of Maxwell and demonstrated the

similarity between radio and light waves. Hertz showed that radio waves could be reflected by

metallic and dielectric bodies. It is interesting to know that although Hertzs experiments were

performed with relatively short wavelength radiation (66 cm), later work in radio engineering was

almost entirely at longer wavelengths. The shorter wavelengths were not actively used to any

extent until the late thirties.One of the biggest advocators of radar technology was Robert Watson-Watt, a British scientist.

Several inventors, scientists, and engineers contributed to the development of radar. The use of

radio waves to detect "the presence of distant metallic objects via radio waves" was first

implemented in 1904 by Christian Hlsmeyer, who demonstrated the feasibility of detecting the

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presence of ships in dense fog and received a patent for radar as Reichspatent Nr. 165546. Another

of the first working models was produced by Hungarian Zoltn Bay in 1936 at the Tungsram

laboratory.

While radar development was pushed because of wartime concerns, the idea first came about

as an anti-collision system. After the Titanic ran into an iceberg and sank in 1912, people were

interested in ways to make such happenings avoidable.

The termRADARwas coined in 1941 as an acronym forRadio Detection and Ranging.

The name reflects the importance placed by the workers in this field on the need for a device to

detect the presence of a target and to measure its range. This acronym of American origin replaced

the previously used British abbreviation RDF (Radio Direction Finding).

Although modern radar can extract more information from a targets echo signal than its

range, the measurement of range is still one of its most important functions. There are no

competitive techniques that can accurately measure long ranges in both clear and adverse weather

as well as can radar.

BASIC PRINCIPLE

An elementary form of radar consists of a transmitting antenna emitting electromagnetic radiationgenerated by an oscillator of some sort, a receiving antenna, and an energy-detecting device, or

receiver. A transmitter generates an electromagnetic signal (such as a short pulse of sine wave) that

is radiated into space by an antenna. A portion of the transmitted energy is intercepted by the target

and reradiated in many directions. The reradiation directed back towards the radar is collected by

the radar antenna, which delivers it to a receiver. There it is processed to detect the presence of the

target and determine its location. A single antenna is usually used on a time-shared basis for both

transmitting and receiving when the radar waveform is a repetitive series of pulses. The range, or

distance, to a target is found by measuring the time it takes for the radar signal to travel to the

target and return back to the radar. (Radar engineers use the term range to mean distance) The

targets location in angle can be found from the direction the narrow -beamwidth radar antenna

points when the received echo signal is of maximum amplitude. If the target is in motion, there is

a shift in the frequency of the echo signal due to the Doppler effect. This frequency shift is

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proportional to the velocity of the target relative to the radar (also called the radial velocity). The

Doppler frequency shift is widely used in radar as the basis for separating desired moving targets

from fixed (unwanted) clutter echoes reflected from the natural environment such as land, sea, or

rain. Radar can also provide information about the nature of the target being observed.

ECHO AND DOPPLER SHIFT

Echo is something you experience all the time. If you shout into a well or a canyon, the echo

comes back a moment later. The echo occurs because some of the sound waves in your shout

reflect off of a surface (either the water at the bottom of the well or the canyon wall on the far side)

and travel back to your ears. The length of time between the moments you shout and the distance

between you and the surface that creates the echo determines the moment that you hear the echo.

Doppler shift is also common. You probably experience it daily (often without realizing

it). Doppler shift occurs when sound is generated by, or reflected off of, a moving object. Doppler

shift in the extreme creates sonic booms (see below). Here's how to understand Doppler shift (you

may also want to try this experiment in an empty parking lot). Let's say there is a car coming

toward you at 60 miles per hour (mph) and its horn is blaring. You will hear the horn playing one

"note" as the car approaches, but when the car passes you the sound of the horn will suddenly shift

to a lower note. It's the same horn making the same sound the whole time. The change you hear is

caused by Doppler shift.

TYPES OF RADAR

Based on function radar can be divided into two types:

PRIMARY OR SIMPLE RADAR

SECONDARY RADAR

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Primary radar or the simple radar locates a target by procedure described in section. But in cases as

controlling of air traffic, the controller must be able to identify the aircraft and find whether it is a

friend or foe. It is also desired to know the height of aircraft.

To give controller this information second radar called the SECONDARY

SURVEILLANCE RADAR, (SSR) is used. This works differently and need the help of the target

aircraft it sance out a sequence of pulses to an electronic BLACK BOX called the

TRANSPONDER, fitted on the aircraft. The transponder is connected to the aircrafts altimeter (the

device which measures the planes altitude) to transmit back the coded message to the radar about

its status and altitude. Military aircrafts uses a similar kind of radar system with secrete code to

make sure that it is friend or foe, a hostile aircraft does not know what code to transmit back to the

ground station for the corresponding receiver code.

