Quinua Formulation Gluten-free

Recent advances inthe formulation of

gluten-freecereal-based

products

E. Gallaghera*, T.R. Gormleya

and E.K. Arendtb

aTeagasc, The National Food Centre, Ashtown,Dublin 15, Ireland (fax: +353-1-805-9550;

e-mail: [email protected])bDepartment of Food and Nutritional Science,National University of Ireland, Cork, Ireland

The replacement of gluten presents a major technologicalchallenge, as it is an essential structure-building protein,which is necessary for formulating high quality cereal-basedgoods. Rising demands for gluten free products parallels theapparent or real increase in coeliac disease, or other allergicreactions/intolerances to gluten. This paper reviews thecurrent prevalence of coeliac disease, and recent advancesin the preparation of gluten-free products, using starches,hydrocolloids, gums and novel ingredients and processes.# 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

IntroductionCoeliac disease is a life-long intolerance to the gliadin

fraction of wheat and the prolamins of rye (secalins),barley (hordeins) and possibly oats (avidins) (Murray,1999). The reaction to gluten ingestion by sufferers of

coeliac disease is inflammation of the small intestineleading to the malabsorption of several importantnutrients including iron, folic acid, calcium and fat-soluble vitamins (Feighery, 1999; Kelly, Feighery, Gal-lagher, & Weir, 1999). Murray (1999) concluded thatcoeliac disease is the end result of three processes(genetic predisposition, environmental factors andimmunogically-based inflammation) that culminates inintestinal mucosal damage. The only effective treatmentfor coeliac disease is a strict adherence to a gluten-freediet throughout the patient’s lifetime, which, in timeresults in clinical and mucosal recovery. Foods notallowed in a gluten-free diet include: (i) any bread, cer-eal or other food made with wheat, rye, barley, triticale,dinkel, kamut and oat flour or ingredients, and by-pro-ducts made from those grains; (ii) processed foods thatcontain wheat and gluten-derivatives as thickeners andfillers, for example hot dogs, salad dressings, cannedsoups/dried soup mixes, processed cheese, cream sauces;and (iii) medications that use gluten as pill or tabletbinders.Gluten is the main structure-forming protein in flour,

and is responsible for the elastic characteristics ofdough, and contributes to the appearance and crumbstructure of many baked products. Gluten removalresults in major problems for bakers, and currently,many gluten-free products available on the market areof low quality, exhibiting poor mouthfeel and flavour(Arendt, O’Brien, Schober, Gormley, & Gallagher,2002). This presents a major challenge to the cerealtechnologist and baker alike, and has led to the searchfor alternatives to gluten in the manufacture of gluten-free bakery products. This review discusses the conceptof coeliac disease and its increasing prevalence, andfocuses on advances in the formulation of gluten-freecereal-based products.

Coeliac disease and the iceberg modelRecent epidemiological studies have shown that the

prevalence of coeliac disease has been significantlyunderestimated (Ascher & Kristiansson, 1997; Fasano& Catassi, 2001; Hovdenak, Hovlid et al., 1999; John-son, Watson, McMillan, Sloan, & Love, 1997). Fromthe first report of coeliac disease in the 2nd century, tothe discovery of antigliadin serological testing methods,much has been learned (Thomas, 1945). One of theoldest epidemiological studies on coeliac disease was

0924-2244/$ - see front matter # 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2003.09.012

Trends in Food Science & Technology 15 (2004) 143–152

Review

* Corresponding author.

