Pst Presentation Fin

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Your responsibility

Check & Systemize your thinking habits.

Use Precise Questioning Techniques to find

out and evaluate all important information.

Prepare and Make Decisions systematically.

Ensure successful carrying-out of a plan.


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Be prepare to commit to:

Attend all classes

Participate fully

Take risks

Take notes

Ask questions

Enjoy yourself

Note: As a courtesy to others, please set mobile phones to the silent mode.


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Solving Problems, Preparing Decisions

This subject presents the individual steps of the

following four different processes :

1 - Situation Analysis

2 - Problem Analysis ( Detecting causes )

3 - Decision Analysis ( Preparing decision )

4 - Potential Problem Analysis


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Practical application of the method

enables all managerial staff to:1 - Deal with the situations.

2 - Become more secure in decision - making.

3 - Direct sphere of activity better, without having to

know technical details.

4 - Arrive at solutions faster, save time and money.


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Management and organizational

effectivenessAn organization: is intended to operate as one

unit, with all its parts in efficient coordination.

But too often it does not. Parts operate :

At different levels of efficiency .

Overlap.

Work against one anothers best interest.

Act in misunderstanding & miscommunication.


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OUR MAIN OBJECTIVE

Improvement of the organizational

effectiveness


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GROUP Vs. TEAMInteracting in a common cause, people can:

Become a unified group.

Understand one another as individuals.

Become consciously sensitive to one another.

know how to adapt to individual characteristics.

Acquire Common relation and psychological

benefits.

Such group is not a team!


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GROUP Vs. TEAM

A team is built primarily on the technical capabilities

of its members working in pursuit ofspecific goals,

only secondarily on attraction among the members as

individuals. The members of a team must be able to

tolerate one another enough to work closely together.

Beyond this, all the members must be committed to a

common goal and the set of procedures for achievingthat goal.


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Team members must be:

Able to tolerate one another working together.

Committed to a common goal.

Committed to the same set of procedures forachieving that goal.

Keeping the overall goal of the team .

Knowing what to do.

Knowing how to coordinate their efforts.


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Building a Management Team

Entrepreneur, aggressive nature, quick insights;

Financial expert,

Sales & Marketing executives; Director of R&D;

Production Manager

Their efforts is coordinated by the presidents

guidelines for gathering, sharing, and usinginformation to solve problems, make decisions,and safeguard organizations future


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Lesson from Canada Geese

The race
http://lesson%20from%20canada%20geese.ppt/http://race.pps/http://race.pps/http://lesson%20from%20canada%20geese.ppt/


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1- All members are working at one organization.

2- By using common approaches to problems and

decisions, they can work together cooperatively as part

of one organization.

3- Everyone will use these approaches, beginning with

the president.

A Case History

The Rational Management


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4- Everyone can think, the knowledge and

experience are important.

5- What everyone do with these approaches willhave an important impact on the organization.

6- Everyone is valuable member of the management

team.

A Case History

The Rational Management


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He made a PLANNED INTERVENTION into his

organization.

He introduced the KINDS Of MAJOR CHANGES

he believed would do the most good.

He introduced A NEW IDEA to his people.

He introduced a MEANS BY WHICH thinking

could be coordinated.

Finally, he MODIFIED THE SYSTEMS ANDPROCEDURES of the organization.


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A president let his people know

He believed they could think.

He wanted them to express their ideas

He would listen to them.

They must listen to each other.


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Types of managers

There are three types of leaderships:

1. The autocratic leadership (high productivity).

2.The developmental leadership (high moral

and productivity).

3.The laissez-faire leadership (high moral).

Questionnaire 1


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1- Circle the item number for items:8, 12,

17, 18, 19, 30, 34, and 35

2 Write the number 1 in front of a

circled item number if you responded

S or N to that item.

3Also write a number 1 in front of item

numbers not circled if you responded A


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4 Circle the number 1s which you have

written in front of the following items: 3, 5, 8,

10, 15, 18, 19, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34, and

35.

5Count the circled number 1s. This is your

score for concern for people. Record thisscore.

6 Count the uncircled number 1s. This isyour score for concern for task. Record this

score.


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Shared Leadership Results

T Plow

Medium

High

5

10

15

20

5


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Example of Autocratic Manager

Boss rules
http://boss.gif/http://boss%20rules.doc/http://boss%20rules.doc/http://boss.gif/


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Characteristics of Developmental Manager

-Consider ideas that conflict with their own.

-Allow a reasonable margin for error.

-Try to help others learn from their mistakes.

-Have consistency high expectations.

-Encourage people to reach in new directions.

-Help people understand the objective of their jobs.

-Allow people to make their own commitments.

-Set objectives with people.


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The boss is someone you have to follow, like it or

not.