IFF UNIT

IFFis basically a radar bacon system employed for the purpose of general identification of military

targets .The bacon system when used for the control of civil air traffic is called as SECONDARY

SURVEILLANCE RADAR (SSR).

Primary radarlocates an object by transmitting signal and detecting the reflectedecho. A secondary radar system is basically very similar to primary radar system except that

the returned signal is radiated from the transmitter on board the target rather then by

reflection, i.e. it operates with a cooperative active target while the primary radar operates

with passive target.

Secondary radarsystem consists of an interrogative and a transponder. The interrogator

transmitter in the ground station interrogates transponder equipped aircraft, providing two way data

communication on different transmitter and receiver frequency. The transponder on board the

aircraft on receipt of a chain of pulses from ground interrogator, automatically transmit the reply,

coded for the purpose of identification, is received back to the ground interrogator where it is

decoded and displayed on a radar type presentation.

ADVANTAGES OF SSR OVER PRIMARY RADAR

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Separate transmitting and receiving frequencies eliminate ground and whiter return

problems.

Reply pulses are stronger then echo signal of primary radar.

Reply signal is independent of the target cross section.

Interrogation and reply path coding provide discrete target identification and altitude.

The interrogate and reply mode works on the L band

The SSR operates on the same frequency channel for both military and civil air traffic control by

using compatible airborne aircraft

Basic Radar System

A basic radar system is spilt up into a transmitter, switch, antenna, receiver, data recorder,

processor and some sort of output display. Everything starts with the transmitter as it transmits a

high power pulse to a switch, which then directs the pulse to be transmitted out an antenna. Just

after the antenna is finished transmitting the pulse, the switch switches control to the receiver,

which allows the antenna to receive echoed signals. Once the signals are received the switch then

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transfers control back to the transmitter to transmit another signal. The switch may toggle control

between the transmitter and the receiver as much as 1000 times per second.

Any received signals from the receiver are then sent to a data recorder for storage on a

disk or tape. Later the data must be processed to be interpreted into something useful, which

would go on a Pulse Width and Bandwidth:

Some radar transmitters do not transmit constant, uninterrupted electromagnetic waves. Instead,

they transmit rhythmic pulses of EM waves with a set amount of time in between each pulse. The

pulse itself would consist of an EM wave of several wavelengths with some dead time after it in

which there are no transmissions. The time between each pulse is called the pulse repetition time

(PRT) and the number of pulses transmitted in one second is called the pulse repetition frequency

(PRF). The time taken for each pulse to be transmitted is called the pulse width (PW) or pulse

duration. Typically they can be around 0.1 microseconds long for penetrating radars or 10-50

microseconds long for imaging radars (a display. microsecond is a millionth of a second).

Mathematically,

PRT = 1 / PRF

or

PRF = 1 / PRT

WORKING OF A SIMPLE RADAR

A radar system, as found on many merchants ships, has three main parts:

The antenna unit or the scanner

The transmitter receiver or transceiver and

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The visual display unit

The antenna is two or three meter wide and focuses pulses off very high frequency radio

energy into a narrow vertical beam. The frequency of the radio waves is basically about 10,000

MHz. The antenna is rotated at the rate of 10 to 25 rpm so that radar beam swaps through

300degree Celsius all around the ship out to a range of about 90 kms.

In all radar it is vital that the transmitting and the receiving in a transceiver are in close

harmony. Everything depends on accurate measurement of the time that passes between the

transmission of pulse and the return of the echo. About 1000, pulses per second are

transmitted. Though it is varied to suit the requirements. Short pulses are best for short-range

work, longer pulses are best for longer-range work.

An important part of transceiver circuit is modular circuit. This keys the transmitter so that it

oscillates, or pulses for the right length of time. The pulses so designed are video pulses. These

pulses are short range pulses hence cant serve out the purpose of long range work .In order to

modify these pulses to long range pulses or the RF pulses, we need to generate thepower. The

transmitted power is generated in a device called the magnetron which can handle all these short

pulses and very high oscillations.