conducted in 1950 (Davidsson & Fountain, 1950),where incidence of the disease in England and Waleswas found to be 1/8000, and 1/4000 in Scotland. How-ever, diagnosis was based entirely on the detection oftypical symptoms and confirmed by complicated andsometimes non-specific tests. By the 1960s, more specifictests and the peroral biopsy technique became available,thus increasing the numbers of diagnosed cases in sub-sequent studies (Logan, Rigking, Busuttil, Gilmous, &Ferguson, 1986; Mylotte, Egan-Mitchell, McCarthy, &McNicholl, 1973). Although biopsy still remains thedefinitive diagnostic investigative procedure (Kennedy& Feighery, 2000), a heightened suspicion or awarenessof coeliac disease, coupled with improved diagnosticprocedures (antigliadin antibody serological tests) haveresulted in a substantially increased rate of diagnosis. Itis now possible to accurately evaluate the true pre-valence of coeliac disease and Table 1 shows the differ-ence between traditional clinical diagnosis (according toclassical gastrointestinal symptoms, measured bybiopsy) and modern serological tests (Fasano & Catassi,2001). Some of the highest incidences of coeliac disease(1:200–1:300) have been found in Sweden (Grodinsky,1992), Italy (Catassi et al., 1994) and Ireland (Stevens,1987).The iceberg model is commonly used to explain the

prevalence of coeliac disease (Visakorpi, 1997) (Fig. 1)and the prevalence can be conceived as the overall sizeof the iceberg. Cases which have been properly diag-nosed make up the visible section (A) of the iceberg inquantitative terms (Fasano & Catassi, 2001). Patientswho have been recently diagnosed, and are now follow-ing a gluten-free diet and show a normal mucosa formthe lower part of this section. Below the waterline thereis a group of ‘silent’ cases (B), which have not yet beenidentified and have flat small intestinal mucosa. Theymay remain undiagnosed because the condition has nosymptoms, or the symptoms have not been linked tocoeliac disease. At the bottom of the iceberg (C), there isa small group of patients with latent coeliac disease.

These show a normal mucosa while taking gluten, yetstill have the potential to develop the disease (Feighery,1999).

The gluten-free labelThe Codex Standard for gluten-free foods was adop-

ted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission of theWorld Health Organization (WHO) and by the Foodand Agricultural Organization (FAO) in 1976. In 1981and in 2000 draft revised standards stated that so-calledgluten-free foods are described as: (a) consisting of, ormade only from ingredients which do not contain anyprolamins from wheat or all Triticum species such asspelt, kamut or durum wheat, rye, barley, oats or theircrossbred varieties with a gluten level not exceeding 20ppm; or (b) consisting of ingredients from wheat, rye,barley, oats, spelt or their crossbred varieties, whichhave been rendered gluten-free; with a gluten level notexceeding 200 ppm; or (c) any mixture of two ingre-dients as in (a) and (b) mentioned with a level notexceeding 200 ppm.In this context, the WHO/FAO standard gluten was

defined as a protein fraction from wheat, rye, barley,oats or their crossbred varieties (e.g. Triticale) andderivatives thereof, to which some persons are intoler-ant and that is insoluble in water and 0.5M NaCl. Pro-lamins are defined as the fraction from gluten that canbe extracted by 40–70% aqueous ethanol. The prolaminfrom wheat is gliadin, from rye is secalin, from barleyhordein and from oats avenin. The prolamin content ofgluten is generally taken as 50%.However, there is still discrepancy around the world

in labelling foods gluten-free because the exact amountof toxic prolamins that individuals with coeliac diseasemay consume without damaging the mucosa of thesmall intestine has still not been scientifically deter-mined (Thompson, 2000). It was previously believedthat the protein component of wheat could be com-pletely removed from the starch component, but it isnow known that some amount of protein still remains inthe starch. In the United States and Canada, the glu-ten-free diet is devoid of any gluten, and is based onnaturally gluten-free ingredients such as rice. However,in the United Kingdom, products labelled as beinggluten-free may still contain an amount of wheatstarch.

The role of gluten in bakery productsGluten is a proteinaceous material that can be sepa-

rated from flour when the starch and other minor com-ponents of the flour are removed by washing out withrunning water. The resulting gluten contains approxi-mately 65% water. On a dry matter basis, gluten con-tains 75–86% protein, the remainder beingcarbohydrate and lipid, which are held strongly withinthe gluten–protein matrix (Bloksma & Bushuk, 1998).

