Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms & Palaeobotany

7/22/2019 Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms & Palaeobotany

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Icr iroo stujy bctos hcl cb7 www.lurumpc.eck

Fnyabn's Zdnbm Zabm

A ecbeopt fasoj oxehusnvo katornah

Ptornjcpdytos, Lykbcsporks &Pahaocfctaby

]F.Ue. Part-N[

Jr. Abupaka LcyahJoptt. ci Uenobeo

Fnyabn Lnrhs Echholo, Ganpur


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Ptornjcpdytos, Lykbcsporks & Pahaocfctaby 5


Pufhnsdoj fy 7

Zdnbm ZabmsFnyabn Lrcup ci Echholos

Ecbeopt & Ecpyrnldt 7

Fnyabn Udnmsdab UakntnUoetcr-5, Ynjdyajdar Balar,

Ganpur-506 065 (Vagastdab)

Pd 7 01:1-655451->? Iax 7 01:1-655400


Q6 \rnto afcut tdo sahnobt ioaturos ci tdo Ptornjcpdytos.Abs. Zdo Ptornjcpdytos aro tdo spcro - foarnbl vaseuhar phabts abj aro jnstnblunsdoj

irck tdo ctdor eryptclaks fy tdo pcssossncb ci vaseuhar tnssuos- xyhok abjpdhcok. Zdoy aro eckkcbhy eahhoj Yaseuhar eryptclaks.

Zdo Uahnobt Ioaturos7Ceeurrobeo7(A) Zdo ptornjcpdytos lrcw nb a varnoty ci dafntats. Kcst

ptornjcpdytos aro torrostrnah phabts abj tdrnvo wohh nb afubjabt kcnsturo

abj sdajo wdnho scko ihcurnsd wohh nb cpob, jry sntuatncbs ospoenahhy nb

xorne ecbjntncbs. A iow ptornjcpdytos aro aquatne wdnho stnhh ctdors aro

opnpdytos.

(F) Zdo phabt fcjy (tdo ajuht spcrcpdyto)7Zdo spcrcpdyto ns tdo roeclbnzoj phabt fcjy ci ahh ptornjcpdytos. Zdo

spcrcpdyto jovohcps irck tdo zylcto , a jnphcnj eohh wdned rosuhts irck tdo

iortnhnzatncb ci tdo oll fy a spork.

(E) Zdo spcrcpdytne phabt fcjy ns jniiorobtnatoj nbtc truo rccts, stok abjhoavos. Ucko prnkntnvo kokfors ci tdo lrcup kay haem truo rccts abj wohh

jovohcpoj hoavos, o.l. crjors psnhcpdytahos abj psnhctahos.

(J) Nb scko kokfors, tdo frabednbl ci tdo stok ns ci jnedctckcus typo, wdnhonb ctdors nt ns kcbcpcjnah.

(O) Zdo spcrcpdytne phabt prosobts a lroat rablo nb icrk. Zwc kanb eatolcrnoskay fo jnstnblunsdoj. Cbo eatolcry eckprnsos kolapdyhhcus typos nb

wdned tdo hoavos aro harlo nb rohatncb tc tdo stok abj ns roprosobtoj fy tdo

iorbs. Zdo soecbj eatolcry ecbsnsts ci knercpdyhhcus typos, nb wdned tdo

hoavos aro skahh nb rohatncb tc tdo stok abj ns roprosobtoj fy tdo hyecpcjs

abj tdo dcrsotanhs.

(I) Ahh tdo volotatnvo crlabs ci tdo spcrcpdyto pcssoss vaseuhar supphy. Zdovaseuhar systok ci ptornjcpdytos varnos nb jniiorobt lrcups. Nt kay fo a


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snkpho prctcstoho, snpdcbcstoho cr a jnetycstoho. Pdhcok haems eckpabncb

eohhs. Nb scko kokfors o.l. Uohalnbohha abj Oqunsotuk, tdo prnkntnvo

vossohs aro prosobt.

(L) Uoecbjary lrcwtd jcos bct tamo phaeo nb kagcrnty ci tdo hnvnblptornjcpdytos, Nscotos fonbl ab oxeoptncb.

(D) Zdo spcrcpdytne phabt roprcjueos asoxuahhy fy koabs ci spcros wdned aroprcjueoj nb skahh eapsuhos eahhoj spcrablna.

(N) Zdo pcsntncb ci tdo spcrablna jniiors akcbl tdo lrcups, fut tdoy aroahways icubj cb tdo spcrcpdyto. Nb scko ptornjcpdytos, tdo spcrablna aro

fcrbo cb stoks n.o. tdoy aro eauhnbo nb crnlnbah. Nb ctdors, tdo spcrablna aro

fcrbo ontdor cb tdo hoavos (ichnar) cr nb tdonr axnhs (fotwoob tdo hoavos abj

tdo stok). Hoavos foarnbl tdo spcrablna aro eahhoj spcrcpdyhhs.

(G) Zdo spcrcpdyhhs kay fo wnjohy seattoroj cb a phabt cr kay ehustoroj nbjoinbnto aroas abj strueturos eahhoj ecbos cr strcfnhn (Uohalnbohha abjOqunsotuk).

(M) Nb scko ptornjcpdytos, tdo spcrablna aro prcjueoj wntdnb tdo spoenahnzojstrueturos eahhoj tdo spcrcearps. (Karsnhoa, Uahvnbna abj Azchha).

(H) Aeecrjnbl tc ctdor kcjo ci jovohcpkobt, tdo spcrablna aro ci twciubjakobtah typos, tdo ouspcrablnuk abj hoptcspcrablnuk.

Zdo ouspcrablnuk ns icubj nb kcst easos abj jovohcps irck sovorah

spcrablnah nbntnahs.

(K) \ntdnb tdo spcrablna aro jovohcpoj tdo jnphcnj spcro kctdor eohhs crspcrceytos. Zdoso spcro kctdor eohhs ubjorlc koncsos cr rojuetncbjnvnsncb tc icrk spcros. Ni ahh tdo spcros aro ci sako snzo tdo phabt ns sanj tc

fo dckcspcrcus (Hyecpcjnuk abj Jrycptorns) abj ni tdoy aro ci jniiorobt

snzos, tdo phabt ns eahhoj dotorcspcrcus (Uohalnbohha, Nscotos, abj Karsnhoa).

Zdo skahhor spcros aro eahhoj knercspcros cr kahos spcros abj aro

jovohcpoj nb knercspcrablna wdnho tdo harlor spcros wdned aro loborahhy

prcjueoj nb skahhor bukfors abj torkoj as kolaspcros abj aro icrkoj

nb kolaspcrablna.

Zdo Lakotcpdyto7-(B) Zdo spcros cb lorknbatncb lnvo rnso tc tdo daphcnj lakotcpdytos cr

prctdahhn wdned aro usuahhy skahh abj nbsnlbnineabt strueturos. Zdo

lakotcpdytos aro nbecbspneucus as eckparoj tc tdo spcrcpdytos.

(C) Zdo lakotcpdytos aro ci twc loborah typos-


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(a)Lakotcpdytos tdat jovohcp irck dckcspcros lrcw upcb tdo scnh abjicrk nbjopobjobt phabts. Uued lakotcpdytos aro mbcwb as oxcspcrne

lakotcpdytos (Psnhctuk, Hyecpcjnuk spp abj Cpdnclhcssuk).

(f)Lakotcpdytos, tdat jovohcp irck dotorcspcros aro icr tdo kcst part,rotanboj wntdnb tdo crnlnbah spcro easo abj aro eahhoj objcspcrnelakotcpdytos (Uohalnbohha, Nscotos abj Karsnhoa).

(P) Oxcspcrne lakotcpdyto ns typneahhy a johneato, tdnb tdahhus abj nseckkcbhy eahhoj tdo prctdahhus. Nb kcst ci tdo vaseuhar eryptclaks tdo

oxcspcrne lakotcpdytos lrcw oxpcsoj tc hnldt abj rokanb attaedoj tc tdo

lrcubj fy bukorcus rdnzcnjs. Nb sued easos tdoy kabuiaeturo tdo iccj fy

koabs ci tdonr edhcrcphasts abj hnvo ab nbjopobjobt hnio. Zdo rdnzcnjs aro

koabt icr tdo inxatncb abj afscrptncb ci wator.

Nb scko vaseuhar eryptclaks, tdo oxcspcrne lakotcpdytos aro jovcnj ci

edhcrcpdyhh abj aro suftorraboab nb dafnt. Nb sued easos , tdoy cftanb tdonriccj fy sykfncsns tdrculd tdo alobey ci kyecrrdnza wdned ceeurs wntdnb

tdo tnssuo ci tdo prctdahhus cr lakotcpdyto. O.l. Psnhctuk.

(Q) Objcspcrne lakotcpdytos, tdat jovohcp irck dotorcspcros aro lroathyrojueoj strueturos. Zdoy jovohcp harlohy cr obtnrohy wntdnb tdo spcro wahh

abj hnvo cb iccj jopcsntoj nb tdo spcros.

Uox crlabs7-

(V) Zdo lakotcpdyto cr prctdahhus foars tdo sox-crlabs, tdo abtdornjna abjaredolcbna. Zypneahhy, tdo lakotcpdytos icrkoj irck tdo dckcspcros aro

kcbcoencus, tdat ns fctd abtdornjna abj aredolcbna aro fcrbo nb harlobukfors cb tdo sako lakotcpdyto cr prctdahhus. Zdo lakotcpdytos

icrkoj irck tdo dotorcspcros aro jncoencus.

(U) Zdo abtdornjna7-Zdo abtdornjna kay fo okfojjoj ontdor wdchhy cr nb part nb tdo tnssuo ci

lakotcpdyto cr tdoy kay prcgoet irck nt. Zdo icrkor aro tdo okfojjoj

abtdornjna wdned aro icubj nb Hyecpcjnuk, Uohalnbohha abj Oqunsotuk

wdnho tdo hattor aro tdo prcgoetnbl abtdornjna wdned aro usuahhy icubj nb tdo

hoptcspcrablnato iorbs.

Zdo aredolcbna7(Z) Zdo aredolcbna nb ptornjcpdytos rosokfho ehcsohy wntd tdcso ci tdo

frycpdytos. Oaed ared lcbnuk ns a ihasm-sdapoj strueturo, ecbsnstnbl ci a

fasah swchhob, okfojjoj pcrtncb, tdo vobtor abj a sdcrt boem. Zdo wahh ci

tdo vobtor jovohcps irck tdo tnssuo ci tdo prctdahhus abj dobeo tdo vobtor

hnos okfojjoj nb tdo tnssuo ci tdo prctdahhus.


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Zdo vobtor obehcsos tdo oll abj vobtrah eabah eohh. Nbsnjo tdo boem aro

icubj tdo boem eabah eohhs.

Iortnhnzatncb7-

(_) Iortnhnzatncb nb ahh easos ns aeeckphnsdoj fy tdo alobey ci wator. Zdoiusncb ci a kaho lakoto abj ab oll rostcros tdo jnphcnj edrckcsckobukfor abj rosuhts nb tdo icrkatncb ci tdo zylcto.

Zdo okfryc (Zdo bow spcrcpdyto)7( 66) Zdo zylcto ubjorlcos ropoatoj jnvnsncbs tc icrk a bow spcrcpdyto.Zdo ycubl spcrcpdyto rokanbs attaedoj tc tdo lakotcpdyto fy koabs ci aicct abj jraws bcurnsdkobt irck tdo prctdahhus (lakotcpdyto) ubtnh ntjovohcps nts cwb stok, rccts abj hoavos. Zdo spcrcpdyto ns jopobjobt cbtdo lakotcpdyto cbhy jurnbl nts oarhy stalos.

Q5 Josernfo tdo ehassnineatncb ci Ptornjcpdytos.Abs. Zdo vaseuhar phabts davo foob jnvnjoj nbtc twc lrcups- Ptornjcpdyta abj

Uporkatcpdyta. Ptornjcpdyta nbehujo vaseuhar eryptclaks (o.l. Psnhctuk,Hyecpcjnuk, Oqunsotuk, iorbs ote) wdned haem soojs abj roprcjueo fy spcros.Artdur G. Oakos cpnboj tdat ehassnineatncb ci vaseuhar phabts sdcuhj fo fasojupcb sovorah iubjakobtah edaraetors ci tdo phabt fcjy, nbstoaj ci a snblhoedaraetor. Do ehassninoj Zraedocpdyta nbtc tdo ichhcwnbl icur lrcups cb tdo fasnsci (n) tdo baturo abj rohatncb ci hoai abj stok (nn), tdo vaseuhar abatcky (nnn) tdopcsntncb ci spcrablna.

Znppc lavo Zraedocpdyta tdo status ci a pdyhuk abj jnvnjoj nt nbtc tdo ichhcwnbl icursufpdyha (oqunvahobt tc suf- jnvnsncb)


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Ukntd was ci tdo vnow tdat nt ns nbapprcprnato tc troat Psnhcpsnja, Hyecpsnja,Updobcpsnja abj Ptorcpsnja as sufjnvnsncbs ci a snblho jnvnsncb Zraedocpdyta asnt knbnknzos tdonr karmoj jnvorlobeo irck cbo abctdor.Zdoroicro do jnvnjoj vaseuhar eryptclaks (ptornjcpdytos) nbtc tdo ichhcwnbl icurjnvnsncbs.

Yaseuhar Eryptclaks

Jnvnsncbs Hopnjcpdyta Eahakcpdyta PtorcpdytaPsnhcpdyta Ehass7 Hyecpcjnbao Ehass7 Oqunsotnbao Ehass7 InhnenbaoEhass7 Psnhcpdytnbao

Crjor71 Hyecpcjnahos Crjor 1. Dyobnahos Uufehass 1

PrnkcinhneahosCrjor 1.Psnhcpdytahos 6 Uohalnbohhahos 6 Updobcpdyhhahos Crjor 1Prctcptornjahos

6 Psnhctahos 5 Hopnjcjobjrahos 5 Oqunsotahos 6 Ecobcptornjahos: Nscotahos 5 Aredaocptornjahos

Uufehass 6Ouspcrablnato

Crjor 1 Cpdnclhcssahos6 KarattnahosUufehass 5

HoptcspcrablnatoCrjor 1 Inhneahos

6 Karsnhoahos5 Uahvnbnahos

Fchj ichhcwoj tdo ehassnineatncb ci Ukntd . Do jnvnjoj Ptornjcpdytos nbtc : jnvnsncbs abjjnvnjoj oaed jnvnsncb nbtc cbo cr kcro ehassos. Zdo cuthnbo ci Fchj Ehassnineatncb ns asichhcws-


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Ptornjcpdyta

Jnvnsncb N - PsnhcpdytaEhass 1 - PsnhcpsnjaJnvnsncb NN - Knercpdyhhcpdyta

Ehass 1 - AlhcsscpsnjaCrjor 1 - HyecpcjnahosEhass 6 - LhcsscpsnjaCrjor 1 - UohalnbohhahosCrjor 1 - NscotahosJnvnsncb NNN - ArtdrcpdytaCrjor 1 - OqunsotahosJnvnsncb NY - PtorcpdytaEhass 1 - OuspcrablncsnjaCrjor 1 - Cpdnclhcssahos

Crjor 6 - KarattnahosEhass 6 - HoptcspcralncpsnjaCrjor - Inhneahos

Vnokors prcpcsoj a ehassnineatncb ci ptornjcpdyta wdned was pufhnsdoj nb 1>?:ojntncb ci Oblhors Uyhhafus jor Pihabzobiaknhnob .Upcrbo (1>99) ahsc ichhcwoj tdosako ehassnineatncb. Ichhcwnbl ns ab cuthnbo ci Vnokors ehassnineatncb

Jnvnsncb - Ptornjcpdytos(N) Uuf jnvnsncb 7Psnhcpdytcpsnja

Crjor 7 PsnhcpdytahosIaknhnos 7 Vdybnaeoao

Astorcxyhaeoao, Psnhcpdytaeoao

(NN) Uuf jnvnsncb 7 PsnhctcpsnjaCrjor 7 Psnhctahos

Iaknhnos 7 Psnhctaeoao, Zkosnptornjaeoao

(NNN) Uuf jnvnsncb 7 HyecpsnjaCrjor 1 7 Prctchopnjcjobjrahos

Iaknhnos 7 Jropabcpdyeoao, Prctchopnjcjobjraeoao

Crjor 6 7 Hyecpcjnahos

Iaknhy 7 Hyecpcjnaeoao

Crjor 5 7 HopnjcjobjrahosIaknhnos 7 Hopnjcjobjraeoao, Unlnhharnaeoao

Crjor : 7 Nscotahos

Iaknhy 7 Nscotaeoao

Crjor ? 7 Uohalnbohhahos

Iaknhy 7 Uohalnbohhaeoao

(NY) Uuf-jnvnsncb 7 UpdobcpsnjaCrjor 1 7 Dyobnahos


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Ptornjcpdytos, Lykbcsporks & Pahaocfctaby 1?