The leader is someone you want to follow.

The boss tends to motivate out offear.

The leader motivates by suggestion, invitation,

persuasion.


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CHARACTERISTICS OF LEADERS AND

BOSSES A BOSS

Demands respect

Is a taskmaster

Is critical

Rules by fear

CommandsMakes work a burden

Punishes mistakes

A LEADER

Earns respect

Is a coach

Is encouraging

Guides by example

InspiresMakes work fun

Rewards success


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How to be good manager
http://management%20traps%20and%20how%20to%20avoid%20them.doc/http://management%20traps%20and%20how%20to%20avoid%20them.doc/


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How to improve your memory
http://improve%20the%20memory.doc/http://improve%20the%20memory.doc/


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ACTIVITIES OF MANAGERS

1LOWERLEVEL MANAGER:

Supervising operations and subordinates,

performing detailed reviews of operating results.

2MIDDLE MANAGERS:

Management control activities.

3TOP MANAGERS:

Planning activities, overall reviews, critical

problems to the organizations well-being,

leadership and ceremonial activities.


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Managerial levels w.r.t. Time orientation

1LOWER LEVEL: concerned with results of

past operations & conducting current operations.

2TOP MANAGERS: concerned with thefuture of the organization.

3MIDDLE MANAGERS: in the range

between 1 & 2


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Managerial levels w.r.t. types of Decision

1- LOWER-LEVEL: repetitive and structured decisions.

2- TOP-MANAGERS: decisions about goals and

strategies.


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TECHNICAL LEADERSHIP

Technical leadership must:

-Set goals and drive directly to meet them.

-Have the courage to stick with it.

-Drive to overcome all obstacles.

-Gather people for another try when they are readyto give up.

-Attract followers to the cause.


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LEADERS AND THEIR FOLLOWERS

A leader must first attract followers to the cause.

Without followers no leader has the power to

perform.

A leaders power stem from the ability to attract

willing followers.

Leaders must care about their followers.

All leaders are actual power holders, but not

all power holders are leaders.


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Transformational leadership

Transformational leadership is a

leadership style where one or more

persons engage with others in such a

way that leaders and followers raise

one another to higher levels ofmotivation and morality
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadershiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership


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TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Transformational leader must:

-Excite peoples imagination.

-Build on their dreams and aspiration.

-Convince their followers to dedicate themselves to

their goals.

Leaders practicing transformational leadership.

Such leadership is useful for everybody involved.


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TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP

Leadership based on legitimate power is called

TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP.

It can motivate action, but it also has limitations.


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TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP

People are motivated by reward and punishment.

Social systems work best with a clear chain of

command.

When people have agreed to do a job, a part of the

deal is that they cede all authority to their manager.

The prime purpose of a subordinate is to do whattheir manager tells them to do


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THE LEADERS VISION

The most vital single characteristic of the leader is

vision.

Leaders have a clear picture of what they see theirgroup becoming or doing in the future.

There's a difference between eyesight and vision.

Vision is the ability to get MEANING from

eyesight.


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THE COMMITMENT ETHICS

The discipline of commitment is hard to live

with, but it can be a great comfort.

When technical groups must coordinate their

efforts to produce a coherent result, schedules

are needed and must be based on mutual

commitments.


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THE ELEMENTS OF COMMITMENT

When a person makes a pact with another and they

both expect it to be kept, that is a commitment.

The motivation to meet commitment is largely theresult of the way the commitments are made.

First, the commitment must be freely accepted.

Persons feel bound by the promise only if they feel

that they undertook it willingly.


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OVER COMMITMENT

One trick of the optimist is to get manage-

ment so committedto the project that it cant

be canceled.

we must know that advice is often needed to

balance the enthusiasts, for a technical team

that has gotten himself in a trouble will rarely

get itself out without help.


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CHANGING COMMITMENTS

The other side of the coin is the problem of

deciding when to change an existing plan.

Every plan is a commitment, but it must bea basis for managing the work.

when the plan is unrealistic, coordination is

practically impossible.

It is very important for managers to sense

when a tight commitment ceases to motivate

their people.


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THE IMPORTANCE OF

PROFESSIONALISM


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ELEMENTS OF PROFESSIONALISM

The two key elements of professionalism are:

The knowledge of what to do

The discipline to do it.


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ELEMENTS OF PROFESSIONALISM

Technical knowledge is the true mark of

professionals, for it sets them above their less

learned fellows.

Technical blindness has many costs, but one of the

most important is legal.

With the Continuing rapid advance of technology,product development grows more complex.


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THE BENEFITS OF AWARENESS

Technical awareness has important benefits.

The cost of technical blindness can be severe.

New concept generally appears almostsimultaneously.

If one new idea can replace or improve a key product,

it is essential to learn about it before the competitiondoes.