Table 1. Prevalence of coeliac disease based on clinicaldiagnosis or screening data (Fasano and Catassi, 2001)

Geographic area
Prevalence onclinical diagnosis
Prevalence onscreening data

Denmark
1:10,000 1:500 Finland 1:1000 1:130 Germany 1:2300 1:500 Italy 1:1000 1:184 Netherlands 1:4500 1:198 Norway 1:675 1:250 Sweden 1:330 1:190 United Kingdom 1:300 1:112 United States 1:10,000 1:111 Worldwide average 1:3345 1:266
144 E. Gallagher et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 15 (2004) 143–152

Gluten contains the protein fractions glutenin and glia-din. The former is a rough, rubbery mass when fullyhydrated, while gliadin produces a viscous, fluid masson hydration. Gluten, therefore, exhibits cohesive, elas-tic and viscous properties that combine the extremes ofthe two components (Anon., 1982). The gluten matrix isa major determinant of the important properties ofdough (extensibility, resistance to stretch, mixing toler-ance, gas holding ability), which encloses the starchgranules and fibre fragments.Gluten is often termed the ‘structural’ protein for

breadmaking. The properties of gluten become apparentwhen flour is hydrated, giving an extensible dough, withgood gas holding properties, and a good crumb struc-ture in baked bread. The absence of gluten often resultsin a liquid batter rather than a dough pre-baking, andcan result in baked bread with a crumbling texture,poor colour and other quality defects post-baking.Rotsch (1954) concluded from his studies that breaddoughs without gluten can only retain gas if another gelreplaces the gluten. Preparation of gluten-free pasta isdifficult, as the gluten contributes to a strong proteinnetwork that prevents dissolution of the pasta duringcooking. The diversification of gluten-free raw materi-als which may be used may also necessitate modifica-tions to the traditional production process (Marconi &Careca, 2001). Such problems are rarely encounteredduring the manufacture of gluten-free biscuits, as thedevelopment of a gluten network in biscuit and cookiedough is minimal and undesirable (apart from somesemi-sweet biscuits, which may have a developed glutensystem); the texture of baked biscuits is primarilyattributable to starch gelatinization and supercooledsugar rather than a protein/starch structure (Gallagher,2002).

The formulation of gluten-free cereal-basedproductsThe formulation of gluten-free bakery products pre-

sents a formidable challenge to both the cereal technol-ogist and the baker. A literature search has indicated alimited number of papers on gluten-free bakery pro-ducts. This reflects both the difficulty of the technologi-cal challenge and the lack of awareness of the number ofpeople requiring gluten-free products, both as coeliacsand as non-coeliac persons intolerant or allergic to glu-ten. In recent years there has been significantly moreR&D on gluten-free products, involving a diverseapproach which has included the use of starches, dairyproducts, gums and hydrocolloids, other non-glutenproteins, prebiotics and combinations thereof, as alter-natives to gluten, to improve the structure, mouthfeel,acceptability and shelf-life of gluten-free bakery pro-ducts. Such R&D has also lead to an increase in therange of gluten-free products being sold in health shopsand supermarkets. Recent scientific developments/approaches are reviewed below. Extensive R&D isongoing at the authors’ laboratories at The NationalFood Centre and at University College, Cork in a jointproject which is using a bioengineering approach. Thisterm is used to describe the building of texture in gluten-free cereal based products (in the absence of gluten)using a range of novel/functional ingredients.

Starches and gums/hydrocolloidsStarches and hydrocolloids are widely used in the

bakery industry to impart texture and appearanceproperties to cereal-based foods (Anon., 2002; Cunin,1999; Laureys, 1996; Salama, 2001; Ward & Andon,2002). A number of teams have used a range of starcheswith gums/hydrocolloids for making gluten-free bakery

Fig. 1. Iceberg model depicting prevalence of coeliac disease (Feighery, 1999).