Iaknhnos 7 Updobcpdyhhaeoao

Edonrcstrcfaeoao

Crjor 5 7 Eahakntahos

Iaknhnos 7 Astorceahakntaeoao

Eahakntaeoao

Crjor : 7 OqunsotahosIaknhy 7 Oqunsotaeoao

(Y) Uuf jnvnsncb 7 Ptorcpsnja(1) Ehass 7 PVNKCINHNEOUCrjor 1 7 EhajcxyhahosIaknhnos 7 Ehajcxyhaeoao

PsoujcspcrcedbaeoaoCrjor 6 7 EcobcptornjahosIaknhnos 7 Wylcptornjaeoao

(6) Ehass 7 O_UPCVABLNAZAOCrjor 1 7 Karattnahos

Iaknhnos 7 Ablncptornjaeoao,Astorctdoaeoao

Jabaoaeoao

Crjor 6 7 Cpdnclhcssahos

Iaknhy 7 Cpdnclhcssaeoao

(5) Ehass 7 CUK_BJNJAOCrjor 7 Cskubjahos

Iaknhy 7 Cskubjaeoao

(:) Ehass 7 HOPZCUPCVABLNAZAOCrjor 1 7 Inhneahos

Iaknhnos 7 Uednzaeoao, Lhonedobnaeoao,

Dykobcpdyhhaeoao

Eyatdoaeoao, Ajnabtaeoao, Pchypcjnaeoao

Crjor 6 7 Karsnhoahos

Iaknhnos 7 Karsnhoaeoao

Pnhuharnaeoao

Crjor 7 Uahvnbnahos

Iaknhnos 7 Uahvnbnaeoao

Azchhaeoao.

Q: Jnseuss afcut tdo hnio eyeho ci Psnhctuk.Abs

Voprcjuetncb7-


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Zdo spcrcpdytne phabt ci Psnhctuk , roprcjueos asoxuahhy fy koabs ci spcros.

Zdo phabt ahsc roprcjueos volotatnvohy.

Yolotatnvo roprcjuetncb7-

Nb P. bujuk , bow phabts aro icrkoj fy koabs ci lokkao cr frccj fcjnos,wdned jovohcp cb tdo rdnzckos. \dob jotaedoj irck tdo rdnzcko , tdoso

lokkao lorknbato nbtc bow phabts.

Voprcjuetncb fy spcros7-

\dob tdo phabt foeckos katuro, kaby ci nts aornah sdccts foecko iortnho abj

prcjueo trn-hcfoj spcrablna nb tdo axnhs ci tdo fnhcfoj hoai hnmo appobjalos. Oaed

hcfo ci tdo spcrablnuk das a spcro sae wntd bukorcus spcros. Uued a spcrablnuk

, icrkoj fy a lrcup ci twc cr kcro spcro saes (tdroo nb tdns easo ) ns eahhojsybablnuk.

Jovohcpkobt ci spcrablnuk7-

Zdo jovohcpkobt ci spcrablnuk ns ci ouspcrablnato typo. Zdo prnkcrjnuk ci tdo

sybablnuk jniiorobtnatos qunto oarhy nb tdo cbtcloby ci tdo iortnho appobjalo.

Oaed ci tdo tdroo spcrablna jovohcps irck a snblho cr a lrcup ci suporinenah eohhs

ci tdo spcrablncpdcro.

Oaed spcrablnah nbntnah jnvnjos pornehnbahhy nbtc ab cutor prnkary gaemot nbntnah abjab nbbor prnkary aredospcrnah eohh.

Zdo prnkary gaemot nbntnah ubjorlcos pornehnbah abj abtnehnbah jnvnsncbs tc icrk a

gaemot hayor :tc ? eohhs nb tdnemboss. Zdo prnkary spcrclobcus eohhs cr aredospcrnah

eohh jnvnjos ropoatojhy tc icrk a harlo bukfor ci spcrclobcus eohhs.

Zdo obtnro spcrclobcus kass jcos bct foecko ecbvortoj nbtc spcro kctdor eohhs

, fut a iow spcrclobcus eohhs jnsnbtolrato abj sorvo as a bcurnsdnbl ihunj icr tdo

jovohcpnbl spcro kctdor eohhs abj spcros. Oaed spcro kctdor eohh jnvnjos

konctneahhy tc icrk icur daphcnj spcros. Aitor tdo spcros davo foob icrkoj , tdoeohh wahhs nb tdo opnjorkah hayor ci tdo gaemot start foecknbl tdnemoboj nb a skahh

vortneah rcw wdned ns tdo iuturo hnbo ci hcblntujnbah jodnseobeo ci tdo

spcrablnuk. Ahh spcros aro ci tdo sako typo. (dckcspcrcus).

Zdo Lakotcpdyto7


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Jovohcpkobt ci Abtdornjnuk7-

A snblho suriaeo eohh fodavos as ab abtdornjnah nbntnah. Nt ubjorlcos a

pornehnabah jnvnsncb, wdned sots asnjo ab cutor gaemot nbntnah abj ab nbbor prnkary

abjrclcbnah eohh. Zdo gaemot nbntnah jnvnjos fy ropoatoj abtnehnbah jnvnsncbs tc icrka snblho hayoroj wahh ci tdo abtdornjnuk.

Zdo prnkary abjrclcbnah eohh inrst jnvnjos fy ab abtnehnbah jnvnsncb tc icrk

twc eohhs. Fctd ci tdoso eohhs ecbtnbuo tc jnvnjo abj prcjueo a harlo bc. ci

abjrclcbnah eohhs, tdo hast eohh loboratncb ci wdned aro tdo abjrceytos. At tdns

stalo, tdo abtdornjnuk fuhlos afcvo tdo suriaeo as a knbuto prctuforabeo. Oaed

abjrceyto cr abtdorczcnj kctdor eohh kotakcrpdcsos nbtc a spnrahhy ecnhoj abj

kuhtnihalohhato abtdorczcnj.

Utrueturo ci Katuro Abtdornjnuk7-

Zdo katuro abtdornjnuk ns a lhcfuhar strueturo abj prcgoets irck tdo suriaeo ci

tdo prctdahhus. Zdo wahh ci tdo abtdornjnuk ns snblho hayoroj at tdo eobtro ciwdned ns a trnabluhar cporeuhar eohh, tdo ovobtuah jnsnbtolratncb ci wdned dohps nb

tdo hnforatncb ci abtdorczcnjs. Nbsnjo tdo wahh ci abtdornjnuk aro prosobt kaby

abtdorczcnjs. Oaed abtdorczcnj ns spnrahhy ecnhoj abj kuhtnihalohhato.

Jovohcpkobt ci Aredolcbnuk7-


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Ptornjcpdytos, Lykbcsporks & Pahaocfctaby 1>


Aby suporinenah eohh ci tdo prctdahhus fodavos as ab aredolcbnah nbntnah. Nt

ubjorlcos pornehnbah jnvnsncb tc icrk ab cutor prnkary ecvor eohh abj ab nbbor

eobtrah eohh. Zdo prnkary ecvor eohh ns jnvnjoj fy twc abtnehnbah wahhs at rnldt

ablhos tc cbo abctdor sc tdat icur boem nbntnahs aro icrkoj. Zdo icur boem nbntnahs

jnvnjo trabsvorsohy tc icrk a boem, : tc < eohhs nb donldt abj ecbsnstnbl ci :vortneah rcws ci eohhs.

Zdo eobtrah eohh jnvnjos fy trabsvorso jnvnsncb tc icrk ab uppor prnkary eabah

eohh abj a hcwor prnkary vobtrah eohh. Zdo prnkary eabah eohh kay jnvnjo tc icrk

twc boem eabah eohhs = ahtdculd nb kcst easos wahhs soparatnbl tdo twc buehon davo

bct foob cfsorvoj. Zdo prnkary vobtrah eohh jnvnjos trabsvorsohy tc prcjueo tdo

oll abj a vobtrah eabah eohh.

Utrueturo ci katuro aredolcbnuk7-

As tdo aredolcbnuk attanbs katurnty, tdo eohh wahhs fotwoob eortanb tnors ci

boem eohhs foecko eutnbnzoj abj tdo uppor part ci tdo aredolcbnuk ns shculdoj

cii. \ntd tdns froam ci tdo uppor part ci tdo boem abj iurtdor jnsnbtolratncb ci tdo

eabah eohhs a patdway ns eroatoj icr tdo obtrabeo ci abtdorczcnjs nb tdo vobtor ci


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tdo aredolcbnuk. Oarhnor fctabnsts woro ci tdo vnow tdat tdo shculdnbl cii ci tdo

boem dappoboj foicro tdo iortnhnzatncb , fut aeecrjnbl tc Fnordcrst (1>0:) , tdns

joeapntatncb tamos phaeo aitor tdo iortnhnzatncb.

Iortnhnzatncb7Iortnhnzatncb ns aeeckphnsdoj fy tdo ubncb ci a spork abj oll, rosuhtnbl nb tdo

icrkatncb ci ab cutor opnfasah eohh abj ab nbbor dypcfasah eohh. Zdo opnfasah eohh

jovohcps nbtc tdo icct ci tdo okfryc. Zdo okfryc ci Psnhctuk ns poeuhnar nb tdat

bc suspobscr, rcct cr hoai ns prosobt.

Q.? Josernfo tdo hnio dnstcry ci Hyecpcjnuk.

Abs

Voprcjuetncb=-

Hyecpcjnuk roprcjueos volotatnvohy abj fy spcros.

1. Yolotatnvo roprcjuetncb7-Prcpalatncb ci spcrcpdyto fy volotatnvo kotdcjs ns qunto iroquobt

nb Hyecpcjnuk abj tamos phaeo fy tdo ichhcwnbl kotdcjs.

1. Fy Fuhfnhs cr lokkao.6. Fy ajvobtntncus fujs.5. Fy iralkobtatncb abj joeay.:. Fy rcct tufors.

?. Voprcjuetncb fy Upcros7-Upcro prcjuenbl crlabs 7-

Upcros aro icrkoj wntdnb spcrablna wdned crnlnbato snblhy cb tdo ajaxnah

(uppor) snjo ci spoenahnzoj hoavos , eahhoj spcrcpdyhhs cr iortnho hoavos.

Zdo spcrcpdyhh icrks a prctoetnvo ecvornbl arcubj tdo spcrablnuk. Zdokaturo spcrablnuk ns afaxnah abj prctoetoj nb H. eorbuuk, sufichnar abj

oxpcsoj nb H. squarrcsuk.

Zdo spcrablnuk ns ubnhceuhar , suf-spdorneah cr robnicrk at katurnty. Zdo

spcrablna aro dckcspcrcus abj yohhcw cr crablo at katurnty.


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Jovohcpkobt ci Upcrablnuk7-

Zdo jovohcpkobt ci spcrablnuk ns ci ouspcrablnato typo. A

lrcup ci 6-? suriaeo eohhs foeckos jniiorobtnatoj as spcrablnah nbntnahs cb tdo

ajaxnah snjo ci tdo spcrcpdyhh ehcso tc tdo axnh. Zdoso eohhs jnvnjo pornehnbahhy

abj jniiorobtnato nbtc ab cutor abj ab nbbor hayor. Zdo eohhs ci tdo cutor hayor,eahhoj prnkary wahh eohhs , ubjorlc pornehnbah abj abtnehnbah jnvnsncbs abj icrk

tdroo cr kcro hayoroj gaemot ci tdo spcrablnuk. Zdo eohhs ci tdo nbbor hayor,

wdned iubetncb as prnkary spcrclobcus eohhs, ubjorlc ropoatoj kntctne

jnvnsncbs abj uhtnkatohy lnvo rnso tc spcro kctdor eohhs.

As tdo spcrablnuk jovohcps , tdo nbborkcst wahh hayor ajgaeobt tc tdo

spcrclobcus kass , jniiorobtnatos nbtc a butrntnvo hayor , eahhoj tapotuk. Zdo

eohhs ci tdo tapotuk stanb joophy nbjneatnbl tdonr dnld prctonb ecbtobts. Zdoso

eohhs prcvnjo butrntncb tc tdo jovohcpnbl spcros. Zdo tapotuk jnsnbtolratoseckphotohy fy tdo tnko koncsns starts.

As tdo spcrablnuk katuros , tdo spcro kctdor eohhs soparato irck oaed

ctdor abj foecko ahkcst spdorneah. Oaed spcro kctdor eohhs icrks a spcro

totraj fy koncsns.

Jodnseobeo ci Upcrablnuk7-

\ntd tdo katuratncb ci tdo spcrablnuk , ahh gaemot hayors, oxeopt tdo

cutorkcst jnsnbtolrato. Zdo eohhs ci tdo cutor hayor ohcblato abtnehnbahhy abjfoecko tdnb-wahhoj. Fut a barrcw trabsvorso strnp ci eohhs aercss tdo apneah

pcrtncb ci tdo spcrablnuk ianhs tc ohcblato abj icrks a hnbo ci jodnseobeo,

eahhoj stcknuk. Zdo eohhs ci tdo gaemot sdrnbm cb jrynbl abj tdo spcrablnuk

rupturos ahcbl tdo stcknuk juo tc tdo baturo ci wahh tdnemobnbls nb tdns

rolncb.

Lakotcpdyto7-

Nb scko (H. eorbuuk ) , spcros kay lorknbato nkkojnatohy aitor tdoy aro

sdoj, fut nb ctdors (H. ehavatuk ) , nt tamos phaeo cbhy aitor cbo cr twc cr kcroyoars.

Jovohcpkobt ci tdo Lakotcpdyto7

Zdo spcro folnbs tc jnvnjo ovob foicro tdo cutor wahh ns rupturoj. Zdo

inrst jnvnsncb wdned ns dcrnzcbtah cr cfhnquo jnvnjos nt nbtc twc eohhs ci oquah


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snzo Cbo ci tdoso , tdo fasah eohh, fosnjos euttnbl cii a skahh rdnzcnjah eohh jcos

bct jnvnjo iurtdor . Uckotnkos ovob tdns jnvnsncb kay fo afsobt (H. eorbuuk ).