Professionals who keep themselves informed provide

the only practical protection against the risk.


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MANAGING AWARENESS

Most professionals make little effort to stay

technically current.

Reading is the most effective way to staycurrent, but technical meetings are also

helpful.

The formal papers are one source of input,but the informal exchange of ideas with other

attendees is often even more valuable.


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The seven Habits of Highly

Effective People


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Be Proactive

Take the initiative and make things happen.

Aggressively seek new ideas andinnovations. Dont let a negativeenvironment affect your behavior anddecisions. Work on things that you can do

something about. If you make a mistake,acknowledge it and learn from it.


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Begin with the end in mind

Know where you are going and make sure all

the steps you take are in the right direction.

First determine the right things toaccomplish and then how to best

accomplish them.Write a personal mission

statement describing where you want to go,what you want to be, and how to

accomplish these things.


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Put first things first

List your top priorities each day for the

upcoming week and schedule time to work

on them. Continually review and prioritizeyour goals. Say NO to doing unimportant

tasks. Focus on the important tasks, the ones

that will have impact if carefully thoughtout and planned.


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Think Win/ Win

Win/ Win is the frame of mind that seeks

mutual benefits for all people involved in

solutions and agreements. Identify the keyissues and results that would constitute a

fully acceptable solution to all. Make all

involved in the decision feel good about thedecision and committed to a plan of action.


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Seek first to Understand, Then to

be UnderstoodLearn as much as you can about the situation.

listen, listen, listen Try to see the problem

from the other persons perspective. Bewilling to be adaptable in seeking to be

understood. Present things logically, not

emotionally. Be credible, empathetic, andlogical.


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Synergize

Make the whole greater than the sum of all

parts. Value the differences in the people

you work with. Foster open and honestcommunication. Help everyone bring out

the best of everyone else.


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Renewal

Renew the four dimensions of your nature:

Physical: Exercise, nutrition, stress management

Mental : Reading, thinking, visualizing, writingSpiritual: Value clarification and commitment,

study and mediation.

Social/Emotional: Service, empathy, self-esteem, synergy.


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The seven habits of highly effective people
http://7habbits.gif/http://7habbits.gif/


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FirstWorld.ppt

P bl S l i i t t
http://firstworld.ppt/http://firstworld.ppt/


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Problem Solving requires two types

of mental skills:

1 - Analytical or Logical Thinking

such as ordering, comparing, evaluating and

selecting. Possessing these skills enables one to

construct a logical framework for problem solving.(Convergent Process)

2 - Creative Thinking

Divergent Process, using the imagination tocreatea large range of ideas for solutions.

Effective problem solving requires a controlled

mixture of analytical and creative thinking.


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The Human Brain

The human brain consists of two sides:

1. The left side: deals with logic, language,

reasoning, number, linearity, and analysis(academic activities).

2. The right side: deals with rhythms, music,images, imagination, color, parallelprocessing, day dreaming, facerecognition & pattern or map recognition.


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The Human Brain

The left side The right side
http://left%20brain%20dominant%20person.doc/http://right%20brain%20dominant%20person.doc/http://right%20brain%20dominant%20person.doc/http://left%20brain%20dominant%20person.doc/


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Whats Creative Thinking

Creative thinking is a term used when we

need to expand our ideas and to approach

things from different angle.

It refers to a set of ideas that use the right

brain as well as the left brain- to release thefull capacity of our mind.


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When to use Creative Thinking

When you want to try something new

When you come up with new ideas for

approaching old problems

When you have apparently reached a dead

end

When things seem to have got bogged downand you are going round in circles.


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When to avoid Creative Thinking

When gathering facts

When you are at the implementation stage

and things are going well

When you are already over-burdened with

ideas and need to rationalize them

When preparing an argument.

Creative thinking skills can be


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Creative thinking skills can be

divided into:

1 - Fluency : producing many ideas

2 - Flexibility : producing a broad range of ideas

3 - Originality : producing uncommon ideas

4 - Elaboration : developing ideas5- Intuition : producing conclusions based on

impressions and feelings rather than hard facts.

6 - Incubation : time-out stage of the process, ideas

grow and correct solutionilluminates7 - Invention : creation of new meaningful ideas or

concept

8 - Innovation : putting new ideas or concept to

practical use


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Example for Creativity
http://a_better_way.pps/http://a_better_way.pps/


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Questionnaire #2


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Questionnaire Analysis

Questions 1-5

These questions were looking at types of

behavior that hinder the problem solvingprocess.

If you ticked any of the statements then this

displays some negative tendency towardsproblem solving.


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Questions 6-10

These questions are looking at how

methodical you are in your approach toproblem solving.

Ticks to questions 6,8,and 10 indicate areasonably methodical approach.