E. Gallagher et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 15 (2004) 143–152 145

products. Studies have been conducted using wheatstarch and non-wheat starches, the latter being moredesirable as some coeliacs cannot tolerate wheat starch.(Reports have highlighted that the long-term effects ofregular ingestion of small amounts of gliadin (e.g. wheatstarch) were harmful to patients with coeliac disease(Chartrand, Russo, Dulhaime, & Seidman, 1997;Hovarth & Mehta, 2000; Lohiniemi, Maki, Kaukinen,Laippala, & Collin, 2000; Skerritt & Hill, 1992).To ensure that gluten-free bread is acceptable, pro-

ducts with baked and sensory characteristics similarto those of wheat flour yeast bread are needed. Rot-sch’s (1954) study on the role of starch in bread-making showed that breads could be prepared fromstarch and gel-forming substances. Rice starches arewidely available and offer potential in the formulationof gluten-free baked products. Absence of gluten, lowlevels of sodium and high amounts of easily digestedcarbohydrate are all properties of rice, which aredesirable for special diets (Eliasson & Larsson, 1993).However, the absence of gluten causes problems inbreadmaking. Kang, Choi, and Choi (1997) showed thatmany gum types including hydroxypropyl-methylcellulose (HPMC), locust bean gum, guar gum,carageenan, xanthan gum and agar gave successful for-mation of rice bread where HPMC gave optimumvolume expansion. Gan, Rafael, Cato, and Small (2001)found that HPMC (1.7%) and carboxymethylcellulose(CMC) (0.4%), as gluten substitutes, gave better breadcharacteristics than guar gum (0.7%) in a 50:50 wheatflour: rice flour formulation. They also concluded thatreplacing 30% of the wheat flour by rice flour was themaximum possible level for acceptable bread qualitywithout addition of a gluten substitute, and brown riceflour was unsuitable for baking rice bread. Cato, Rafael,Gan, and Small (2002) found that fine white and groundrice flours gave gluten-free breads of good quality whenused in combination with CMC (0.8%) and HPMC(3.3%).Acs, Kovacs, and Matuz (1996a, 1996b) investigated

the use of different binding agents (xanthan, guar gum,locust bean gum and tragant) as a substitute for glutenin gluten-free bread formulations based on corn starch.They found that the binding agents resulted in a highlysignificant increase in loaf volume and loosening of thecrumb structure. The highest quality gluten-free breadcontained xanthan gum at levels of 1–3%.Ranhorta, Loewe, and Puyat (1975) discussed the

application of soy protein in the manufacture of gluten-free breads. They formulated wheat starch-based gluten-free breads with 20, 30 and 40% soy protein isolate(containing 88% protein). The breads had more proteinand fat than wheat bread and showed satisfactory bak-ing characteristics. Fermented cassava starches wereused by Demiate, Dupuy, Huvenne, Cereda, andWosiacki (2000) in the production of gluten-free breads

and biscuits in South America. By increasing the proof-ing time of gluten-free bread dough (based on potato/corn/rice starches, pectin, emulsifiers and lactose-freemargarine), Bauer (1980) obtained high quality gluten-free yeast breads and gingerbreads.Gums and thickeners are used in gluten-free formula-

tions for a variety of purposes including gelling andthickening, water retention and texture improvement.They are derived from various sources—seeds, fruits,plant extracts, seaweeds and micro-organisms—manyare polysaccharides while others are proteins (Norton &Foster, 2002). Schwarzlaff, Johnson, Barbeau, andDuncan (1996) used combinations of guar gum andlocust bean gum to partially replace flour in bread. Theyfound that the introduction of guar gum resulted incrumb structure with a more even cell size distribution,while locust bean gum inclusion increased the height ofthe bread loaves; both gums retarded bread staling.Optimum levels for locust bean gum and guar gum were2–4%.Gallagher, Polenghi, and Gormley (2002a) investi-

gated the application of novel rice starches (manu-factured with low to high degrees of starch hydrolysis)on a replacement basis for wheat starch in gluten-freebread formulations. The inclusion of the rice starches at3–9% levels resulted in gluten-free loaves with less yel-low crumb appearance (Minolta b* value), and darkercrust colour (Minolta L*). Crust hardness was unaf-fected, but crumb hardness (Texture Profile Analysis)was reduced, as was the rate of staling. The optimumlevel for rice starch inclusion was 6%; this also doubleddietary fibre content of the loaves. Extensive tests arealso being carried out at University College, Cork, Ire-land (Arendt et al., 2002) on the formulation of gluten-free loaves based on corn, potato, buckwheat, withblends of gums and dairy ingredients.