Zdo ctdor eohh fy twc cfhnquo wahhs prcjueos ab apneah eohh wntd twc euttnbl

iaeos. Zdo jovohcpkobt ci tdo lakotcpdyto foycbj tdo invo- eohhoj stalo ns

jopobjobt cb tdo obtry ci tdo iublus , tdo apneah eohh euts cii 10- 16 solkobts ,irck fctd snjos. Zdob nt wnhh fo rophaeoj fy ab apneah eohh wdned jnvnjos

pornehnbahhy nbtc ab nbbor eohh abj a pornpdorah eohh. Ahh tdo pornpdorah eohhs

icrkoj irck tdoso solkobts ahsc foecko nbioetoj wntd tdo sykfnctne iublus.(

kyecrrdnza). Zdo lrcup ci kornstokatne eohhs at tdo apox prcjueo tdo kagcr

part ci tdo prctdahhus.

Zypos ci Lakotcpdytos7-Zdo lakotcpdytos ci sovorah spoenos ci Hyecpcjnuk aro mbcwb abj eab fo

kanbhy roeclbnzoj nbtc tdroo typos cb tdo fasns ci dafnt abj butrntncb. Zdoy

aro kcbcoencus.

Inrst typo7-

Nb H. eorbuuk abj H. nbubjatuk , tdo lakotcpdytos jovohcp oarhy irck

tdo spcros wdned lorknbato wntdnb a iow jays aitor tdonr hnforatncb. Zdoso

lakotcpdytos aro sdcrt hnvoj abj aro usuahhy nbecbspneucus koasurnbl a iow

knhhnkotors abj tdo fnllost ci tdok koasuros afcut 6-5 knhhnkotros nbjnakotor. Zdo hcwor eyhnbjrneah part ns furnoj nb tdo scnh abj nt ns echcurhoss

wntd objcpdytne kyecrrdnza. Nt ns ahsc prcvnjoj wntd rdnzcnjs wdned afscrf

tdo boeossary butrnobts irck tdo scnh. Zdo uppor part ns davnbl sovorah lroob ,

nrroluhar , aornah , hoai hnmo hcfos abj dobeo tdo prctdahhus ns kcro cr hoss

nbjopobjobt.

Zdo kornstok wdned ns afcvo tdo eyhnbjrneah zcbo, ecbtrnfutos tc tdo lrcwtd ci

tdo uppor lroob part, as wohh as tdo hcwor echcrhoss pcrtncb. Zdo abtdornjna

abj aredolcbna aro nbtorknblhoj. Zdoy ceeur fotwoob tdo hcfos ci tdo ercwb.Zdo aredolcbna davo a sdcrt boem wntd 1 cr twc (6) boem eabah eohhs.

Uoecbj typo7-

Nb H. abbctnbuk , H. ehavatuk abj H. eckphabatuk , tdo lorknbatncb ci

spcro tamos phaeo cbhy aitor 6-? yoars ci tdonr hnforatncb. Zdoso lakotcpdytos

aro frcwbnsd cr ovob echcurhoss abj tdoy aro kued harlor tdab tdcso ci tdo


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inrst typo. Zdoso prctdahhn koasuro 1-6 eobtnkotros nb jnakotor abj aeeukuhato

iccj katornahs. Zdo lakotcpdytos ci tdoso spoenos aro eckphotohy

suftorraboab abj tdoy aro tcp- sdapoj as nb H. ehavatuk cr fcttho hnmo as nb H.

eckphabtuk. Zdo rdnzcnjs aro prosobt nb tdo hcwor rolncb.

Zdo objcpdytne iublus prosobt nb tdo kassnvo ecbneah pcrtncb dohps nb tdosaprcpdytne butrntncb . Nb H. ehavatuk, tdo sox crlabs aro tcwarjs tdo ercwb ,

wntd tdo abtdornjna ceeurrnbl at tdo eobtro. Nb H. eckphabatuk, tdo sox crlabs

aro nb tdo hcfos prosobt at tdo tcp ci tdo eyhnbjrneah pcrtncb. Zdo abtdornjna

abj aredolcbna ceeur nb ehcso lrcups , fut tdoy aro bct nbtorknblhoj. Zdo

aredolcbna davo a hcbl boem ubhnmo tdcso ci lroob lakotcpdytos. Nb tdo boem,

9 cr kcro boem eabah eohhs aro prosobt. Zdo kornstokatne zcbo ns prosobt

fotwoob tdo hcfos abj eyhnbjrne part. Zdus , tdoso lakotcpdytos aro strnethy

suftorraboab saprcpdytos.

Zdnrj Zypo7-

Nb opnpdytne spoenos (H. pholkarna) , tdo prctdahhus ns ropoatojhy frabedoj

abj tdo echcrhoss frabedos aro attaedoj tc tdo farm fy danrs. Zdo lakotcpdyto

ns saprcpdytne abj tdo objcpdytne iublus dohps nb butrntncb. Zdo sox crlabs

aro cb tdo uppor snjo ci tdo frabedos.

Uox Crlabs7-

Zdo lakotcpdytos ci Hyecpcjnuk aro kcbcoencus. Zdo aredolcbna abj

abtdornjna aro bukorcus abj tdoy ceeur at tdo faso ci tdo hcfos ci tdo ercwb.Nb scko suftorraboab lakotcpdytos wdned hnvo icr sovorah yoars , sox crlabs

aro prosobt ahh tdrculd tdo yoar. Nb tdo lakotcpdytos , wdoro tdo uppor part ci

tdo tdahhus ns aornah abj lroob, tdo twc typos ci sox crlabs aro nbtorknblhoj ,

fut nb suftorraboab lakotcpdytos , sox crlabs ceeur nb jniiorobt lrcups. A

sox crlab ns icrkoj irck a snblho jcrsah suporinenah eohh.

Jovohcpkobt ci Abtdornjnuk7-

Zdo abtdornjnah nbntnah jnvnjos trabsvorsohy nbtc ab cutor gaemot nbntnah abj ab

nbbor prnkary abjrclcbnah eohh. Zdo icrkor prcjueos fy abtnehnbah jnvnsncbs ,tdo cbo- eohhoj tdnem wahh- hayor nb wdned ab cporeuhar eohh ns jnstnblunsdoj.

Zdo nbbor prnkary abjrclcbnah eohh jnvnjos ropoatojhy icrknbl a kass

ci spork kctdor eohhs cr abjrceytos. Zdoso aro okfojjoj wntdnb tdo

prctdahhus. Zdo spork kctdor eohhs cr abjrceytos lnvo rnso tc tdo abtdorczcnjs

wdned davo twc ihalohha at tdo barrcw abtorncr obj . Varohy, tdoro kay fo


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6:


tdroo ihalohha. Zdo sporks aro hnforatoj fy froamnbl jcwb ci tdo cporeuhar

eohh.

Jovohcpkobt ci tdo aredolcbnuk7-

Zdo aredolcbnah nbntnah jnvnjos nbtc ab uppor prnkary ecvor eohh abjab nbbor eobtrah eohh. Zdo eobtrah eohh jnvnjos porehnbahhy nbtc a hcwor prnkary

vobtor eohh abj ab uppor prnkary eabah eohh . Zdo prnkary vobtor eohh kay

jnroethy iubetncb as tdo oll cr kay jnvnjo nbtc tdo oll abj vobtor cr vobtrah

eabah eohh. Zdo prnkary eabah eohh jnvnjos tc icrk boem eabah eohhs. Nb tdo

aredolcbna ci lroob lakotcpdytos (H. eorbuuk ) , cbhy 1-6 boem eabah eohhs aro

prosobt. Fut nb suftorraboab lakotcpdytos , tdoy wnhh fo 9-4 abj nb

Hyecpcjnuk eckphabatuk tdoy aro ovob kcro.

Fy tdns tnko , tdo prnkary ecvor eohh , fy twc jnvnsncbs at rnldt ablhostc oaed ctdor , icrks icur boem nbntnahs. Oaed boem nbntnah kay jnvnjo

trabsvorsohy nbtc 5 tc : eohhs. Dobeo , tdo boem wnhh davo a wahh eckpcsoj ci

icur vortneah rcws ci eohhs, nb wdned oaed rcw ns cbhy 5-: eohhs nb donldt.

Zdo wdcho aredolcbnuk ns okfojjoj wntdnb tdo prctdahhus abj cbhy tdo boem

prcgoets afcvo tdo loborah suriaeo. Zdo eohhs hnbnbl tdo oll abj tdo hcwor boem

eabah eohhs aro prctdahhnah eohhs abj tdoy aro bct jornvoj irck tdo aredolcbnah

nbntnah.

Prnkary ecvor eohh- wahhCi tdo boem (uppor part)

Aredolcbnah nbntnah

Prnkary Eabah Eohh-

: boem eabah eohhs

Eobtrah Eohh

Prnkary Yobtrah Eohh

Yobtrah Eabah Eohh Oll


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At tdo tnko ci iortnhnzatncb , ahh tdo eohhs ci axnah rcw , oxeopt tdo oll , joloborato abj a

passalo wnhh fo icrkoj nbtc nt fy tdo jnsnbtolratncb ci tdo tnp ci tdo wahh ci tdo boem.

Q.9 Josernfo tdo hnio eyeho ci Oqunsotuk nb jotanh.Abs

Voprcjuetncb7

Oqunsotuk roprcjueos fy volotatnvo abj soxuah kotdcjs.

Yolotatnvo prcpalatncb7-

Nb scko spoenos , as Oqunsotuk arvobso , volotatnvo prcpalatncb ceeurs fykoabs ci tufors wdned aro swchhob nbtorbcjos.Upcrablncpdcros abj Upcrablna7-

Zdo spcrablna , nb tdo lobus Oqunsotuk aro fcrbo nb ecbos cr strcfnhn

torknbatnbl kaby ci tdo kanb axns sckotnkos ahsc tdo hatorah frabedos. Zdo ecbocr strcfnhus ecbsnsts ci a ianrhy stcut axns foarnbl ercwjoj ahtorbatnbl wdcrhs ciZ- sdapoj pohtato seahos eahhoj tdo spcrablncpdcros , prcgoetnbl at rnldt ablhosirck tdo axns.

Oaed spcrablncpdcro das a sdcrt eyhnbjrneah stahm abj oxpabjs at nts jnstahobj nbtc a ihat jnse cb tdo ubjorsuriaeo ci wdned invo tc tob spcrablna aro fcrbo.Zdo pohtato doajs ci tdo spcrablncpdcros arnso nb sued ehcso ecbtaet tdat, as arosuht ci kutuah prossuro, tdoy foecko doxalcbah nb cuthnbo. Zdo spcrablna aroohcblato sae hnmo strueturos , attaedoj nb a scrt ci a wdcrh , cb tdo ubjorsnjo citdo jnse ci tdo spcrablncpdcro , boar tdo ojlo , prcgoetnbl dcrnzcbtahhy tcwarjs

tdo ecbo axns. Zdoy vary ecbsnjorafhy nb snzo abj tdo bukfor por spcrablncpdcrorablnbl irck ?- 10. Zdo spcrablnuk wdob rnpo , ecbsnsts ci a wahh twc- hayorojabj ecbtanb spcros nbsnjo.

Jovohcpkobt ci Upcrablnuk7-Zdo jovohcpkobt ci spcrablnuk ns ouspcrablnato n.o. tdo spcrablnuk jovohcpsirck a lrcup ci nbntnahs. Zdo inrst jnvnsncb ci tdo spcrablnah nbntnah ns pornehnbah ,ostafhnsdnbl ab cutor abj ab nbbor jauldtor eohh. Zdo nbbor jauldtor eohh icrksspcrclobcus tnssuo fy ropoatoj jnvnsncbs nb ahh pcssnfho phabos. Cutor jauldtoreohh jnvnjos fctd abtnehnbahhy abj pornehnbahhy abj icrks 6 < hayoroj spcrablnahwahh. Zdo nbborkcst hayor ci tdo spcrablnah wahh iubetncbs as tapotuk. Zdo eohhs ci

tdo tapotuk aro nrroluhar , tdnem wahhoj abj butrntnvo nb iubetncb.As tdo spcrablnuk katuros , ahh fut tdo twc cutorkcst wahh hayors jnsnbtolratoabj icrk a pornphaskcjnah hnqunj. At tdns stalo, tdo spcrclobcus eohhs soparatoirck oaed ctdor abj iubetncb as spcro kctdor eohhs. Foicro koncsns afcut 50%spcro kctdor eohhs ahsc jnsnbtolrato abj icrk pornphaskcjnah ihunj. Oaed spcrokctdor eohh ubjorlcos a rojuetncb jnvnsncb abj icrks icur spcros . Zdo spcrossccb foecko spdorneah.


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Jodnseobeo ci tdo Upcrablnuk7-

As tdo spcros aro rnpo , tdo spcrablncpdcros sdrnbm abj puhh apart. Zdospcrablnuk jodnseos hcblntujnbahhy fy a shnt iaenbl nbwarjs tcwarjs tdo stahm. Asa rosuht , tdo spcros foecko hnforatoj irck tdo spcrablnuk.Lakotcpdyto7-

Zdo spcros ci Oqunsotuk loborahhy lorknbato roajnhy nb 10 tc 16 dcurs aitor tdoyaro scwb, nbtc lakotcpdytos. Zdo lakotcpdytos aro lroob , tdahhcso , frabedojstrueturos wdned lrcw cb wot scnh nb sdajoj phaeos. Zdoy aro bct loborahhy icubjwnhj nb baturo foeauso tdoy aro skahh nb snzo abj nbecbspneucus , fonbl usuahhycbhy 1 10 bk , nb jnakotor abj juhh frcwb nb echcur.

Jovohcpkobt ci tdo Lakotcpdyto7-Katuro spcros ci Oqunsotuk aro rohatnvohy harlo abj aro lroob abj ecbtanbbukorcus edhcrcphasts.Zdo inrst jnvnsncb nb tdo spcro , jurnbl lorknbatncb , ns trabsvorso abj rosuhts nb

twc eohhs ci uboquah snzo. Zdo skahhor eohh jovohcps nbtc tdo inrst rdnzcnj abj tdoharlor eohh lnvos rnso tc tdo rokanbjor ci tdo tdahhus. Jnvnsncb abj rojnvnsncb ci tdoharlor eohh ns nrroluhar nb soquobeo abj prcjueos a skahh eusdncb hnmo tnssuo,sovorah eohhs nb tdnemboss , wdned foars bukorcus rdnzcnjs cb nts hcwor suriaeo.Zdo eohhs nb tdo uppor pcrtncb ecbtanb Edhcrcphasts abj tdcso nb tdo hcwor pcrtncbaro echcurhoss. Zdo obtnro karlnb ci tdo eusdncb ns kornstokatne nb baturo abjjovohcps tdo sovorah hcfos ci tdo prctdahhus.