Ticks to questions 7 and 9 indicate a lessmethodical approach.


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Questions 11-15

This set of questions looks at how creative or

analytical you are in your approach.Ticks to questions 11,13,and 14 indicate a

creative inclination, and 12 and 15 an

analytical bent.


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Questions 16-20

These questions look at general attitudes

towards problem solving. Ticks to questions16, 18, and 20 point towards a healthy

enquiring problem solving approach to

work.


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Formula 4 success
http://formula%204%20success.ppt/http://formula%204%20success.ppt/


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Improving your Creative Abilitie

Keep track of your ideas all times. Pose new questions to yourself every day.

Keep abreast of your field.

Learn about things outside your specialty.

Avoid rigid, set patterns of doing things.

Be open and receptive to ideas (yours and

others).

Be alert in your observations.


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Improving your Creative Abilities

Adopt a risk-taking attitude.

Keep your sense of humor.

Engage in creative hobbies. Have courage and self-confidence.

Learn to know and understand yourself.


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The solution
http://quiz1.ppt/http://quiz1.ppt/


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An exercise

The solution

IQ Test
http://a%20test%20in%20logic.doc/http://quiz2.xls/http://iqtest_1forprofessionals.pps/http://iqtest_1forprofessionals.pps/http://quiz2.xls/http://a%20test%20in%20logic.doc/http://a%20test%20in%20logic.doc/http://a%20test%20in%20logic.doc/


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Sins of Negative Thinking
http://sins%20of%20negative%20thinkingl.doc/http://sins%20of%20negative%20thinkingl.doc/


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Techniques for generating ideas

Daydreaming

Group problem solving

Brainstorming

Cause and effect analysis


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Daydreaming

One of the basic tools of a good problem solver.Can be characterized in a number of ways:

1. Seen as a time-out exercise.

2. Can be fitted into spare moments.

3. Risk free as it involves only thoughts and notactions.

4. Helps to develop plans

5. Inventors do it all the time

6. Often involves people looking for best possiblesolution.


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Day Dreaming

G bl l i


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Group problem solving

If used at the right time, it can have many advantages:-Increased output.

-Cross-fertilization of ideas.

- Prospect of shared responsibility.

-Improved quality of solutions due to diversity and

richness of ideas, skills and knowledge.

B i i


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Brainstorming

This technique concentrates on generation of ideas

by group 5-20.

A facilitator should work with group, stimulating

participants.

B i i


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Brainstorming

There are four basic rules of brainstorming:

1 - No evaluation is allowed during the session2 - Freewheel where any ideas are allowed however

outrageous

3 -Cross-fertilize where participants reword and

rework other Peoples ideas4 - Quantity is important, a large number of ideas

should be encouraged.


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Leaders Role

Start and stop the process.

Ensure the problem is well defined at the

start and remembered throughout thesession.

Help the session to run smoothly.

Make sure that everything is being written.

Put forward ideas when others dry up.


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Assessing the Brainstorming Output

Highlight attractive ideas.

Delete obvious no-hopers.

Group similar ideas under headings.

Match ideas against the problem definition.

Identify ideas to explore further.

Identify ideas with additional information.

Use ranking and rating techniques.


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Cause & Effect Analysis

Its a technique for identifying the

possible causes affecting a problem

or project, by recording those

causes and relating them to their

effect.


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Why use it?

To help generate ideas.

To record ideas generated.

To reveal hidden relationships.

To investigate root causes.

To highlight important relationships.

C & Eff t A l i


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ways of identifying the causes

1Brainstorming

2 - The 4M approach

Machines, Methods, Materials, Manpower

3 - The PEMPEM approachPlant, Equipment, Materials,

People, Environment, Methods.

Identify all possible causes


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Identify all possible causes

Methods

Machines

Man Power

Materials

ComputerData-entry

Errors

- No pre-entry checks

- Batches too big

- Not enough rest-breaks

- No automated checking

- Lack of Supervision

- Untrained staff

- New Staff

- Temp Staff

- Pressure of work

- Untrained staff

- Illegible Handwriting

- Incorrect data

Illegible copy

- Lack of regular breaks

- No time

- Old Technology

- Keyboard Bounce

- Sticky Keyboard

Inadequate software

- Poor Ergonomics

Seating

Lightening

Heat


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Six Thinking Hats
http://6thinking%20hats_f.ppt/http://6thinking%20hats_f.ppt/


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The four basic pattern of thinking

These patterns are reflected in the four questions

managers ask usually:

Whats going on?

Why did this happen?

Which course of action should we take?

What lies ahead?

Wh t i ?


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Whats going on?

It asks for a sorting out, a breaking down, a key to

the map of events, a means of achieving and

maintaining control.