Dietary fibreThe role of dietary fibre in providing roughage and

bulk, and in contributing to a healthy intestine has longbeen recognized. Diets that contain moderate quantitiesof cereal grains, fruits and vegetables are likely to pro-vide sufficient fibre. Due to the fact that gluten-freeproducts generally are not enriched/fortified, and arefrequently made from refined flour or starch, they maynot contain the same levels of nutrients as the gluten-containing counterparts they are intended to replace.Therefore, uncertainty still exists as to whether coeliacpatients living on a gluten-free diet are ensured a nutri-tionally balanced diet. Grehn, Fridell, Lilliecreutz, andHallert (2001) screened the intake of nutrients and foodsof 49 adults diagnosed with coeliac disease and follow-ing a gluten-free diet. They were found to have a lowerintake of fibre when compared to a control group ofpeople on a normal diet. Similarly, Lohiniemi et al.,(2000) found that the average fibre consumption


amongst coeliacs in Sweden was lower than recom-mended. In their studies with coeliac adolescents, Mar-iani et al. (1998) concluded that adherence to a strictgluten free diet worsens the already nutritionally unbal-anced diet of adolescents. (Dietary levels of nutrientsand fibre were found to be low.) Similar findings wererevealed by Thompson (2000).The enrichment of gluten-free baked products with

dietary fibres has, therefore, been a topic of research forvarious teams of technologists (Codex AlimentariusCommission, 2000). Inulin is a non-digestible poly-saccharide that is classed as a dietary fibre. It also actsas a prebiotic by stimulating the growth of ‘healthy’bacteria in the colon (Gibson & Roberfroid, 1995).When added to wheat bread it improves loaf volumeand sliceability, increases dough stability and producesa uniform and finely grained crumb texture (Anon.,1999). Gallagher, Polenghi, and Gormley (2002b)incorporated inulin (8% inclusion level) into a wheatstarch-based gluten-free formulation. The dietary fibrecontent of the bread increased from 1.4 (control) to7.5% (control+inulin) and crust colour was alsoenhanced. The latter was due to the enzymes in the yeasthydrolyzing part of the inulin, resulting in the formationof fructose, which caused crust browning.Gambus, Gambus, and Sabat (2002) replaced corn-

starch with amaranthus flour to enhance the proteinand fibre contents of gluten-free breads. At a 10%replacement level, protein and fibre levels increased by32 and 152% respectively, while sensory quality wasunaffected. Taylor and Parker (2002) discussed theapplication of quinoa as a novel application in the pro-duction of enriched gluten-free bakery goods. Tosi,Ciappini, and Masciarelli (1996) described the use ofamaranth in gluten-free products. They formulated agluten-free mix using wholemeal amaranthus flour.Both quinoa and amaranth are pseudocereals, whichhave a high nutritional value and only recently are beingutilized as novel/functional ingredients. Schoenlechnerand Berghofer (2002) completed trials with both quinoaand amaranth (as a 40% replacement for wheat flour in ayeast bread formulation). They found that the breadquality (loaf volume and crumb softness) and nutritionalaspects, including dietary fibre content were improvedwhen the dough moisture was increased to 65%.