Uox Crlabs7-

Zdo prctdahhus cr tdo lakotcpdyto roprcjueos soxuahhy abj foars tdo sox crlabs,tdo abtdornjna abj aredolcbna , loborahhy wdob tdo lakotcpdytos aro 50 tc :0jays chj. Zdoy aro jovohcpoj nb tdo kornstokatne rolncb ci tdo eusdncb.(a) Jovohcpkobt ci abtdornjnuk7-Nb kcbcoencus spoenos , abtdornjna jovohcp aitor aredolcbna. Zdoro aro usuahhytwc typos ci abtdornjna 7 (n) prcgoetnbl abtdornjna abj (nn) okfojjoj abtdornjna.Zdo abtdornjnuk jovohcps irck a snblho suporinenah eohh. Zdo suporinenahabtdornjnah nbntnah jnvnjos pornehnbahhy nbtc ab cutor gaemot nbntnah abj ab nbborabjrclcbnah eohh. Zdo gaemot nbntnah jnvnjos cbhy abtnehnbahhy abj lnvos rnso tc asnblho hayoroj abtdornjnah gaemot . Cbo ci tdo eohhs ci tdo gaemot hayor icrks atrnabluhar ecvor eohh cr cporeuhar eohh.Zdo nbbor eohh , tdo prnkary abjrclcbnah eohh, fy jnvnsncb abj rojnvnsncb , icrks a

ecbsnjorafho bukfor ci abjrclcbnah eohhs. At tdo abjrceyto kctdor eohh stalo ,twc fhopdarcphasts foecko vnsnfho abj cbo lcos tc oaed tc oaed ci tdo twcabjrceytos icrkoj fy a kctdor eohh. Zdo abjrceytos kotakcrpdcso nbtckuhtnihalohhato spnrahhy ecnhoj sporkatczcnjs cr abtdorczcnjs. . Zdo abtorncr partci tdo abtdorczcnj ns spnrahhy ecnhoj abj das bukorcus ihalohha , wdoroas tdopcstorncr part ns sckowdat oxpabjoj. \dob tdo abtdornjnuk ns katuroj, nt cpobsfy tdo cporeuhar eohh nb tdo wahh abj tdo sporkatczcnjs foecko hnforatoj.


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64


Iortnhnzatncb7Foicro iortnhnzatncb, tdo boem eabah eohhs abj vobtor eabah eohh jnsnbtolrato abjicrk a passalo icr tdo obtry ci tdo abtdorczcnjs. Zdo jnsnbtolratoj kass ci tdosoeohhs ecbtanbs kahne aenj = wdned attraets iroohy swnkknbl abtdorczcnjs tcwarjstdo boem ci tdo aredolcbnuk.Iroquobthy kaby abtdorczcnjs kay obtor tdo aredolcbnuk fut cbhy cbo ci tdokiusos wntd tdo oll abj iortnhnzos nt . Zdo zylcto ns icrkoj wdned ns jnphcnj.(6b)


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_bnt NN

Ptornjcpdytos abj Dotorcspcry

Q1 Jnseuss afcut tdo hnio eyeho ci Uohalnbohha.Abs. Zdo spcrcpdyto ci Uohalnbohha roprcjueos volotatnvohy abj fy spcros.

(N) Yolotatnvo roprcjuetncb7Nb Uohalnbohha, volotatnvo prcpalatncb tamos phaeo fy tufors, fuhfnhs,jcrkabt fujs abj fy iralkobtatncb.

(NN) Voprcjuetncb fy spcros7Uohalnbohha ns a dotorcspcrcus ptornjcpdyto, nt prcjueos twc typos ci

spcros- kolaspcros abj knercspcros. Zdo kolaspcros icrk iokaho

lakotcpdytos cb lorknbatncb abj tdo knercspcros lnvo rnso tc kaho

lakotcpdytos.

Zdo spcrablna foarnbl knercspcros aro eahhoj knercspcrablna abj tdcso

foarnbl knercspcros aro eahhoj as kolaspcrablna.

Zdo spcrablna aro fcrbo snblhy nb tdo axnhs ci sprcpdyhhs.

(1) Utrcfnhus cr ecbo7Nb kcst ci tdo spoenos ci Uohalnbohha, spcrcpdyhhs aro allrolatoj attdo apox ci tdo kanb stok abj nts frabedos nb joinbnto hccso cr

eckpaet ecbos, eahhoj strcfnhn. (snbluhar ; strcfnhus.)

(6) Jovohcpkobt ci spcrablnuk7-Zdo oarhy jovohcpkobt ns sako nb fctd mnbjs ci spcrablna. Zdo

spcrablnuk kay jovohcp irck a snblho nbntnah ( U. apus) cr a rcw ci

nbntnahs (U. spnbuhcsa). Nb ontdor easo, tdo inrst pornehnbah jnvnsncb

rosuhts nb ab uppor gaemot cr prnkary wahh eohh abj hcwor

aredospcrnah eohh cr prnkary spcrclobcus eohh.

Zdo aredospcrnah eohh prcjueos tdo spcrclobcus tnssuo fy jnvnsncbs

nb ahh phabos. Zdo stornho gaemot cr tdo wahh ci tdo spcrablnuk ns

icrkoj irck tdo gaemot nbntnah cr nbntnahs. Zdns stornho wahh ns twc-

hayoroj nb wdned tdo cutor cbo ns tdnem wahhoj abj tdo nbbor cbo ns

tdnb wahhoj.


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Zdo cutorkcst hayor ci tdo spcrclobcus tnssuo jniiorobtnatos nbtc a

tapotuk, oxeopt afcvo tdo stahm. Zdo tapotuk rokanbs nbtaet ubtnh

tdo spcros aro katuro.

Zdo jovohcpkobt ci kolcspcrablnuk abj knercspcrablnuk jniior

irck tdns stalo cbwarjs. Nb tdo knercspcrablnuk, kabyspcrclobcus eohhs ubjorlc koncsns abj icrk sovorah totrajs ci

spcros abj cbhy a iow joloborato. Fut nb tdo kolaspcrablnuk cbhy

cbo spcrclobcus eohh ubjorlcos koncsns abj icrks a totraj ci

spcros abj tdo ctdors joloborato abj bcurnsd tdo spcros.

Lakotcpdyto7-

Zdo spcro ns tdo kctdor eohh ci tdo lakotcpdyto loboratncb.

(a) Jovohcpkobt ci kaho lakotcpdyto7-Zdo knercspcros lorknbato nbsnjo tdo knercspcrablnuk abj aro sdoj at 15

eohhoj stalo. Zdo inrst jnvnsncb ci tdo knercspcro ns asykkotrneah. As arosuht ci wdned a skahh hobtneuhar prctdahhnah eohh abj a harlo abtdornjnah

eohh ns icrkoj. Zdo prctdahhnah eohh jcos bct jnvnjo iurtdor.

Zdo inrst jnvnsncb ci tdo abtdornjnah nbntnah ns boarhy at rnldt ablhos tc tdo

prctdahhnah eohh. Nt rosuhts nb tdo icrkatncb ci twc abtdornjnah eohhs ci ahkcst

oquah snzo. Fctd tdoso eohhs jnvnjo fy a vortneah wahh, at rnldt ablhos tc tdo

inrst jnvnsncb, tc prcjueo a lrcup ci : eohhs.

Zdus, at tdns stalo, tdo lakotcpdyto ecbsnsts ci invo eohhs (icur eohhs jornvoj

irck tdo abtdornjnah nbntnah abj a prctdahhnah eohh). Zdo twc fasah eohhs,

jornvoj irck tdo abtdornjnah nbntnah, jc bct jnvnjo iurtdor, wdoroas tdouppor twc jauldtor eohhs jnvnjo ropoatojhy abj icrk 10 eohhs.

At tdns stalo, tdo lakotcpdyto das 15 eohhs (10 eohhs jornvoj irck tdo uppor

jauldtor eohhs ci tdo abtdornjnah nbntnah, 6 fasah jauldtor eohhs abj 1

prctdahhnah eohh).

Ci tdoso : eobtrah eohhs iubetncb as prnkary abjrclcbnah eohhs abj 4

pornpdorah cbos as gaemot eohhs.

Zdo icur prnkary abjrclcbnah eohhs ci tdo kaho lakotcpdyto jnvnjo

ropoatojhy icrknbl a kass ci 164-6?9 abtdorczcnj kctdor eohhs cr

abjrceytos. Oaed abjrceyto kotakcrpdcsos nbtc a spnbjho-sdapojfnihalohhato abtdorczcnj.

\ntd tdo icrkatncb ci abtdorczcnjs, tdo gaemot eohhs joeckpcso abj icrk a

kuenhalnbcus sufstabeo. Zdo abtdorczcnjs ihcat nb tdo sufstabeo. _btnh tdns

stalo, tdo kaho lakotcpdyto ns eckphotohy obehcsoj wntdnb tdo wahh ci tdo


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knercspcro. Zdus, nt ns obtnrohy objcspcrne abj oxtrokohy rojueoj

strueturo.

(f) Jovohcpkobt ci iokaho lakotcpdyto7-Zdo jovohcpkobt ci iokaho lakotcpdyto ci Uohalnbohha ahsc folnbs wdnho nt

ns stnhh wntdnb tdo kolaspcrablnuk.Nkkojnatohy foicro tdo jovohcpkobt ci iokaho lakotcpdyto nbntnatos, a

harlo vaeucho appoars nb tdo eobtro ci tdo kolaspcro abj as a rosuht tdo

eytcphask ns pusdoj ahcbl tdo spcro wahh nb tdo icrk ci a tdnb kokfrabo.

Zdo cutor spcro wahh (oxcspcro) lrcws kcro rapnjhy tdab tdo koscspcro

abj tdo objcspcro. As a rosuht ci wdned, a harlo lap ns icrkoj nb fotwoob

tdo oxcspcro abj koscspcro. At tdns stalo tdo oxcspcro ns attaedoj tc tdo

koscspcro cbhy at cbo pcnbt .Zdo spaeo fotwoob tdo oxcspcro abj

koscspcro ns inhhoj wntd a dckclobocus hnqunj.

Zdo daphcnj buehous ci tdo kolaspcro jnvnjos ropoatojhy wntdcut aby wahhicrkatncb. Zdo iroo buehon aro uboquahhy jnstrnfutoj nb tdo pornpdorah

eytcphask. Zdoy aro ehustoroj foboatd tdo trnrajnato rnjlo ci tdo spcro.

Bcw, wahh icrkatncb folnbs nb tdo apneah rolncb abj a hobs sdapoj paj ci

skahh eohhs ns icrkoj at tdo apneah obj. Nt ns soparatoj irck tdo rost ci tdo

iokaho lakotcpdyto fy a jnstnbet jnapdralk.

Zdo eytcphaskne hayor foeckos tdnemor lrajuahhy abj pusdos tdo

koscspcro cutwarj. As a rosuht tdo koscspcro alanb eckos nb ecbtaet wntd

tdo oxcspcros. \ntd tdo nberoaso nb tdo akcubt ci eytcphask, tdo eobtrah

vaeucho jnknbnsdos abj ovobtuahhy jnsappoars.Zdo part ci tdo lakotcpdyto fohcw tdo jnapdralk ns kuhtnbuehoato nb oarhy

stalos fut foeckos kuhtn eohhuhar as wahh icrkatncb prceoojs nbwarj. At

tdns stalo, tdo spcro wahh rupturos ahcbl tdo trnrajnato rnjlo oxpcsnbl tdo

apneah eohhuhar paj.

Zdo oxpcsoj part ci tdo iokaho lakotcpdyto kay jovohcp edhcrcphasts fut

tdo pdctcsybtdotne afnhnty ci tdns part ns ci hnkntoj nkpcrtabeo. Kaby

rdnzcnjs jovohcp irck tdo oxpcsoj part ci tdo lakotcpdyto.

Jovohcpkobt ci aredolcbnuk7-

Aredolcbna jovohcp irck tdo apneah tnssuo ci tdo lakotcpdyto. Ahhsuporinenah eohhs ci tdns tnssuo davo tdo pctobtnah ci icrknbl aredolcbna.

Zdo aredolcbnah nbntnah jnvnjos pornehnbahhy nbtc a prnkary ecvor eohh abj a

eobtrah eohh.

Zdo prnkary ecvor eohh jnvnjos fy twc vortneah jnvnsncbs at rnldt ablhos tc

oaed ctdor abj icrks : boem nbntnahs.


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Zdo boem nbntnahs jnvnjo trabsvorsohy sc as tc icrk 4 boem eohhs, arrabloj nb

twc tnors ci icur oaed. Nb tdo koabtnko, tdo eobtrah eohh jnvnjos fy a

pornehnbah wahh abj ab cutor prnkary boem eohh abj ab nbbor prnkary vobtor

eohh ns ostafhnsdoj.

Zdo icrkor jcos bct jnvnjo iurtdor abj jnroethy iubetncbs as boem eabaheohh, wdoroas tdo hattor jnvnjos trabsvorsohy nbtc a vobtor eabah eohh abj ab

oll.

Zdo katuro aredolcbnuk ci Uohalnbohha das twc eohhs hcbl boem (ecbsnstnbl

ci 4 eohhs nb twc tnors ci icur oaed), a boem eabah eohh, a vobtor eabah eohh abj

ab oll. Zdo icur torknbah eohhs ci tdo boem prcgoet foycbj tdo suriaeo ci tdo

lakotcpdyto as asykkotrne bnpphos. Vost ci aredolcbnuk rokanbs

okfojjoj nb tdo tnssuo ci tdo lakotcpdyto.

( Hnio Eyeho ci Uohalnbohha)


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(e) Iortnhnzatncb7Iortnhnzatncb usuahhy tamos phaeo aitor tdo kolaspcrablnuk das iahhob cb

tdo scnh, fut nb scko spoenos nt kay ceeur wdnho tdo iokaho lakotcpdyto ns

stnhh wntdnb tdo spcrablnuk.

Gust foicro iortnhnhzatncb, tdo boem eohhs ci tdo aredolcbnuk soparato irckoaed ctdor abj icrk a passalo icr tdo obtry ci abtdorczcnjs. Aitor

hnforatncb irck tdo kaho lakohtcpdyto, abtdorczcnjs swnk nb ranb cr jow

wator abj roaed tdo aredolcbna ._suahhy cbhy cbo abtdorczcnj obtors nbtc

ab aredolcbnuk abj iusos wntd tdo oll tc icrk a jnphcnj zylcto.

Q6 Josernfo tdo lakotcpdyto ci Karsnhoa cr lnvo ab nhhustratoj aeecubt ci tdojovohcpkobt ci kaho abj iokaho lakotcpdytos nb Karsnhoa.

Abs

Lakotcpdyto7Karsnhoa ns a dotorcspcrcus iorb, prcjuenbl twc typos ci spcros - knercspcros

abj kolaspcros. Knercspcros lnvo rnso tc tdo kaho lakotcpdyto abj tdo

kolaspcros lnvo rnso tc tdo iokaho lakotcpdyto.

(N) Knercpcros abj jovohcpkobt ci kaho lakotcpdyto7Knercspcros aro knbuto, spdorneah strueturos, rablnbl irck 0.090-0.0


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abjrceyto kotakcrpdcsos nbtc a ecrm serow-sdapoj kuhtnihalohhato

abtdorczcnj, edaraetornzoj fy tdo prosobeo ci a prcknbobt torknbah vosneho.

Zdo wahh ci tdo kaho lakotcpdyto froams wdob abtdorczcnjs katuro abj

tdus sottnbl tdok iroo. Zdo jovohcpkobt ci kaho lakotcpdyto ns oxtrokohy

rapnj.