Between these pulses, the transmitter is switched off and isolated. The weak echoes from the

target are picked up by the antenna and fed into the receiver. To avoid overlapping of these echoes

with the next transmitted pulse, another device called duplexer is used. Thus by means of the

duplexer, undisturbed two-way communication is established. The RF echoes emerging from the

duplexer are now fed to the mixer where they are mixed with the RF energy. These pulses are

generated by the means of a local oscillator. Once two are mixed, a signal is produced in the output

which is of intermediate frequency range or IF range .The IF signal is received by the receiver by

the receiver where it is demodulated to video frequency signal range, amplified, and then passed tothe display system.

The display system usually carried out the control necessary for the operation of whole radar

.It has a cathode ray gun, which consists of a electron gun in its neck. The gun shouts electron to

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the phosphorescent screen at the far end. Phosphorescent screen glows when hit by an electron and

the resulting spot can be seen through the glass face.

The screen is circular in shape and I calibrated in the edges .The electron beam travels from the

center of the edge. This radio motion of the electron is known as trace is matched with the rotation

of the antenna. So when the calibration is at zero degree on the tube calibration, the antenna is

pointing to the dead ahead. The beginning of each trace corresponds exactly which the moment at

which the suppression radar energy is transmitted.

The basic idea behind radar is very simple: a signal is transmitted, it bounces off an object and

some type of receiver later receives it. They use certain kinds of electromagnetic waves called

radio waves and microwaves. This is where the name RADAR comes from (Radio Detection And

Ranging). Sound is used as a signal to detect objects in devices called SONAR (Sound NavigationRanging). Another type of signal used that is relatively new is laser light that is used in devices

called LIDAR (Light Detection And Ranging).

Once the radar receives the returned signal, it calculates useful information from it such as

the time taken for it to be received, the strength of the returned signal, or the change in frequency

ofthe signal.

RADAR EQUATION

The amount of powerPr returning to the receiving antenna is given by the radar equation:

where

Pt = transmitter power

Gt = gain of the transmitting antenna

Ar = effective aperture (area) of the receiving antenna

= radar cross section, or scattering coefficient, of the target

F= pattern propagation factor

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Rt = distance from the transmitter to the target

Rr = distance from the target to the receiver.

In the common case where the transmitter and the receiver are at the same location, Rt =Rrand the

termRt2Rr2 can be replaced byR4, whereR is the range. This yields:

This shows that the received power declines as the fourth power of the range, which means

that the reflected power from distant targets is very, very small.

The equation above withF= 1 is a simplification forvacuumwithout interference. The

propagation factor accounts for the effects ofmultipath and shadowing and depends on the details

of the environment. In a real-world situation,pathloss effects should also be considered.

APPLICATIONS OF RADAR

Radar has been employed on the ground, in the air, on the sea and in space. Ground based

radar has been applied chiefly to the detection, location, and tracking of the aircraft or space target.

Shipboard radar is used as a navigation aid and safety device to locate buoys, shorelines and other

ships as well as for observing aircraft. Airborne radar may be used to detect other aircraft, ships, or

land vehicles or it may be used for mapping of land, storm avoidance, terrain avoidance and

navigation. In space, radar has assist in the guidance of spacecraft and for remote sensing of the

land and sea.

The major use of radar, and contributor of the cost of almost all of its development, has

been the military; although there has been increasingly important civil application, chiefly for

marine and air navigation. The major areas of radar application are briefly described below:

Air Traffic Control (ATC): Radar is employed throughout the world for the

purpose of safely controlling air traffic route and in the vicinity of Airport. Aircraft and

ground vehicular traffic at large airport are monitored by means of high - resolution radar.

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Radar has been used with GCA (ground control approach) system to guide aircraft to a safe

landing in bad weather.

Ship Safety: Radar is used for enhancing the safety of ship travel by warning of ship

potential collision with other ships, and for detecting navigation buoys, especially in poor

visibility. Automatic detection and tracking equipment are commercially available for use

with radar for the purpose of collision avoidance. Shore based radar of moderately high

resolution is also used for the surveillance of harbors as an aid to navigation.

Space: Space vehicles have used radar for rendezvous and docking and for landing on

the moon. Some of the largest ground based radar is for the detection and tracking of

satellite.

Remote Sensing: All radar is a remote sensor. Radar has been used as a remotesensor of the weather. It is also used to probe the moon and planets. The ionospheric

sounder, an important adjunct for HF (short wave) communications, is radar. Remote

sensing with radar is also concerned with earth resources, which include the measurement

and mapping of sea condition, water resources, ice cover, agriculture, forestry condition,

geological information and environmental pollution.

Law Enforcement: In addition to the wide use of radar to measure the speed of

automobile traffic by highway police, radar has also been employed as a means for the

detection of intruders.