Dairy ingredientsThe incorporation of dairy ingredients has long been

established in the baking industry (Stahel, 1983; Zadow& Hardham, 1981). Dairy proteins are highly functionalingredients and due to their versatility can be readilyincorporated into many food products. They may beused in bakery products for both nutritional andfunctional benefits including flavour and textureenhancement, and storage improvement (Cocup & San-derson, 1987; Kenny, Wehrle, Auty, & Arendt, 2001;

Mannie & Asp, 1999). Dairy products may be used ingluten-free bread formulas to increase water absorptionand, therefore, enhance the handling properties of thebatter. However, supplementation of gluten-free breadswith the high lactose-content powders is not suitable forcoeliacs who have significant damage to their intestinalvilli as they may be intolerant of lactose due to theabsence of the lactase enzyme which is generated by thevilli (Ortolani & Pastorello, 1997). Seven dairy powderswere applied to a gluten-free bread formulation byGallagher, Gormley, and Arendt (2003). In general, thepowders with a high protein/low lactose content(sodium caseinate, milk protein isolate) gave breadswith an improved overall shape and volume, and a fir-mer crumb texture (Fig. 2). These breads had anappealing dark crust and white crumb appearance, andreceived good acceptability scores in sensory tests.When optimal water was added to the gluten-free for-mulation these breads exhibited increased volume and amuch softer crust and crumb texture than the controls.Supplementing the gluten free formulation with highprotein-content dairy powders doubled the proteincontent of the breads.

Other approachesResponse surface methodology (RSM) is a statistical

tool, which is particularly appropriate for productdevelopment work. Successful application of RSM inthe production of different types of wheat bread hasbeen reported (Lee & Hoseney, 1982; Malcolmson,Matsuo, & Balshaw, 1993). Ylimaki, Hawrysh, Hardin,and Thomson (1991) used RSM to produce and objec-tively measure gluten-free breads based on three typesof rice flour (varying in grain size and grinding method).Amongst their results, they found that optimal loaveswere formulated with medium grain, finely ground riceflour, low levels of HPMC and low levels of CMC.These beads were the most similar to wheat flourbreads, based on crust and crumb colour, Instronfirmness and loaf moisture.They also used the same three rice flours in a second

trial. Gluten-free yeast breads were produced based onthe rice flours (80%) and potato starch (20%). Usingsensory measurements from a trained panel, RSM wasapplied to find CMC, HPMC and water combinationsfor the different rice flours. It was found that gluten-freeloaves made with medium grain rice flours were of ahigher standard with respect to moistness, cohesiveness,flavour, colour and cell structure than those made fromlong grain rice flour (Ylimaki et al., 1991).The proportions of cornstarch, cassava starch and

rice flour in the production of gluten-free breads wereoptimized by Sanchez, Osella, and de la Torre (2002).Addition of soy flour was also tested to improve thebread crumb characteristics. The optimal formulationwas calculated as cornstarch (74.2%), rice flour (17.2%)


and cassava starch (8.6%). The inclusion of 0.5% soyflour was found to significantly enhance crumb grainscore and overall bread score. Also, an abnormality oflarge gas cells, and a resultant high specific volume wasrectified by the addition of soy flour.RSM is currently being employed at the authors’

laboratory at The National Food Centre to develop andoptimize a gluten-free bread formulation based on riceflour, potato starch, skim milk powder and hydroxy-propylmethylcellulose (HPMC). A central compositedesign with two variables (water; 70–95% flour weightand HPMC; 0.5–2.5% flour weight) was prepared, anda formulation was optimised based on loaf weight,specific volume, texture profile analysis and imageanalysis measurements. Specific volume was mostinfluenced by the level of water added (P<0.005).HPMC had a significant effect on colour, i.e. CIE L*values increased as the level of HPMC increased.Crumb hardness values were reduced as water levelsincreased (P<0.005), except when HPMC was at itsmaximum level of addition (Fig. 3). The number of

large gas cells increased (P<0.05) with increasing levelsof both water and HPMC (Fig. 4). Optimization wasbased on the generation of the best results for specificvolume, crumb hardness and image analysis data.Toufeili et al. (1994) applied RSM to analyze the

effects of methylcellulose, gum arabic and egg albumenon the sensory properties of gluten-free flat breads bakedfrom formulae based on pregelatinized rice flour andpregelatinized cornstarch with cornflour. Methylcellu-lose and egg albumen were identified as the major deter-minants of product sensory quality. Lower levels of gumarabic resulted in loaves of inferior quality. When 3%gum arabic, and 2–4% methylcellulose and egg albumenwere used, gluten-free breads comparable to wheatbreads were produced. However, the breads staled morerapidly over a 2-day period than regular wheat bread.A novel approach at The National Food Centre has

focussed on the supplementation of a control gluten-free bread formulation based on rice flour and potatostarch with fish surimi (as a structure enhancer andprotein replacer) at a 10% inclusion level (of starch