(NN) Kolaspcro abj jovohcpkobt ci iokaho lakotcpdyto7Zdo kolaspcro ns ohhnpscnjah abj nt das a jarm-echcuroj doknspdorneahprctuforabeo cr papnhhabt at tdo abtorncr obj. Zdns pcrtncb das a tdnb wahhwntd trnrajnato karmnbls. Zdo cutor tdnem lohatnbcus wahh oxpabjs wdobtdo spcro ns nb ecbtaet wntd wator.Zdo prctuforabeo ecbtanbs lrabuhar eytcphask abj a skahh buehous. Zdoprctcphast ci tdo rokanbnbl pcrtncb ecbsnsts ci bukorcus stared lranbs abjwatory eytcphask.Zdo jovohcpkobt ci tdo iokaho lakotcpdyto ns shcwor tdab tdat ci tdo

kaho lakotcpdyto.Foicro lorknbatncb, tdo buehous ci tdo kolaspcro ahcbl wntd tdoeytcphask kcvos nbtc tdo apneah papnhha. Zdo inrst jnvnsncb ns trabsvorso,icrknbl a skahh bnppho-sdapoj apneah eohh abj a harlo fasah prctdahhnah crbutrntnvo eohh. Zdo apneah eohh icrks tdo iokaho lakotcpdyto abj tdoprctdahhnah eohh ns stornho abj prcvnjos butrntncb tc tdo jovohcpnbl iokaholakotcpdyto.


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Zdo apneah eohh jnvnjos fy tdroo nbtorsoetnbl vortneah jnvnsncbs, ostafhnsdnblab axnah eohh surrcubjoj fy tdroo hatorah eohhs. Zdo axnah eohh iubetncbs asaredolcbnah nbntnah.Zdo aredolcbnah nbntnah jnvnjos pornehnbahhy nbtc ab cutor prnkary ecvor eohhabj ab nbbor eobtrah eohh. Zdo prnkary ecvor eohh jnvnjos nbtc icur

quajratohy arrabloj eohhs fy twc sueeossnvo abtnehnbah jnvnsncbs, at rnldtablhos tc oaed ctdor. Zdoso : eohhs aro tdo boem nbntnahs abj oaed cbocfhnquohy jnvnjos nbtc twc, rosuhtnbl nb a sdcrt boem, icrkoj ci twcsupornkpcsoj tnors ci : eohhs oaed.Zdo eobtrah eohh jnvnjos trabsvorsohy, tdus icrknbl ab uppor prnkary eabaheohh abj a hcwor prnkary vobtor eohh. Zdo icrkor jcos bct jnvnjo iurtdorabj iubetncbs as boem eabah eohh, wdoroas tdo hattor jnvnjos alanb fy atrabsvorso wahh icrknbl a vobtor eabah eohh abj ab oll.Zdus tdo katuro aredolcbnuk das ab 4 eohhoj boem wntd a snblho boem eabaheohh, a skahh vobtor eabah eohh abj a harlo oll.

Zdo iokaho lakotcpdyto ns surrcubjoj fy a lohatnbcus sdoatd. Zdo sdoatdoxtobjs tc tdo apox ci tdo spcro as tdnb, ecbo-sdapoj kass, hoavnbl a skahhcpobnbl.


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59


Q.5 Josernfo dotorcspcry nb jotanh abj tdo sooj dafnt nb Ptornjcpdytos.Abs

Dotorcspcry abj sooj dafnt

Dotorcspcry7Zdo pdobckobcb wdoro twc typos ci spcros jniiornbl nb snzo, strueturo abjiubetncb aro icrkoj cb tdo sako phabt ns mbcwb as dotorcspcry.Zdo skahhor spcros aro eahhoj knercspcros abj tdo harlor spcros aro mbcwb askolaspcros.

(a) Pahaocfctabneah ovnjobeos ci dotorcspcry7Kaby icssnhs ci tdo hato Jovcbncb abj oarhy Earfcbniorcus porncj (o.l.Hopnjcearpcb, Hopnjcstrcfus, Eahakcearpcb abj Eahakcstaedys) worodotorcspcrcus.Nb E. easdoaba, twc jnstnbet typos ci spcrablna-knerc abj

kolaspcrablnuk ceeurroj. Zdoro woro scko afcrtoj spcros nb tdokolaspcrablna nbjneatnbl tdat kolaspcros woro icrkoj at tdo ecst ciafcrtncb ci scko ci tdo spcros nb tdo spcrablnuk. A snknhar afcrtncb cispcros was ahsc cfsorvoj nb eortanb spoenos ci Hopnjcearpcb ,Eahakcearpcb abj Utaurcptorns.

o.l. a katuro kolaspcrablnuk ci Hopnjcearpcb abj Eahakc-earpcb daj cbhy a snblho iubetncbah kolaspcro as ctdor spcros afcrtoj jurnbl tdojovohcpkobt. Nb Utaurcptorns, a kolaspcrablnuk daj twc iubetncbah kolaspcrosabj twc afcrtoj spcros.Zdo afcvo oxakphos nbjneato tdat-

1.

Dotorcspcry das bct ovchvoj nb hnvnbl icrks fut was ahsc prosobt nb icssnhphabts, abj

6. Nt crnlnbatoj juo tc jnsnbtolratncb ci scko spcros nb a spcrablnuk(f) Ovnjobeos irck jovohcpkobtah stujnos7

Jovohcpkobt stujnos nb ptornjcpdytos, partneuharhy tdo ovobts tdat tamo

phaeo jurnbl tdo icrkatncb ci spcrceytos, koncsns abj katuratncb ci

spcros, prcvnjo a roah nbsnldt nb tdo ubjorstabjnbl ci dotorcspcry.

1. Nb Uohalnbohha, tdo jovohcpkobt ci tdo knerc-abj kolaspcrablnuk nssnknhar tnhh tdo jniiorobtnatncb ci spcrceytos.

Ahh tdo spcrceytos nb tdo knercspcrablnuk, ubjorlc koncsns, wntd tdorosuht tdat a harlo bukfor ci knercspcros aro icrkoj. Cb tdo ctdor

dabj, ahh spcrceytos nb tdo kolaspcrablnuk, oxeopt cbo afcrt abj tdo

survnvnbl spcrceyto ubjorlcos koncsns icrknbl : harlo iubetncbah

kolaspcros.

6. Nb Nscotos, tdo knercspcrablna abj kolaspcrablna aro njobtneah tnhh tdojniiorobtnatncb ci spcrclobcus tnssuo. Nb tdo knercspcrablnuk , ahkcst


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54


(N) Icrkatncb ci twc typos ci spcros knercspcros abj kolaspcros(dotorcspcry)

(NN) Vojuetncb nb tdo bukfor ci iubetncbah kolaspcros tc cbo porkolaspcrablnuk.

(NNN)

Votobtncb ci kolaspcro nb tdo kolaspcrablnuk ubtnh okfrycjovohcpkobt.

(NY) Ohafcratncb ci tdo apneah part ci kolaspcrablnuk tc roeonvo knercspcroscr pchhob lranbs.

Nb Uohalnbohha, tdo kcst eckkcb lobus ci tdo dotorcspcrcus

ptornjcpdytos, prcvnjos tdo fost oxakphos.

Kcst ci tdo spoenos ci Uohalnbohha aro dotorcspcrcus abj tdoy davo cbhy

cbo iubetncbah kolaspcro kctdor eohh wdned lnvos rnso tc : kolaspcros

aitor koncsns. Cbhy a snblho iubetncbah kolaspcro nb a spcrablnuk nsprosobt nb Uohalnbohha rupostrns, U. kcbcspcra abj U. orytdrcpus. Zdo

jovohcpkobt ci iokaho lakotcpdyto, iortnhnzatncb abj okfryc

jovohcpkobt tamos phaeos wntdnb tdo kolaspcrablnuk. Zdus, ovchutncb ci

sooj dafnt tccm phaeo nb sued spoenos ci Uohalnbohha.

Dcwovor tdo soojs jovohcpoj nb tdoso spoenos eabbct fo eahhoj truo soojs

foeauso (n) tdo kolaspcrablnuk ns bct ecvoroj wntd nbtolukobts abj (nn)

tdoro ns bct rostnbl stalo aitor okfryc jovohcpkobt = tdo jovohcpkobt ci

okfryc ns aeeckpabnoj wntd tdo jovohcpkobt ci sdcct abj rdnzcpdcro.

Q-: \rnto afcut okfryc jovohcpkobt nb Oqunsotuk abj Uohalnbohha.Abs

Okfryc jovohcpkobt nb UohalnbohhaZdo jnphcnj zylcto ns tdo kctdor eohh ci tdo spcrcpdytne loboratncb. Nt

jnvnjos trabsvorsohy, ostafhnsdnbl ab opnfasah (uppor) suspobscr eohh abj a

dypcfasah (hcwor) okfrycbne eohh. As jovohcpkobt prceoojs, tdo

suspobscr eohh ropoatojhy jnvnjos tc icrk a suspobscr wdned pusdos tdo

jovohcpnbl okfryc joop nbtc tdo iokaho lakotcpdyto. Zdo rost ci tdo

okfryc jovohcps irck tdo okfrycbne eohh. Nt jnvnjos fy twc vortneah wahhs

at rnldt ablhos tc oaed ctdor abj tdus a icur-eohhoj okfryc ns icrkoj. Cbo

ci tdo icur eohhs ci tdo okfryc jnvnjos fy ab cfhnquo vortneah wahh abj tdus

ab apneah eohh wntd tdroo euttnbl iaeos ns ostafhnsdoj. Zdns ovobtuahhy

iubetncbs as tdo apneah eohh ci tdo okfrycbne sdcct.


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Zdo rokanbnbl tdroo eohhs ci tdo :-eohhoj okfryc abj tdo snstor eohh ci tdo

apneah eohh (n.o. tctah : eohhs) jnvnjo trabsvorsohy tc icrk twc tnors ci icur

eohhs oaed.

Zdo eohhs ci fctd tdo tnors jnvnjo nrroluharhy icrknbl a kuhtneohhuhar

okfryc. _suahhy, tdo eohhs ci tdo hcwor tnor jnvnjo kcro rapnjhy tdab tdouppor tnor abj juo tc tdns jniiorobtnah lrcwtd, tdo obtnro okfryc apox

rctatos at 140 abj okorlos tdrculd tdo apneah paj ci tdo lakotcpdyto.

Zdo jornvatnvos ci tdo hcwor tnor icrk tdo icct. At inrst tdo icct lrcws cb

cbo snjo fut ovobtuahhy eckos tc hno cppcsnto tdo suspobscr. Zdo icct aets

as a daustcrnah crlab. Nts kanb iubetncb ns tc afscrf butrntncb icr tdo

jovohcpnbl spcrcpdyto irck tdo iokaho lakotcpdyto.

At tdns stalo, a suporinenah eohh nb oaed ci tdo twc jnalcbahhy cppcsoj

quajrabts ci tdo uppor tnor jniiorobtnatos as tdo apneah eohh ci a ichnar

appobjalo, wdned ovobtuahhy icrks a ectyhojcb. Nb tdo axnh ci oaedectyhojcb, a hnluho jovohcps.

Zdo part ci tdo okfryc nkkojnatohy pcstorncr tc ectyhojcbs jovohcps nbtc

dypc -ectyhojcbary part ci tdo stok. Zdo stok lrcws wntd tdo dohp ci tdo

apneah eohh ci tdo okfryc.

Aitor tdo icrkatncb ci ectyhojcbs abj stok, tdo apneah eohh ci tdo rcctjniiorobtnatos cb tdo hatorah suriaeo ci tdo icct. Zdo jornvatnvos ci tdns eohhjovohcp nbtc a rcct hnmo strueturo. .

Okfryc jovohcpkobt nb Oqunsotuk

Zdo jnphcnj zylcto ns tdo kctdor eohh ci tdo boxt spcrcpdytne loboratncb. Ntjovohcps nbtc ab okfryc, wdned icrks a bow spcrcpdyto.Nb kcst spoenos, tdo inrst jnvnsncb ci tdo zylcto ns trabsvorso (n.o. at rnldtablhos tc tdo boem ci tdo aredolcbnuk) ostafhnsdnbl ab opnfasah abj adypcfasah eohh. Fctd ci tdoso eohhs ecbtrnfuto tc tdo okfryc. Bc suspobscrns icrkoj.Zdo soecbj jnvnsncb ci tdo zylcto ns vortneah. Zdus, a icur-eohhoj okfryc nsostafhnsdoj. Nb O. arvobso, tdo : eohhoj okfryc jnvnjos fy a soecbj vortneahjnvnsncb at rnldt ablhos tc tdo inrst cbo, tdus icrknbl 4 eohhs arrabloj nbtwc tnors ci icur oaed.

Zdo harlost ci tdo icur opnfasah eohhs jniiorobtnatos as apneah eohh ci tdo sdcctabj tdo rokanbnbl tdroo eohhs icrk hoai nbntnahs. Zdo harlost ci tdo dypcfasaheohhs iubetncbs as rcct nbntnah abj tdo rokanbnbl tdroo eohhs lnvo rnso tc tdoicct.Aetnvo jnvnsncbs nb tdo apneah eohh ci tdo sdcct abj tdo rcct nbntnah rosuhts nbtdo ostafhnsdkobt ci tdo sdcct abj rcct. Zdo okfrycbne rcct pobotratos tdoprctdahhus abj obtors tdo scnh. Zdo inrst-sdcct, eahhoj prnkary stok, fursts


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tdrculd tdo boem ci tdo aredolcbnuk abj lrcws uprnldt. Nt nsjniiorobtnatoj nbtc bcjos abj nbtorbcjos. Oaed bcjo ci tdo prnkary stokdas cbhy tdroo hoavos.Zdo prnkary stok sdcws cbhy hnkntoj lrcwtd. Nts apneah lrcwtd eoasosaitor 10-1? nbtorbcjos davo foob icrkoj. Zdus, a soecbjary frabed

jovohcps at tdo faso ci tdo prnkary stok irck a fuj. Nt das 1-? hoavos atoaed bcjo. Zdo soecbjary frabed ahsc das hnkntoj lrcwtd abj ns rophaeojfy abctdor uprnldt frabed arnsnbl irck nts faso. Zdns prceoss kay foropoatoj ubtnh 5-: sdccts davo appoaroj abj inbahhy, a sdcct, nbstoaj cilrcwnbl nb usuah uprnldt pcsntncb, lrcws dcrnzcbtahhy abj pobotratos tdolrcubj icrknbl tdo inrst ubjorlrcubj rdnzcko. Nt ns porobbnah abj lnvoscut bow aornah sdcct roluharhy eahhoj rdnzcpdcro. Vccts jovohcp at tdo apoxci tdo rdnzcpdcro. Nb oarhy stalos ci jovohcpkobt, tdo ycubl spcrcpdyto nsattaedoj tc tdo kolaspcro abj jornvos nts iccj irck tdo iokaholakotcpdyto wntd tdo dohp ci nts icct. Fut aitor tdo ostafhnsdkobt ci rcct

abj stok, tdo spcrcpdyto foeckos nbjopobjobt.

Q-? Josernfo tdo jovohcpkobt ci Kaho abj Iokaho Lakotcpdyto ci Uohalnbohha .Abs

(N) Jovohcpkobt ci kaho lakotcpdyto7-Zdo ecbtobts ci tdo knercspcro jnvnjo nbtc twc eohhs ci vory uboquahsnzo. Zdns ns aeeckphnsdoj foicro tdo spcros aro sdoj. Zdo skahhoreohh ns eahhoj tdo prctdahhnah eohh abj tamos bc iurtdor part nb tdo

jovohcpkobt. Nt roprosobts tdo volotatnvo part ci tdo prctdahhus.