It reflects the pattern of thinking that enables

imposing order where all had been disorder,

uncertainty or confusion.

Wh did thi h ?


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Why did this happen?

Indicates the need for Cause-and-effect thinking,

the second basic pattern.

It is the pattern that enables us to move from theobserving the effect of a problem to understand

its cause.


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Which course of action should we take?

Implies that some choice must be made.

This basic pattern of thinking enables us to

decide on the course of action most likely toaccomplish a particular goal.

What lies ahead?


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What lies ahead?

We use this fourth pattern of thinking when we

attempt to assess the problem that mighthappen,

the decision that might be necessary tomorrow,

next month, next year, or in five years.


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SITUATION ANALYSIS

Situation Analysis


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Situation Analysis

Situation Analysis assists you:

-To systematically take stock of the situations and

tasks you are concerned with.

-To establish priorities and to assign them to the

corresponding Thought Process.

Situation Analysis enable you by asking Pertinentquestions , to break down Complex and Multilayer

Situations into their component Sub-situations.

What Are Situations?


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What Are Situations?

Situations, ( in particular, critical situations) are

Matters that require Action on your part.

Situation is something need to be done and you

are in a position to do something about it.

They develop into tasks which you have to

perform.

How To Probe a Critical Situation


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How To Probe a Critical SituationBy asking :

Where are we not meeting standards?

What problems from . Remains unsolved?

What recommendations are we currently working onor will be coming up in the near future?

What decisions need to be made now?

What decisions are being made now and will have to

be implemented when a choice is made?

What major projects, systems, or plans are about to be

implemented.


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Situation Appraisal

Situation Appraisal consists ofevaluative

techniques that lead to proper selection and

use of one of theanalytical techniques (PA,DA, or PPA)

It enable managers to make best possible use

of the analytical techniques by clarifying tothem:


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Situation Appraisal

Where to begin

How to recognize situations that require

action. How to break apart overlapping and

confusing issues.

How to set priorities.

How to manage a number of simultaneousactivities efficiently


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Situation Analysis Stages

ARecognize concerns

B - Defining and break down situations.

C - Establishing Priorities

D - Assigning Situations to Thought

Processes.

1 Recognizing Concerns


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1- Recognizing Concerns

Many managers have found that it helps to

breakthe process of searching of situations

into four activities: List current deviations, threats, and opportunities

Review progress against your goals

Look ahead for surprise (within your organization

and the external environment)

Search for improvement.


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2 Separating Concerns into Manageable Components

In order to break down any situation into its components, We

ask more questions:

Do we think one action will resolve this concern?

Are we talking about one thing or several things?

What evidence do we have that says this is a concern?

What do we mean by?

Whats actually happening in this situation?

What do we see,hear, feel that tells us we must take action?

Whats really troubling us about this situation?


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3 - Setting priorities

Systematic setting of priorities remains frustrating

and difficult for many managers.

Practical and systematic process for determining

importance is to consider each concern in terms of

three dimensions:

Howserious is the current impact?

How muchtime urgency it have?

Whats the best estimate of itsprobable growth?

Situation can have


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Situation can have

- a high (H) , medium (M) or low (L) cost factor- a high (H) , medium (M) or low (L) time factor

- a steady, rising, or descending trend.

A- Situation: must be dealt with at once or within 2-

3 Hours

B - Situation: should be dealt with this veining or

tomorrow morningC - Situation: can be left for a few days or weeks


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4 - Assigning Situations to


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4 - Assigning Situations to

Thought Processes.Of these remaining high-priority concerns,

some are easy to identify for partial or full

PA, DA, or PPA. But its not always so cutand dried.

To ensure that we choose the correct

technique or combination of techniques, wehave to answer the following questions:

SituationAnalysis

Situation Analysis Chart


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Detect CausePA

Make DecisionDA

Safeguard ProgramPPA

Find NewFacts

No

No

No

No

No

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Discrepancy

CauseUnknown

Want toknow cause

Decisionrequired

Alternatives

Planexisting

Cansomethinggoes wrong


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Situation Analysis quiz

Method of Situation Analysis
http://sa.gif/http://sa.gif/


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1 - Prepare a list of situations (tasks)Must I intervene?

Must I act ? Yes

2 - Define and break down situations

Is the situation unambiguous and clear?

Substitutions

What does it mean, exactly?

Which - How exactly?



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3 - Establish PrioritiesImportance

Urgency

Tendency

4 - Assign the appropriate thought processIs there a discrepancy? Yes

Is the Cause unknown? Yes PA

Do I want to know the cause? Yes

Is a Decision required? Yes DAHave I got a choice? Yes

Is there a program? Yes

Can something go wrong? Yes PP


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Case 1


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PROBLANALYSISEM

Problem Analysis


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Problem Analysis

(Detecting Causes)

With the aid of this methodology you will

be in a position to detect causes ofdiscrepancies by using a precise

technique of questioning to collect critical

information.