Military: Many of the civilian application of the radar are also employed by the

military. The traditional role of radar for military application has been for surveillance,

navigation and for the control and guidance of weapon.

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SURVEILLANCE RADAR

EQUIPMENT(SRE RADARS)

They are of two types:1. Primary surveillance radar( Distance upto 80 NM)2. Secondary surveillance radar( Distance upto 200 NM)- mainly

used in interrogation.

Here we will be talking about use of SRE and its

Display at an Air force station.

SRE systems are based on the followingmain items:

One Radar Station One Operation Centre

One Display equipment located at BADC(Base Air Defence Control)Centre. One Display equipment located at ATC(Air Traffic Control) Centre.

Radar Station is composed of :

2 Radar Head Processors (RHPs)-Linux based

1 LCP PSR- Windows based

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RADAR Station

(Has a transmitterand a receiver)

Operation

Controller centreBADC(in main

building)

ATC( at runway)


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1 LCP SSR- Windows based

1 Radar Maintenance Monitor (RMM) Linux based

1 Auxiliary Cabinet (Equipment)

Operation Centre is composed of:

1 Auxiliary Cabinet (Ops)

2 Controller Working Positions (CWP) for display 1 Remote Radar Control & Monitor System (RRCMS)

1 Map Generation System

1 Record & Replay System

1 Safety Net System

Equipment at BADC/ATC centre is composed of :

Fiber optics interfaces and distribution units for data coming from theRadar/Ops Station.

1 Controller Working Position (CWP) for display.

RADAR Head :

The Radar Head Processor (RHP), present in all the sites, receives theradar data from primary surveillance sensor and from secondarysurveillance sensor, and sends the processed data (tracks) to OperationCentre and to BADCCentre.

The two radar Control Panels on LAN allow the full control of the radarequipment on site. The RMM console (2k x 2k) provides for display of rawvideos and synthetic data (Plots and Tracks).

TOY GPS clock allows labelling each data sent by RHP with timereference.

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Remote Presentation :

The Remote Presentation and Control is provided through the equipmentthat is installed at the following centres:

Operation Centre Base Air Defence Centre (BADC) Air Traffic Control (ATC)

At the Operation Centre, two displays are provided for presentation ofPSR Processed Radar Video and Synthetic data. The displays are 2K x 2K,

high resolutioncolor display.

The control and monitoring of the radar head (sensors) is provided throughthe Remote Radar Control and Monitor System.

At BADC/ATC Centre, all the necessary equipment for PSR video anddata interfacing with the Radar Station is installed. One Controller WorkingPosition (CWP) provides for the required radar display functions. Thedisplays are 2K x 2K high-resolution colour display.

RADAR SITE

GPS Clock :The Timing Unit is the DEC-9G Digital Electronic Clock with a GPSreceiver.The DEC-9G Digital Electronic Clock is able to receive data from GPSsatellite and send time and date to the RHP host computers for timestamping purposes. The DEC-9G Clock consists of one GPS Unit withantenna and the interconnection cables.The DEC-9G is located in the radar site and connected to both the RHPunits.

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RADAR Distribution Unit (RDU):

Radar Distribution Unit (MESAR) provides the choice of the videos,presented by RMM.The available set of raw videos are one of the following:

PSR Raw Videos (Raw, Processed, Maps)SSR Raw Video (Channel A)SSR Raw Video (Channel B)

The NORTH and ACP signals, coming from the PSR, are sent to the RMM,together with the suitable Trigger (PSR or SSR).The video selection is performed by the RMM through the RS232C port.

OPERATION CENTREXMG :

The Map generator is a software application package, realised to producemaps in the UNIX/LINUX environment. It is used to draw maps for AirTraffic Control.

The following types of maps can be drawn:

1. Geographical maps2. STCA maps3. MSAW maps

Record and Replay :

The purpose of Record and Replay is to backup on tape the datastored on

disk by the CSCI REC (Recording) and to restore on disk data previously

stored on tape so that it is possible to review the data by the CSCI PLB

(Playback).

Safety Net :

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The scope of Safety Net is to predict the tracks positions and analyse themin order to detect dangerous situations (conflicts) and to eventually alertcontrollers. Safety Nets sub-system is composed of two subfunctions bywhich it detects different kind of conflicts.These subfunctions are :

-Short Term Conflict Alert (STCA), to detect dangeroussituations between two aircrafts.

-Minimum Safe Altitude Warning (MSAW), to detect dangerous

situations related to an aircraft that is flying at a too low altitude .

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Documents

Radar Report