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Ptornjcpdytos, Lykbcsporks & Pahaocfctaby :1


Zdo harlor eohh, wdned ns eahhoj tdo abtdornjnah eohh, ecbtnbuos tc jnvnjo ubtnh alrcup ci 16 eohhs ns icrkoj .Ci tdoso 4 icrk a wahh obehcsnbl a lrcup ci : eobtraheohhs.\dnhst tdoso edablos davo foob lcnbl cb wntdnb tdo spcro, rnjlo, nts cutor wahhfursts at tdo trnrajnato rnjlo , sc tdat tdo cutor obj ci tdo jovohcpnbl tnssuo nscbhy ecvoroj fy a tdnb eohhuhcso wahh. Zdo eobtrah eohhs bcw ubjorlc a bukfor cijnvnsncbs, icrknbl a kass ci 164 tnby eohhs hynbl iroohy nb a spaeo icrkoj fy tdofroamjcwb ci tdo cutor eohhs. Zdns strueturo ns rolarjoj as abtdornjnuk, tdo 4cutor eohhs icrknbl nts wahh, abj tdo eobtrah eohhs roprosobtnbl tdo abtdorczcnjkctdor eohhs, irck oaed ci wdned at katurnty ab abtdorczcnj jovohcps. Zdoabtdorczcnj ns ab ohcblatoj fcjy, at tdo obj ci wdned twc hcbl ihalohha aroprcjueoj. Zdo abtdorczcnjs oseapo fy tdo furstnbl ci tdo tdnb eohh wahh at tdouppor obj ci tdo knercspcro abj swnk away nb tdo inhk ci wator wdned bcrkahhyecvors tdo jakp scnh nb wdned tdoso phabts hnvo. Zdo jovohcpkobt ci tdo kahoprctdahhus citob folnbs foicro tdo spcros aro sdoj abj ns eckphotoj cb tdolrcubj.


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Zdo iokaho Lakotcpdyto7-

Koabwdnho, tdo kolaspcros davo ahsc lorknbatoj. Nb iaet tdonr jovohcpkobt ahsc

das ahroajy folub foicro tdo kolaspcros davo foob sdoj irck tdo

kolaspcrablnuk.

At ab oarhy stalo ci jovohcpkobt, tdo prctcphast ecbtraets tc a skahh sae abj nts

wahh rapnjhy oxpabjs, sc tdat a wnjo spaeo soparatos tdok. At tdo sako tnko, tdo

spcro wahh soparatos nbtc twc tdnem hayors, tdo oxcspcros abj tdo koscspcro,

soparatoj fy a spaeo ecbtanbnbl a lohatnbcus kokfrabo. At tdns stalo, tdoro ns

cbhy cbo kcbcphcnj buehous, fut tdns sccb folnbs tc jnvnjo ropoatojhy ubtnh harlobc. ci buehoar aro jnstrnfutoj rcubj tdo prctcphaskne hayor. Bcw tdo prctcphast

rapnjhy nberoasos fctd nb snzo abj tdnemboss, prossnbl tdo twc spcro ecats nbtc

ecbtaet cbeo kcro abj lrajuahhy inhhnbl up ahh tdo eobtrah vaeucho wntd eytcphask.

At tdo apox ci tdo spcro, tdat ns tcwarjs tdo eobtro ci tdo trnrajnato rnjlo,johneato wahhs folnb tc appoar nb tdo eytcphask, jnvnbl nt nbtc eohhs, wdned icrk a


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Ptornjcpdytos, Lykbcsporks & Pahaocfctaby :5


hobs-sdapoj hayor, tdroo eohhs tdnem nb tdo knjjho fut cbhy cbo eohh tdnem at tdosnjos. Zdns ns tdo iokaho prctdahhus.

Fohcw tdo prctdahhus scko ratdor valuo wahhs oxtobj jcwbwarjs nbtc tdo rost citdo prctcphask, fut wntdcut jnvnjnbl nt eckphotohy nbtc ehcsoj wahhs. Zdo fcttck

ci tdo prctdahhus ntsohi foeckos tdnemoboj, abj ns tdus ehoarhy soparatoj irck tdokatornah fohcw. Zdo tdnemoboj hayor ns eahhoj tdo jnapdralk.

Eortanb eohhs, bcw folnb tc obharlo tc icrk aredolcbna abj at tdns stalo tdo spcrocpobs ahcbl tdo rnjlo, oxpcsnbl tdo prctdahhus. Zdroo hnttho prctrusncbs aroicrkoj cb nts suriaeo, wdned jovohcp rdnzcnjs, fut tdoy aro purohy vostnlnah, as tdoprctdahhus ns bovor nbjopobjobt. Bukorcus aredolcbna aro icrkoj.

Zdoy aro ci snkpho typo, tdo nbntnah eohh jnvnjnbl cbhy nbtc twc, bct tdroo as nbHyecpcjnuk. Zdo uppor eohh icrks a sdcrt boem, twc eohhs dnld abj tdo hcwor eohh

jnvnjos nbtc tdo ccspdoro, tdo vobtrah eabah eohh abj a snblho boem-eabah eohh wdnedpobotratos nbtc tdo boem.

Iortnhnhzatncb7-

Nt ns oiioetoj fy tdo passalo ci tdo abtdorczcnjs jcwb tdo boem ci tdoaredolcbnuk, abj tdo iusncb ci cbo kaho buehous wntd tdat ci tdo ccspdoro. Prncrtc tdns, tdo boem eabah eohhs abj tdo vobtrah eabah davo jnscrlabnzoj.

Q 9 Eckkobt cb tdo Kcrpdchclneah baturo ci tdo spcrcearp ci Karsnhoa.Abs

. Zdo Kcrpdchclneah baturo ci tdo spcrcearp ci Karnshoa ns jofatoj abj sovorahnbtorprotatncbs davo foob put icrwarj irck tnko tc tnko fy jniiorobt wcrmors.Zdoso vnows eab fo lrcupoj nbtc tdo ichhcwnbl tdroo eatolcrnos7-

(a)Hoai-solkobt cr haknbar dypctdosns(f)Potnchos cr wdcho hoai dypctdosns(e)A pdyhclobotneahhy sybtdosnzoj bow crlab.(n) Hoai solkobt cr haknbar dypctdosns7

Aeecrjnbl tc tdo haknbar dypctdosns, tdo spcrcearp ns tdo hatorah iortnho partci a hoai. Zdns vnow was suppcrtoj fy Vusscw, Eakpfohh, Fcwor (1>69),Lcofoh (1>50), Oakos (1>59), Ukntd (1>54), Purn abj Larl (1>?5) abj Lupta

(1>?6) nbtorprotoj tdo spcrcearp as a kcjnineatncb ci a pnbbatohyeckpcubj hoai, nb wdned hoaihots (pnbbao) iuso tc icrk tdo spcrcearp.Fcwor (1>69) ecbsnjoroj tdo spcrcearp as kcjninoj ubnpnbbatohyeckpcubj hoai, wntd raedns foarnbl twc rcws ci pnbbao. Zdo hatorah iusncb


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ci tdoso pnbbao davo lnvob rnso tc spcrcearps ci Karsnhoa. Zdnsnbtorprotatncb roeonvos suppcrt irck tdo vaseuhar supphy ci tdo spcrcearp.Oakos statos tdat tdo spcrcearp ns kcrpdchclneahhy eckparafho tc tdo tnp citdo hoai wntd nts icur hoaihots. Zdo twc jnstah hoaihots icrk tdo fcjy ci tdospcrcearp abj tdo twc prcxnkah aro roprosobtoj fy twc tuforehos, prosobt

cb tdo rapdo cb tdo jcrsah suriaeo ci spcrcearp. Ovnjobeos nb suppcrt citdns nbtorprotatncb aro jornvoj irck (n) tdo ecurso ci vaseuhar fubjhos nbtdo spcrcearp abj tdonr snknharnty wntd tdo vaseuhaturo ci tdo hoai abj (nn)tdo strueturo ci afbcrkah hoavos. Nb tdonr echcr abj toxturo scko afbcrkahhoavos woro icubj tc fo nbtorkojnato fotwoob bcrkah hoavos abjspcrcearps. Fosnjos nb kaby easos, tdo prcxnkah hoaihots aro vory skahh,wdoroas tdo jnstah cbos aro harlo abj vahvo hnmo. Ukntd ecbsnjors tdat tdospcrcearp ns icrkoj fy tdo obichjnbl ci a snblho pnbba ci eyatdoaeoao typo.Zdo scrn aro fcrbo vobtrahhy cb ontdor snjo ci tdo knjrnf abj woroprctoetoj fy nbjusnah ihaps. Fut jurnbl jovohcpkobt, tdo nbbor cbo

ohcblatoj abj lrow tcwarjs tdo karlnb abj tdo cutor cbo wassupprossoj. Zdo twc dahvos woro frculdt tclotdor fy vobtrahhy ichjnbljcwb obehcsnbl tdo scrn wntdnb.Aeecrjnbl tc Purn abj Larl, tdo spcrcearp ns a kcjninoj hoaihot nb wdnedtdo bc. ci iortnho pnbbuhos ecrrospcbjs tc tdo bukfor ci eckknssurah(hatorah) fubjhos. Zdo eckknssurah fubjhos iuso tc icrk tdo knjrnf ci tdopnbbuho. Oaed pnbba sphnts nbtc twc up tc dahi ci nts hobltd abj oaed hcforoeonvos a frabed ci tdo eckknssurah fubjho. Zdo scrn aro rostrnetoj tc tdonbbor iortnho karlnbs ci tdo pnbbuhos. Zdns dypctdosns ns fasoj cb tdoabatckneah abj cbtclobotne stujnos ci tdo spcrcearp. Zdo vaseuhar supphy

ci tdo spcrcearp ns snknhar tc tdat ci tdo hoaihots abj tdns prcvnjos suppcrttc tdo haknbar baturo ci tdo spcrcearp.

(nn)Potnchar cr wdcho hoai dypctdosns7Zdns dypctdosns, prcpcubjoj fy Gcdbscb (14>4) pcstuhatos tdat tdospcrcearp ci Karsnhoa ns dckchclcus tc a stornho hoai wdoro tdo karlnbaheohhs ci tdo hoai jovohcp nbtc spcrablna nbstoaj ci hoaihots. Zdus, aeecrjnbltc tdns dypctdosns, spcrcearp ns tdo kcjnineatncb ci tdo wdcho hoai abj bctgust ci a pnbba.

(nnn)A pdyhclobotneahhy sybtdosnzoj bow crlab7Aeecrjnbl tc Fnordcrst (1>


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Ptornjcpdytos, Lykbcsporks & Pahaocfctaby :?


Nbstoaj, oaed spcrcearp nbntnatos irck a snblho eohh wntd tdroo euttnbl iaeos,a ecbjntncb ubmbcwb icr aby iorb pnbba.Zdo karlnbah sornos ci spcrcearp nbntnahs nb Karsnhoa aro eckparafho tctdcso ci tdo inhneahoab spcrablnah stahm nbntnahs. Zdus Fnordcrst (1>


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jcwb abj icrk a butrntnvo ihunj nb wdned tdo spcro kctdor eohhs ihcat. Oaedspcro kctdor eohh ubjorlcos koncsns abj icrks : daphcnj spcros.

Zdo jnstah part ci tdo spcrablnah gaemot ns icrkoj fy ropoatojabtnehnbah jnvnsncb ci tdo gaemot nbntnah. Nt ns ahways snblho hayoroj. As tdogaemot jovohcps, a vortneah rcw ci 15 strcblhy tdnemoboj eohhs, tdo abbuhus

foeckos jniiorobtnatoj. A tdnb aroa ci tufuhar eohhs prosobt fotwoob tdoabbuhus abj stahm ns mbcwb as stcknuk.

Jodnseobeo ci Upcrablnuk7-

Jodnseobeo ci spcrablnuk tamos phaeo juo tc edablos nb tdo eohhs ci tdoabbuhus. Nb jry woatdor , wator ovapcratos irck tdo tdnb cutor wahhs ci tdoeohhs ci tdo abbuhus abj tdoro ns hcss ci turlnjnty. Ecbsoquobthy, tdo cutorwahh fonbl tdnb , fobjs nbwarjs abj juo tc tdns strueturah edablo , tdoabbuhus toars tdo spcrablnah wahh irck tdo stcknuk abj turbs faemwarj.Ucko ci tdo spcros aro fhcwb away fy wnbj tdrculd tdo rupturoj eapsuho,

Zdo eohhs ci tdo abbuhus foecko stnhh jrnor juo tc iurtdor hcss ci wator,tdoro ns sujjob rohoaso ci tobsncb abj tdo abbuhus sbaps faem tc nt crnlnbahpcsntncb ogoetnbl tdo spcros icrenfhy.

Lakotcpdyto7-(N) Jovohcpkobt ci prctdahhus7-

Daphcnj spcro ns tdo kctdor eohh ci tdo lakotcpdytne loboratncb. Ntlorknbatos nkkojnatohy aitor jnsporsah ni kcnsturo abj suntafhotokporaturo ns avanhafho. Zdo oxnbo rupturos at tdo trnrajnato karm abj tdonbtnbo prctrujos cut nb tdo icrk ci a lork tufo. Zdo lork tufo usuahhylrcws nbtc a sdcrt , kuhtneohhuhar edhcrcpdyhhcus inhakobt. Zdo fasah eohh citdo inhakobt lnvos rnso tc echcurhoss rdnzcnjs wdned attaed tdo jovohcpnblprctdahhus tc tdo scnh. Zdo eohhs ci tdo inhakobtcus prctdahhus jnvnjoropoatojhy abj ovobtuahhy icrk a lroob ecrjato ( doart sdapoj) prctdahhus.

Uox Crlabs7-

Fctd kaho (abtdornjna ) abj iokaho (aredolcbna ) sox crlabs arofcrbo cb tdo sako prctdahus.

Abtdornjnuk7-

Ab abtdornjnuk jovohcps irck a suporinenah eohh cb tdo vobtrah

suriaeo ci tdo prctdahhus. Zdo abtdornjnah nbntnah jnvnjos trabsvorsohy nbtc ahcwor inrst rnbl eohh abj ab uppor jauldtor eohh. Juo tc dnld turlcrprossuro nb tdo uppor jauldtor eohh , tdo wahh fotwoob tdoso twc eohhs ns nsprossoj jcwbwarj abj as a rosuht tdo uppor eohh foeckos jcko- sdapoj.

Zdo uppor eohh jnvnjos fy ab aredoj pornehnbah wahh nbtc ab cutorjcko eohh abj ab nbbor prnkary abjrclcbnah eohh. Jcko eohh bcw jnvnjostrabsvorsohy nbtc a ecvor eohh abj a soecbj rnbl eohh.