What is a problem?


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What is a problem?

A problem is a situation where we experience

difficulty or uncertainty in achieving something

we want to achieve.

Problems arise when an obstacle prevents onereaching an objective.

Objective: something we have decided we need to

achieve.

Obstacle : anything that prevents us achieving anobjective.

Objective + Obstacle = PROBLEM

Problems can be divided into two


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Groups:

1 - Closed or Maintenance Problems

Where the current situation is not what was

expected.

2 - Open-Ended or Achievement Problems

Where we want to change our current

situation in some way but find there is anobstacle preventing us from doing so.


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Outline of Problem Analysis

Starting thinking about the problem

The Techniques of Problem
http://outline%20of%20problem%20analysis_m.doc/http://outline%20of%20problem%20analysis_m.doc/


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Analysis

The techniques are divided into these major

categories:

1. Definition of the problem.

2. Description of the problem in four dimensions:Identity, Location, Timing, and Magnitude.

3. Extraction of key information in the four

dimensions to generate possible causes.

4. Testing for most probable cause.5. Verification of the true cause.

IDefinition of the Problem,


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or The Deviation Statement

We must first define a problem exactly before

we can describe, analyze, and explain it.

We define it with the deviation statement, or

name of the problem.

It is important to state this name precisely.

Th C i i T D fi P bl


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The Criteria To Define a Problem

The following are typical examples of problems. It

meets our definition of a problem because in each one

an expected level of performance is not being

achieved, and the cause of the unacceptableperformance is unknown.

From the day we introduced the computer, weve had

nothing but trouble in getting our inventories tobalance. I just dont understand it.

C


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Cont..

Mr. X was referred to us as an outstanding

engineer, but he certainly hasnt fulfilled

expectations in this department.

Our number eleven paper machine never produces

more than 80% of its design capacity no matter what

we try.

C


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Cont.

Some days we meet our schedules without any

trouble. Other day we cant meet them at all. There just

doesnt seem to be any good reason for the

discrepancy.

The system worked well for months. Then, in the

middle of the morning three weeks ago, it went dead.

Its still dead and we dont have the slightest idea of

what happened.


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The real problem
http://the%20real%20problem.doc/http://the%20real%20problem.doc/


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Ill-Defined problems

II- Description of the problem

i f di i
http://ill-defined%20problem.doc/http://ill-defined%20problem.doc/http://ill-defined%20problem.doc/http://ill-defined%20problem.doc/


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in four dimensions

Once we have a precise deviation statement, the next

step in problem analysis is to specify it in its four

dimensions:

IDENTITY what it is were trying to explain? LOCATION where we observe it?

TIMING when it occurs?

MAGNITUDE how serious, how expensive it is?

A basis of comparison

(IS d IS NOT)


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(IS and IS NOT)

Usually we know that our problem IS , whatwould we gain by identifying something that could

be happened but IS NOT?

Such data would give us what we need to conductan analysis: a basis of comparison.

Once we have identified COULD BE but IS NOT

data, we will also be able to identify the peculiarfactors that isolate our problem.

These peculiar factors will lead us closer to the

problems cause.

A basis of comparison

(IS d IS NOT)


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A discrepancy is described by defining What, Where,When and How much.

(IS - sphere = Problem - sphere)

In order to orientates ones search for possible causes

it is necessary to mark off this problem - sphere as

closely as possible by setting up an IS NOT - sphere.

It is essential, in order to clearly limit the problem

area, to search only for changes, which apply to the

IS- sphere but not to the IS-NOT - sphere.

(IS and IS NOT)


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DISTINCTIONS

The differences between ISand IS NOT are called

How are distinctions established?


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Ask:

- Which characteristics apply to IS but not to IS NOT ?

- In what way does IS differ from IS NOT?

- By what distinctions does IS differ from IS NOT?

If discrepancies appear in well run - in processes, its

the CHANGES in the distinctions that are the cause.

Changes


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g

Managers who may never have heard ofproblem analysis know that a decline in a

formerly acceptable performance suggests that

something has changed; common sense tells

them to look for the change.

Such a search can be extremely frustrating when

the manager is faced with an array of changes,

changes that are known and planned, changesthat are unforeseen, which Continually creep into

every operation.

How do you determine CHANGES?


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Ask: - What changed or was changed in the

distinction ?

- What changed or was changed relative

to the distinction

- What changed or was changed withinthe scope of the distinction ?

Note: You can substitute one of the following

terms for Changed in the above questions:

- Made new - Made more efficient- Improved - Remodeled

- Refined - Replaced

- Converted - Overhauled

Cont..