Fig. 2. Influence of dairy powders, and their level of inclusion, on the volume of gluten free bread loaves.


weight) (Gormley, Elbel, Gallagher, & Arendt, 2003).Surimi is a concentrate of myofibrillar proteins obtainedafter mincing and water washing of fish flesh (Han-Ching & Leinot, 1993). It contains approximately 78%water, 20% protein, lipids, sugars and polyphosphates.Surimi is a highly functional ingredient with excellentgel-forming properties (Whitehead, 1992). Frozen sur-imi of four species was evaluated, i.e. mackerel, bluewhiting, red gurnard and pollock. Texture profile ana-lysis post-baking indicated that three of the surimibreads had a softer (P<0.001) crust and crumb than thecontrols. These breads also revealed higher (P<0.001)loaf volumes than the controls. Paired comparison tastepanel tests for acceptability indicated no differencebetween the control and the surimi breads, with theexception of bread with blue whiting surimi. This waspreferred (P<0.05) to the control.

Non-bread gluten-free productsResponse surface methodology was performed by

Huang, Knight, and Goad (2001) to produce non-glutenpasta. They based their optimization procedure on sen-sory properties and pasta stickiness, and found thatgluten-free pasta with characteristics most similar to awheat-based pasta was obtained when higher levels ofmodified starch, xanthan gum and locust bean gum

were used. This gave samples with a good ‘hardness offirst bite’ and cohesiveness.Pea flour is higher in protein and lysine than both wheat

flour and semolina. It is also gluten-free. The cookingquality of pasta products made by twin screw extrusion of100% pea flour was evaluated byWang, Bhirud, Sosulski,and Tyler (1999). They found that the pea flour ingredient,coupled with the novel process exhibited improved textureand flavour after cooking, and less change after over-cooking compared with the same product prepared usinga conventional pasta extruder.The effects of rice, corn, soya, millet, buckwheat and

potato starches, in combination with different fat sour-ces (palm oil, cream powder, microencapsulated high fatpowder and low fat dairy powders) on the formulationof gluten-free biscuits was studied by Arendt et al.(2002). Rice, corn, potato and soya with high fat pow-ders produced biscuit doughs, which were sheetable, andbiscuits of comparable quality to wheat biscuits. Thesame authors found that cornstarch, guar gum and highfat powder produced acceptable gluten-free pizza bases.Tosi, Ciappini, and Masciarelli (1996) used whole-

meal amaranthus flour to develop gluten-free biscuits.They found that addition of 0.1% butylated hydroxy-toluene (BHT) to the fat extended the shelf-life withoutenhancing the flavour. The protein content of these

Fig. 3. 3-D surface plots of crumb hardness values of gluten-free breads containing low, medium and high levels of water and hydroxy-propylmethylcellulose (HPMC).


biscuits at 5.7%, was higher than the average forgluten-free biscuits.

ConclusionA greater awareness, and improved reliability of

diagnostic procedures has recently highlighted the pre-valence of coeliac disease. Lifelong adherence to a glu-ten-free diet remains the cornerstone treatment for thedisease. However, gluten is a major component of wheatand rye flours, and its replacement in bakery productsremains a significant technological challenge. The use ofstarches, gums and hydrocolloids represent the mostwidespread approach used to mimic gluten in the man-ufacture of gluten-free bakery products, due to theirstructure-building and water binding properties. Novelapproaches including the application of dietary fibresand alternative protein sources combined with responsesurface methodology are also emerging. However, inview of the current increasing incidence of coeliac/glu-ten intolerant sufferers (due to improved diagnosticprocedures), there is a major need for more research anddevelopment in the area of gluten-free cereal-basedproducts.

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Quinua Formulation Gluten-free