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_bnt-NNN

Lykbcsporks

Q.1 Jnseuss afcut tdo jovohcpkobt ci kaho abj iokaho lakotcpdyto nb Opdojra.Abs. Zdo knercspcros abj kolaspcros jovohcp nbtc kaho abj iokaho lakotcpdytos

rospoetnvohy.Jovohcpkobt ci kaho lakotcpdyto7-

Zdo knercspcro (Pchhob lranb) roprosobts tdo oarhnost stalo ci tdo kaho

lakotcpdyto. Lorknbatncb ci tdo knercspcro starts wntdnb tdo knercspcrablnukntsohi. Dobeo, partnah jovohcpkobt ci tdo kaho lakotcpdyto ceeurs nbsnjo tdospcrablnuk foicro pchhnbatncb.Zdo knercspcro inrst jnvnjos fy a trabsvorso wahh nbtc a skahh prctdahhnah eohh abjharlor cutor eohh. Zdo cutor eohh jnvnjos alanb fy a trabsvorso wahh abj icrks asoecbj prctdahhnah eohh abj ab abtdornjnah eohh. Fctd prctdahhnah eohhs sccbjoloborato. Zdo buehous ci tdo abtdornjnah eohh jnvnjos tc icrk a skahh loboratnvoeohh abj a eckparatnvohy harlo tufo eohh. Zdo loboratnvo eohh jcos bct pcssoss ajnstnbet eohh wahh. Nt jnvnjos fy a porehnbah wahh nbtc a stahm eohh abj a fcjy eohh. Attdns stalo, tdo kaho lakotcpdyto ecbsnsts ci invo eohhs , - twc prctdahhnah eohhs, astahm eohh & a fcjy eohh abj a tufo buehous. Zdo spcrablnuk jodnseos at tdns staloabj knercspcros (kaho lakotcpdytos) aro bcw roajy icr pchhnbatncb.Nb Opdojra, pchhnbatncb ns abokcpdnhcus abj tdo knercspcros aro earrnoj fy tdownbj tc tdo cvuhato strcfnhus. Zdoy aro jopcsntoj cb tdo knercpyhar eabah abjtdob suemoj nbsnjo fy tdo pchhnbatncb jrcp. Zdoy ecko tc hno nb a joop pchhobedakfor nb jnroet ecbtaet wntd tdo boem ci tdo aredolcbnuk. Iurtdor jovohcpkobtci tdo kaho lakotcpdyto tamos phaeo nb tdo pchhob edakfor.Nb tdo pchhob edakfor, tdo knercspcro lorknbatos, tdo oxnbo fursts abj tdo nbtnboeckos cut nb tdo icrk ci a pchhob tufo. At tdns stalo, tdo fcjy eohh jnvnjos tc icrktwc kaho lakotos. Zdo lakotos aro bcb-kctnho. Zdo pchhob tufo lrcws tdrculdtdo tnssuo ci tdo hcbl boem earrynbl tdo twc kaho buehon, a tufo buehous abj a

stahm buehous.


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Ptornjcpdytos, Lykbcsporks & Pahaocfctaby :>


Jovohcpkobt ci iokaho lakotcpdyto7-Zdo iubetncbah kolaspcro roprosobts tdo inrst stalo ci tdo iokaho lakotcpdyto.Zdo buehous ci tdo kolaspcro jnvnjos kntctneahhy abj icrks twc jauldtor buehonwdned ceeupy tdo twc cppcsnto pchos ci tdo kolaspcro juo tc tdo jovohcpkobt cia harlo eobtrah vaeucho. Fctd buehon jnvnjo alanb abj tdo icur buehon tdus icrkojaro arrabloj nb oqunjnstabt pcsntncbs cb tdo pornpdory ci tdo sae. Zdoso buehonecbtnbuo tc jnvnjo tnhh afcut 6?9 iroo buehon aro icrkoj. At tdns stalo, tdo eobtrahvaeucho jnsappoars abj wahh icrkatncb starts irck tdo pornpdory tcwarjs tdoeobtro. Zdus, a kass ci tnssuo, mbcwb as iokaho lakotcpdyto cr objcspork nsicrkoj. Hator tdo lakotcpdyto ns jniiorobtnatoj nbtc twc rolncbs, tdo hcwor

edahazah rolncb ns tdo iccj stcralo tnssuo abj nb tdo iccj stcralo tnssuo abj nb tdouppor knercpyhar rolncb bcrkahhy 1-5 aredolcbna jovohcp.Aby suporinenah eohh ci tdo iokaho lakotcpdyto kay iubetncb as aredolcbnahnbntnah. Zdo aredolcbnah nbntnah jnvnjos fy a pornehnbah wahh abj icrks cutorprnkary boem eohh abj nbbor eobtrah eohh. Zdo prnkary boem eohh fy sovorahjnvnsncbs icrk a hcbl boem ci 50-:0 eohhs. Jurnbl tdns prceoss nb tdo folnbbnbl, tdojnvnsncb ns roluhar fut hator nt foeckos nrroluhar. Aredolcbnah boem nb Opdojra ns


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tdo harlost akcbl tdcso ci hnvnbl Lykbcsporks. (Habj 1>0:). Zdo eobtrah eohhjnvnjos tc icrk a vobtor eabah buehous abj ab oll buehous. Zdoro ns bc wahhicrkatncb fotwoob tdo twc. Yobtor eabah buehous sccb joloboratos. Nb tdokoabtnko, tdo eohh ajgaeobt tc tdo eobtrah eohh jnvnjos abj icrk 1 cr 6 hayorojaredolcbnah gaemot. Zdus nb Opdojra a katuro aredolcbnuk bct cbhy haems boem

eohh fut ahsc jnstnbet vobtor eabah eohh.\ntd tdo jovohcpkobt ci tdo aredolcbnuk, tdo bueohhar tnssuo afcvo tdolakotcpdyto jnsnbtolratos abj a joop pchhob edakfor ns icrkoj.

Q6 Josernfo tdo jovohcpkobt ci kaho abj iokaho lakotcpdyto ci Pnbus.Abs. (N) Jovohcpkobt ci kaho lakotcpdyto7

Zdo knercspcro ns a ubnbuehoato strueturo wntd ab cutor eutneuharnsoj oxnbo

abj ab nbbor tdnb nbtnbo. Zdo oxnbo oxpabjs cb tdo hatorah snjos tc icrk twc

fahhccbs hnmo strueturos, mbcwb as wnbls.

Zdo lorknbatncb ci knercspcro starts nb sntu, n.o. tdoy lorknbato wdnho stnhh

nbsnjo tdo knercspcrablnuk.

(a) Jovohcpkobt ci kaho lakotcpdyto wntdnb tdoknercspcrablnuk foicro pchhnbatncb7

Zdo knercspcro jnvnjos asykkotrneahhy nbtc a skahh hobtneuhar eohh

abj a harlor eohh. Zdo icrkor mbcwb as inrst prctdahhnah eohh jcos bct

jnvnjo iurtdor. Zdo harlor eohh, mbcwb as apneah eohh jnvnjos

asykkotrneahhy abj icrks a hobtneuhar soecbj prctdahhnah eohh abj a

harlo abtdornjnah eohh.

Zdo soecbj prctdahhnah ahh jcos bct jnvnjo iurtdor abj rokanbs

attaedoj tc tdo inrst prctdahhnah eohh. Zdo abtdornjnah eohh jnvnjos tc

icrk a loboratnvo eohh (ajgaeobt tc tdo soecbj prctdahhnah eohh) abj a

harlo tufo eohh. At tdns stalo, tdo kaho lakotcpdyto das : eohhs- inrst

abj soecbj prctdahhnah eohhs, a loboratnvo eohh abj a tufo eohh. Zdo

knercspcros aro rohoasoj irck tdo knercspcrablnuk at : eohhoj

stalo. Zdoy aro jnssoknbatoj fy wnbj.

(f) Jovohcpkobt ci kaho lakotcpdyto aitor pchhnbatncb7Aitor pchhnbatncb, tdo : eohhoj kaho lakotcpdyto roaedos tdo pchhob

edakfor abj tdoro nt rokanbs nbaetnvo icr afcut 11 kcbtds. Iurtdor

jovohcpkobt ci tdo kaho lakotcpdyto starts nb tdo boxt sprnbl. Zdo

oxnbo fursts abj tdo nbtnbo eckos cut nb tdo icrk ci a pchhob tufo.

Zdo pchhob tufo lrajuahhy prclrossos tcwarjs tdo aredolcbnuk,

pobotratnbl tdo buehoar tnssuo. Nt ns rned nb stared lranbs abj nt kay fo

frabedoj cr ubfrabedoj. Nt aets cbhy as a spork earrnor.


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Ptornjcpdytos, Lykbcsporks & Pahaocfctaby ?1


Zdo loboratnvo eohh ci tdo : eohhoj lakotcpdyto jnvnjos tc icrk a

fcjy eohh abj a stahm eohh. Zdo stahm eohh ns harlor abj fcjy eohh

rokanbs attaedoj at nts iroo obj. Zdo buehous ci tdo fcjy eohh jnvnjos

tc icrk twc buehon gust foicro iortnhnzatncb. Zdoso twc jauldtor

buehon aro mbcwb as kaho buehon abj tdoy swnk nb tdo eytcphask citdo fcjy eohh.

Zdo wahh ci tdo fcjy eohh lrajuahhy jnsappoars abj fctd kaho buehon

pass nbtc tdo eytcphask ci tdo pchhob tufo. At katurnty icur buehon (a

tufo buehous, a stahm buehous abj twc kaho buehon) aro prosobt at tdo

tnp ci tdo pchhob tufo.

Zdo kaho buehon iubetncb as sporks, wdned aro knercsecpne, bcb-

ihalohhato abj opdokorah strueturos.


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Knercspcro jnvnjos asykkotrneahhy

(a) Inrst prctdahhnah eohh (f) Apneah eohhJcos bct jnvnjo iurtdor jnvnjos asykkotrneahhy

(n) Uoecbj prctdahhnah eohh (f) harlo abtdornjnah eohh

Jcos bct jnvnjo iurtdor jnvnjos

(N) Loboratnvo eohh harlo tufo eohh.

(n) Fcjy eohh (nn) stahm eohhBuehousJnvnjos

Zwc kahoBuehon

Iubetncb asUporks (bcb-ihalohhato)

(NN)Jovohcpkobt ci Iokaho Lakotcpdyto nb Pnbus.

Zdo kolaspcro ns tdo kctdor eohh ci tdo iokaho lakotcpdyto. Jurnbl tdojovohcpkobt ci iokaho lakotcpdyto, tdo iubetncbah kolaspcro obharlos nb snzoabj nts daphcnj buehous jnvnjos ropoatojhy tc icrk 6,000-6,?00 jauldtor buehon. Avaeucho jovohcps nb tdo eobtro ci tdo kolaspcro abj tdo kuhtnbuehoato eytcphask

icrks a tdnb hayor boar tdo pornpdory.Zdoroaitor, wahh icrkatncb starts irck tdo pornpdory tcwarjs tdo eobtro. Zdusbukorcus rajnahhy ohcblatoj kuhtnbuehoato tufo-hnmo eohhs aro icrkoj, wdned arombcwb as ahvochn. Hator roaed ahvochus jnvnjos tc icrk kaby ubnbuehoato eohhs.Zdoy roprosobt objcspork cr iokaho prctdahhus. Zdo bueohhar eohhs surrcubjnbltdo kuhtnbuehoato objcspork icrk a 6-5 hayoroj butrntnvo hayor. Zdns hayor ns ahscmbcwb as spcbly hayor cr objcspork gaemot.Jovohcpkobt ci aredolcbnuk7


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Ptornjcpdytos, Lykbcsporks & Pahaocfctaby ?5


Zdculd ahh tdo suporinenah eohhs at tdo tcp ci tdo iokaho lakotcpdyto aro pctobtnaharedolcbnah nbntnahs fut cbhy 6-4 suporinenah eohhs at tdo knercpyhar obj foeckoshnldthy obharloj abj prcknbobt iubetncbnbl as aredolcbnah nbntnahs.Zdo buehous ci tdo aredolcbnah nbntnah kcvos tcwarjs tdo pornpdory abj tdobjnvnjos fy a trabsvorso wahh nbtc ab uppor skahhor prnkary boem eohh abj a hcwor

harlor eobtrah eohh.

Zdo prnkary boem eohh jnvnjos fy twc vortneah wahhs nbtc a tnor ci : eohhs tdatecbstntuto tdo boem ci tdo aredolcbnuk. Zdo eobtrah eohh ubjorlcos rapnj

obharlokobt abj nts eytcphask sdcws ecbspneucus vaeuchos, wdned hatorjnsappoar abj tdo eytcphask foeckos jobso.Prctonj vaeuchos cr para buehon kamo tdonr appoarabeo nb tdo eytcphask. Fy tdnstnko , a jnstnbet gaemot hayor ci eohhs surrcubjs tdo eobtrah eohh. Zdoso eohhs davoharlo buehon abj eab fo oasnhy kajo cut irck tdo surrcubjnbliokaho/lakotcpdyto eohhs. Zdo buehous ci tdo eobtrah eohh jnvnjos nbtc twc


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?:


jauldtor buehon abj a wahh ns hanj jcwb fotwoob tdok tc icrk a skahh hobtneuharvobtor eabah eohh abj a harlo oll eohh.Zdo icrkor sccb joloboratos. Zdo oll buehous knlratos tcwarjs tdo eobtro abjobharlos ecbsnjorafhy. At katurnty, tdo eytcphask ci tdo oll foeckos infrnhharwntd infrnhs rajnatnbl irck tdo buehous tc tdo pornpdory. Prctonj vaeuchos aro ahsc

prosobt.Zdo katuro iokaho lakotcpdyto ns a skahh cvcnj tdahhus. Jurnbl nts lrcwtd, tdokolaspcro erusdos abj ecbsukos kcst ci tdo surrcubjnbl bueohhar tnssuorojuenbl nt ovobtuahhy tc a tdnb kokfrabo abj a ecbo ci tnssuo at tdo obj tcwarjstdo knercpyho. Nt ns tdo bueohhar foam. Nts eohhs ecbtanb afubjabt stared.Zdo kolaspcro wntd nts ecbtanboj iokaho prctdahhus ecrrospcbjs tc tdo okfrycsae ci tdo ablncsporks.

Q5 Josernfo tdo ehassnineatncb abj jnstrnfutncb ci Lykbcsporks.

Abs Vcfort Frcwb icr tdo inrst tnko roeclbnzoj Lykbcsporks as a lrcup jnstnbetirck ablncsporks, juo tc tdo prosobeo ci bamoj cvuhos. Fobtdak abj Dccmor(1496-45) ecbsnjoroj tdok oqunvahobt tc jnectyhojcbs abj kcbcectyhojcbs, abjphaeoj tdok fotwoob tdoso twc lrcups ci ablncsporks. Zdoy roeclbnzoj tdrooehassos ci lykbcsporks Eyeajaeoao, Ecbniorao abj Lbotaeoao.

Zdo icssnh roecrj ci lykbcsporks nbehujos kaby jnstnbetnvo taxa tdat jc bctfohcbl tc tdo icur kcjorb lrcups, nbehujnbl sooj-foarnbl troos tdat davo asckowdat iorb-hnmo volotatnvo kcrpdchcly (tdo sc eahhoj sooj iorbs crptornjcsporks).

Oblhor eroatoj abctdor lrcup Lnbmlcahos tc aeeckkcjato tdo lobusLnbmlc. Yab Znoldok troatoj lykbcsporks as cbo ci tdo twc suf jnvnsncbs cisporkatcpdyta.