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It is important to mark the changes with the

date of occurrence.

The possible causes are now derived fromthese changes and distinctions.

Now you draw up a statement, which could

explain how, and in what circumstances, thechange in a particular distinction could be the

cause of the discrepancy.

III Extraction of Key Information


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III-Extraction of Key Information

In order to generate the possible causes of the problem

it is important to extract the key information in the

problems four dimensions, identity, location, timing,and magnitude.

As the question What is distinctive? is applied to

the four dimensions of a problem, our analysis beginsto reveal important clues to the cause of the problem,

just clues, not answers or explanations.

Problem Analysis

Specifying Performance Closest What is Does the


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p y g

Questions deviation logicalcomparison

distinctive

aboutdistinctive

suggest a

change?

Identity Whats the unit withthe malfunction?

Whats the mal-

function?

IS No1

Filter

IS leakingoil

Could be

but IS

NOT No 2-

5Is Not no

logical

comparison

No 1 has a

square

cornered

gasket; theother

rounded

Squared

cornered

gasket is a

new typeused 3 days

ago

Location Where is the malfunction observed?

IS at thenorth east

corner of

filter house

IS NOT atother filter

locations

The locationis nearest to

feed water

pump,

exposing filter

1 to higher

level of

vibration than

other filters

Nothing.Location and

level of

vibration

have been

the same for

years

Problem AnalysisS if i Performance Closest What is distinctive Does the


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Specifying

Questions

Performance

deviation

Closest

logical

comparison

What is distinctive

about

Does the

distinctive

suggest a

change?

Timing

When the

malfunction

was first

observed?

When has it

been

observed

since?

When in the

operating

cycle of the

unit is the

malfunction

first observed

IS first

observed 3

days ago

IS

Continually,

all shifts

IS first

observed as

soon as oil

goes into

filter

IS NOT

before 3

days ago

IS NOT

when unit

is not in use

IS NOT at a

time later on

in shift

There was a monthly

check just prior to 3

days ago.

Oil flows through

unit under

pressure on use

only

First time oil

comes into filter

under pressure

New type

gasket,

installed for

first time 3

days ago

Nothing

Nothing

Problem Analysis


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Problem Analysis

Specifying

Questions

Performance

deviation

Closest

logical

comparison

What is

distinctive about

Does the

distinctive

suggest a

change?

Magnitude

Whats the

extent of the

malfunction

How many

units areaffected?

IS 5-10

gallons of oil

leaked/shift

IS No 1filter only

IS NOT less

than 5 gallons

Generation of possible causes


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Generation of possible causes

Somewhere in the lists of distinctions and changes

that emerge during problem analysis lies the

explanation of CAUSE .

The way to generate possible causes is to ask each

item in the categories of the distinction and change,

How could this distinction (change) have produced

the deviation as described in the deviation statement?

How are these possible causes

(hypotheses) established?


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(hypotheses) established?

Ask: - How can the change have brought about

the discrepancy ?

- How can the change in a distinction have

caused the discrepancy ?

- How can one change, together with

another change, have caused the

discrepancy?

IV-Testing for most probable


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cause

In the testing step of the problem analysis:

Let the facts in the specification perform the function

of judging the relative likelihood of possible causes.Ask of each possible cause, If this is the true cause

of the problem, then how does it explain each

dimension in the specification?

The true cause must explain each and every aspect of

the deviation, the IS and IS NOT facts.

How do you test?


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You ask the following question:

- Does this hypothesis explain WHY the discrepancy

occurred in IS but not in IS NOT ?

You go through all IS and IS NOT lines with this

question.

Cont


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Cont

The hypothesis dies as soon as it leaves a line

unexplained.

The most likely cause may have you be proved.Proof, turning the most likely cause into the real

one, but, it is not part of this THOUGHT

PROCESS.

V Verification of the true cause


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V- Verification of the true cause

Verification is easy to perform once you have

identified a likely cause.

It consists of asking an additional question or two

or setting up an experiment.

It depends on bringing in additional information

and taking an additional action.

Cont


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Cont.

Verification is an independent step taken to prove a

cause-and-effect relationship.

You have to investigate the actual situation.

Sometimes no verification is possible and we must

rely on the testing step alone.

Before starting to prove, ask yourself the

f ll i ti


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followingquestions:

- Do I need additional information in order to prove

that this is the cause? if yes what information is

required?

- Did I make sure that the cost of obtaining additional

information and evidence does not exceed the

importance and cost of the discrepancy?

- Am I in a position to produce the evidence, or do I

have to call in a specialist?