Zc aeeckkcjato tdo icssnh kokfors, sufsoquobthy tdroo kcro ehassos-Ptornjcsporkao, Ecrjantahos abj Fobbottntahos woro eroatoj. Ecuhtor abjEdakforhanb (1>10), Oblhor abj Prabth (1>69), Vobjho (1>69) abj ctdorsecbsnjoroj lykbcsporks as a jnvnsncb ci Uporkatcpdyta ,Pdaborclakna crOkfrycpdyta abj tdoy iurtdor jnvnjoj tdok nbtc < crjors (1) Eyeajcinhneahos, (6)Eyeajahos, (5) Fobbottntahos, (:) Lnbmlcahos, (?) Ecbniorahos, (9) Ecrjantahos abj(1>) jnvnjoj lykbcsporks nbtc twcehassos.Ehass-1 Kabcxyhne7\ccj ns bct eckpaet juo tc tdo prosobeo ci wohh jovohcpojpntd abj ecrtox abj frcaj kojuhhary rays.Ehass-6 Pyebcxyhne7 \ccj ns eckpaet as pntd abj ecrtox aro rojueoj abjkojuhhary rays aro barrcw. Zdroo crjors (Eyeajahos, Eyeajocnjahos abj


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Ptornjcpdytos, Lykbcsporks & Pahaocfctaby ??


Eyeajcinhneahos) woro roeclbnzoj nb Kabcxyhne abj icur (Ecrjantahos, Lnbmlcahos,Ecbniorahos abj Lbotahos) nb Pyebcxyhne.Cb tdo fasns ci kcrpdchclneah baturo ci cvuho foarnbl crlabs, Uadbn (1>60)roeclbnzoj twc suf-jnvnsncbs nb lykbcsporks- Pdyhhcsporkao abjUtaedycsporkao.

LykbcsporksUuf Jnvnsncb

Pdyhhcsporkao Utaedycsporkao(soojs fcrbo cb hoavos) (soojs fcrbo cb stoks)Crjors 1 Eyeajcinhneahos (Ptornjcsporkao) 1. Ecrjantahos

6 Eyeajahos 6. Ecbniorahos5 Fobbottntahos 5. Lnbmlcahos

(n) LbotahosZdo ehassnineatncb ci Edakforhanb was kcro cr hoss cb tdo hnbos ci Uadbn, fut doransoj tdo suf-jnvnsncbs tc tdo rabm ci jnvnsncbs.

Lykbcsporks Jnvnsncbs

Eyeajcpdyta Ecbniorcpdyta(wccj kabcxyhne, spcrcpdyhhs snkpho) (wccj pyebcxyhne

spcrcpdyhhs eckphox)

Crjors 1 Eyeajcinhneahos 1. Ecrjantahos6 Eyeajocnjahos 6. Lnbmlcahos5 Eyeajahos 5. Ecbniorahos

:. LbotahosZnppc (1>:6) ecbsnjoroj lykbcsporks as a ehass ci tdo suf-pdyhuk Ptorcpsnja abjjnvnjoj tdok nbtc suf-ehassos.

Lykbcsporkao

Uuf-ehassos


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?9


Eyeajcpdytao EcbniorcpdytaoCrjor 1 Eyeajcinhneahos 1. LnbmlcahosCrjor (6) Eyeajahos 6. Ecrjantahos

Crjors(5) Fobbottntahos 5. Ecbniorahos:. Lbotahos.

Pabt (1>?


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Ptornjcpdytos, Lykbcsporks & Pahaocfctaby ?99) phaeoj lykbcsporks nb tdojnvnsncb Pnbcpdyta ci tdo suf-mnbljck Okfrycpdyta. Pnbcpdyta was jnvnjojnbtc tdroo suf-jnvnsncbs abj snx ehassos.Jnvnsncb PnbcpdytaUuf-jnvnsncb 1Eyeajneao (; Eyeajcpdyta)Ehass 1. Hylnbcptornjatao ; (eyeajcinhneahos)

6. Eyeajatao (;eyeajahos)5. Fobbottntatao (;Fobbottntahos)

Uuf- jnvnsncb NN Pnbneao (;Ecbniorcpdyta)Ehass 1. Lnbmlcatao (;Lnbmlcahos)

6. PnbataoUuf-Ehass (n) Ecrjantajao (;Ecrjantahos)

:. Pnbnjao (;Ecbniorahos)Uuf-jnvnsncb NNN Lbotneao (Lbotahos)Ehass 1. Lbotantao

Uuf-Ehass (n) Opdojrnjao (;Opdojrahos)(nn) \ohwntsednjao (;\ohwntsednahos)(nnn) Lbotnjao (;Lbotahos)

Fnordcrst (1>41) was ci tdo cpnbncb tdat ehassnineatncb ci lykbcsporks ns stnhh asufgoetnvo oxorenso .Do prcpcsoj tdo ichhcwnbl ehassnineatncb wdoro lykbcsporksworo jnvnjoj nbtc 9 jnvnsncbs.Jnvnsncb-N PrclykbcsporkcpdytaJnvnsncb-NN PtornjcsporkcpdytaCrjors7- 1. Hylnbcptornjahos

6. Kojuhhcsahos


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?4


5. Eahhnstcpdytahos:. Eaytcbnahos?. Ecrystcsporkahos9. Eahakcpntyahos


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Ptornjcpdytos, Lykbcsporks & Pahaocfctaby ?>


(nn) Tyhok ns eckpcsoj ci cbhy traedonjs abj xyhok parobedyka . Yossohs aroafsobt, wntd tdo oxeoptncb ci tdo kokfors ci tdo Lbotahos.

(i) Zdo pdhcok ecbsnsts ci snovo tufos abj pdhcok parobedyka , eckpabncb eohhsaro afsobt.

(l)Zdo stok sdcws soecbjary lrcwtd abj ecbspneucus abbuah rnbls aro prosobtnb tdo wccj. Dcwovor, nb scko Lykbcsporks hnmo Eyeas prnkary eakfnuk ns

sdcrt hnvoj abj ns rophaeoj fy sueeossnvo rnbls ci eakfna icrkoj cutsnjo tdo

soecbjary pdhcok.

(d)Nb Ecbniorahos abj Lnbmlcahos , pntd abj Ecrtox aro kued rojueoj,ecbsoquobthy, tdo wccj nb sued easos ns jobso abj ns mbcwb as pyebcxyhne.

Nb kokfors ci Eyeajahos , tdo pntd ns harlo , ecrtox ns tdnem abj tdo prnkaryeakfnuk ns ontdor sdcrt hnvoj cr iubetncbs shcwhy, as sued nb Eyeajahos ,tdowccj ns hccso , scit , seabty abj bct sc eckpaet abj ns tdoroicro kabcxyhne.

Uoecbjary wccj sdcws jnstnbet abbuah rnbls.(n) Zdo rccts aro jnared tc pchyared. Tyhok ci tdo rcct ns icrkoj ci traedonjsecbtanbnbl ubnsornato cr kuhtnsornato fcrjoroj pnts.

(g) Zdo hoavos nbvarnafhy oxdnfnt xorcpdytne edaraetors nb tdo icrk ci tdnem eutneho,prctoetncb ci stckata nb pnts, jovohcpkobt ci wax ote.

(m)Zdo koscpdyhh ci tdo hoai kay fo ubjniiorobtnatoj (o.l. Pnbus, Eojrus) crjniiorobtnatoj nbtc pahnsajo abj spcbly parobedyka (o.l. Eyeas)

(h) Kcst Lykbcsporks hoavos jc bct davo hatorah vonbs abj tdo hatorahtrabshceatncb ci butrnobts tamos phaeo wntd tdo dohp ci trabsiusncb tnssuo.

(k) Upcrcpdyto7-Zdo phabt fcjy roprosobts a jcknbabt abj nbjopobjobt spcrcpdyto. Kcsthy

tdo ecbos aro ubnsoxuah n.o. a ecbo kay fo ontdor kaho ( Knercspcrablnato) , cr

iokaho (Kolaspcrablnato ) , rarohy tdoro aro icubj fnspcrablnato ecbos (Pneoa

oxeohsa , Afnos ahma). Oxeopt Lbotahos tdo roprcjuetnvo crlabs davo bc

pornabtd.

(a)Kaho Ecbo7-Zdoso aro eckparatnvohy sdcrt hnvoj abj skahhor nb snzo tdab tdo iokaho ecbos.Zdo knercspcrcdyhhs kay fo frcaj as nb Eyeas cr pohtato as nb Jnccb abj

Zaxus.

Zdo knercspcrablna (pchhob saes) kay fo arrabloj nb scrah lrcups ci 5 tc ?

(Eyeas) cr tdonr bukfor ns rojueoj tc cbhy 6 (Pnbus).


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Zdo knercspcrablna aro ahways prosobt cb tdo hcwor suriaeo ci tdo

knercspcrcpdyhhs. Zdo jovohcpkobt ci tdo spcrablnuk ns ci ouspcrablnato

typo (spcrclobcus tnssuo jovohcpnbl irck a lrcup ci dypcjorkah eohhs,

icrknbl spcro kctdor eohhs, oaed ci wdned prcjueos icur knercspcros.).

(f)Iokaho Ecbo7-9. Zdo cvuhos aro bamoj. Dobeo tdo soojs aro oxpcsoj abj bct obehcsoj nb a

ehcsoj cvary foeauso tdo kolaspcrcpdyhhs aro bct jniiorobtnatoj nbtc a ehcsoj

cvary, styho abj stnlka.

. Zdo nbtolukobt obehcsos bueohhus wntd a knercpyho at tdo apox ci tdo cvuho.Zdo cvuho ecbtanbs cbo cr sovorah spcrclobcus eohhs oaed jovohcpnbl nbtc

hnboar rcw ci icur pctobtnah kolaspcros.

10.Cbhy tdo hcworkcst kolaspcro ns iubetncbnbl abj icrks okfryc sae crprctdahhus wdned ubhnmo Ablncsporks hno joophy okfojjoj nb tdo bueohhus nbtdo edahazah rolncb ci tdo cvary.

11.Lakotcpdyto7-Zdo phabts aro dotorcspcrcus abj fctd Kaho abj iokaho lakotcpdytos aro vory

kued rojueoj. Zdo lakotcpdyto ns jopobjobt abj rujnkobtary.

16.Kaho Lakotcpdyto7-Zdo kaho lakotcpdyto jovohcps irck knercspcro aitor nts

lorknbatncb. Zdo knercspcros aro hnforatoj nb varncus stalos ci tdo

jovohcpkobt ci kaho lakotcpdyto.

o.l.tdoy aro hnforatoj at 5-eohhoj stalo nb Eyeas , :-eohhoj stalo nb Pnbus abj ?-

eohhoj stalo nb Opdojra.


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Zdo pchhob tufo kay aet kanbhy as daustcrnuk (Eyeas) lrcwnbl abj

frabednbl nb tdo sufstabeo ci bueohhus , wdnho nb dnldor kokfors (ecbniors)

tdo pchhob tufo aets as a spork earrnor.

(e)IokahoLakotcpdyto7-

Zdo iokaho lakotcpdyto kay davo 6 tc 4 aredolcbna tdculd nb ajvabeoj

kokfors o.l. Lbotuk abj \ohwntsedna , tdo aredolcbna aro afsobt.

Zdoro aro sovorah aredolcbna nb Eyeas abj cbhy twc nb Pnbus. Zdo

aredolcbnuk ci Lbotuk ns roprosobtoj fy cvuk hnmo Zdo aredolcbnuk das a

snblho oll abj a vobtor eabah eohh= Boem eabah eohhs aro afsobt.

15.Pchhnbatncb 7-Pchhnbatncb ns jnroet n.o. pchhob lranbs ecko nb jnroet ecbtaet wntd tdo

cvuho. Pchhobs aro jopcsntoj nb tdo pchhob edakfor wdoro tdoy lorknbato. AhhLykbcsporks aro abokcpdnhcus. (wnbj pchhnbatoj).

1:.Iortnhnzatncb ns snpdcbclakne.1?.Objcspork7-

Nb ecbtrast tc Ablncsporks , tdo objcspork nb Lykbcsporks jovohcps

foicro iortnhnzatncb, as sued nt ns a daphcnj tnssuo. Zdo jcufho iortnhnzatncb abj

trnpho iusncb as ovnjobt nb Ablncsporks ns afsobt nb Lykbcsporks.

19.Okfryc7-Nb Lykbcsporks, cbhy a part ci tdo ccspcro jovohcps nbtc ab okfryc. Zdus

nb tdo wdcho phabt mnbljck, Lykbcsporks aiicrj tdo cbhy oxakpho ci

korcfhastne icrkatncb ci okfryc. Zdo korcfhastne pdobckobcb ns ci wnjo

ceeurrobeo nb Abnkah Mnbljck.

Nb kcst ci tdo kokfors, oxeopt Lbotuk abj \ohwntsedna, tdoro ns a iroo

buehoar porncj nb tdo jovohcpkobt ci okfryc. Zdo prcokfryc lots

jniiorobtnatoj

nbtc tdroo rolncbs- uppor daustcrnah , knjjho suspobscr abj fasah okfrycbaheohhs. Eohhs ci suspobscr icrk hcbl tufos.

Okfryc ns usuahhy stranldt ecbsnstnbl ci rajneah hynbl tcwarjs tdo knercpyho abj

phukuho tcwarjs tdo fasah obj.


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Zdo bukfor ci ectyhojcbs kay fo twc (Eyeas) cr kaby (Pnbus). Ectyhojcbs aro

usuahhy lroob wdnho stnhh obehcsoj wntdnb tdo soojs .Zdo okfryc hator lots

jniiorobtnatoj nbtc stok , hoavos abj rccts.

(M) Pchyokfrycby7-(n) Unbeo tdoro ns bc cvary, tdoro ns bc sued crlab as irunt as icubj nb Ablncsporks. Zdo

bamoj cvuhos jovohcp cbhy soojs.

(nn) Zdo pchyokfrycby kay arnso fy tdo iortnhnzatncb ci kcro tdab cbo olls cr fy tdo

jnvnsncb ci tdo zylcto (Ehoavalo pchyokfrycby). Fut juo tc pdysnchclneah eckpotntncb

cbhy cbo okfryc attanbs katurnty.

(H) Uooj Lorknbatncb7

Oxeopt nb Eyeas abj Lnbmlc , tdo soojs rokanb jcrkabt icr sckotnko abj tdob

lorknbato ubjor iavcurafho ecbjntncbs. Lorknbatncb ns ci opnloah typo, tdo ectyhojcbsicrknbl tdo inrst hoavos. Cb lorknbatncb , tdo sooj ecat ns rupturoj abj tdo okfryc

jovohcps nbtc a bow spcrcpdytne phabt. Zdo lrcwtd ci phukuho ns hnkntoj nb easo ci

\ohwntsedna.

Zdo sooj roprosobts tdroo pdasos nb tdo hnio eyeho ci Lykbcsporks7

1. Okfryc, tdo boxt spcrcpdytne pdaso (as nt jovohcps irck tdo zylcto).

(k) Ahtorbatncb ci Loboratncbs7-

Zdo kokfors ci tdns lrcup pcssoss jnstnbet pdasos nb tdonr hnio eyeho

lakotcpdytne abj spcrcpdytne wdned roluharhy ahtorbato. Zdo jnphcnj spcrcpdytne pdaso

ns jcknbabt , wdoroas tdo daphcnj lakotcpdyto pdaso ns rojueoj. Zdo lakotcpdytne

pdaso ns jopobjobt cb tdo spcrcpdytne pdaso.

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Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms & Palaeobotany