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P1 Sales volume has fallen off

C1 P2 M bli i t d f lli


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C1P2 Men grumbling instead of selling

C2P3 Men resent inside Sales Assistant

C3P4 Inside Sales Assistant throwing his weight around

C4 Assistant not recognized by men

Supervisory responsibility of Inside Sales


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Puzzling Poem
http://puzzling%20poem.doc/http://puzzling%20poem.doc/


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Case #2


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PA Case
http://problem%20analysis%20case%202.wmv/http://problem%20analysis%20case%202.wmv/


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Case 2

SUMMARY


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SUMMARY

Deviation from achieved or planned standards,

specifications and what is supposed to happen, is

inevitable in a work - process subjected toContinuous changes.

In the event of trouble the search for a culprit is not

important; what is important is the determination of

the cause.

SUMMARY


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SUMMARY

If we assume that a change or a distinction causes a

discrepancy, then these factors must be determined

by appropriate questions. The basis to start from is

the description of:What

When

Where IS/IS NOT

How much

SUMMARY


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SUMMARY

Using the above description of a discrepancy we

contrast the sphere involved (IS) with the sphere not

involved , IS NOT , and working from the distinctions

and changes we have drawn up ,we establishHypotheses about possible causes.

These hypotheses are then tested for probability

against the description of the facts.

This test only establishes a degree of probability to

make a possible cause into an actual cause we need

proof.


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DECISION ANALYSIS

Decision Analysis

(making the right decision)


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(making the right decision)

Decision - Making is the most difficult and most

essential task in a manager performs.

The decision may be connect with problem or not

connect with problem.


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Decision Making

What is a Decision?
http://decision_making-gi.ppt/http://decision_making-gi.ppt/


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What is a Decision?

Decision is a choice between various ways of

getting a practical thing done or an end

accomplished.

Decision will be compromise between what the

manager wants, in an ideal sense, and what can

actually be done.

Types of Decisions


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Types of Decisions

1 - The complex decision that requires

examination of a large amount of

information, and involve the judgment of

many people.

2 - The Yes/No decision that involves only

two alternatives: to take or reject a course

of action

Types of Decisions (cont..)


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Types of Decisions (cont..)

3The decision as to whether a single proposed

course of action is sound enough to be

implemented.

4The decision in which an original alternativemust be developed by the decision maker.

5The routine decision: hiring, purchasing,

development of personnel policies, and otherevery day decisions.

Kinds of actions


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Kinds of actions

1 - Interim action

2 - Adaptive action

3 - Corrective action

4 - Preventive action

5 - Contingency action

Decision Making


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Decision Making

Decision making is the study of identifyingand choosing alternatives based onthe values

and preferencesof the decision maker.

Making a decision implies that there are

alternative choices to be considered, and in such

a case we want to choose the one that

(1) has the highest probability of success or

effectiveness.

(2) best fits with our goals, desires, lifestyle,

values, and so on.


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Concepts and Definitions

Information


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This is knowledge about the decision, the effectsof its alternatives, the probability of each

alternative, and so forth. A major point to make

here is that while substantial information isdesirable, the statement that "the more

information, the better" is not true. Too much

information can actually reduce the quality of a

decision.

Alternatives


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These are the possibilities one has to

choose from. Alternatives can be identified

(that is, searched for and located) or even

developed (created where they did not

previously exist). Merely searching for

preexisting alternatives will result in less

effective decision making

Criteria


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These are the characteristics or

requirements that each alternative

must possess to a greater or lesser

extent. Usually the alternatives are rated

on how well they possess each criterion.

Goals


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What is it you want to accomplish?

Strangely enough, many decision

makers collect a bunch of alternatives(say cars to buy or people to marry) and

then ask, "Which should I choose?"

without thinking first of what their

goals are, what overall objective they

want to achieve.

Value


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Value refers to how desirable a particular

outcome is, the value of the alternative,

whether in dollars, satisfaction, or other

benefit.

Preferences


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These reflect the philosophy and moral

hierarchy of the decision maker. We could

say that they are the decision maker's"values,. If we could use that word here, we

would say that personal values dictate

preferences. Some people prefer excitement

to calmness, certainty to risk, quality to

quantity, and so on.

Decision Quality


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Q y

This is a rating of whether a decision is

good or bad. A good decision is a logical

one based on the available information and

reflecting the preferences of the decision

maker.

Acceptance


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p

Those who must implement the decision or

who will be affected by it must accept it

both intellectually and emotionally.

Acceptance is a critical factor because it

occasionally conflicts with one of the

quality criteria. In such cases, the best thing

to do may be to choose a lesser quality

solution that has greater acceptance

Risking


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Because making decisions involves a degree

of risk, it would be helpful to examine risk

and risk analysis in this chapter in order to

gain an understanding of what is involved.

Risk and uncertainty create anxiety, yet they

are necessary components of an active life

General Comments on Risk Taking


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1. Only the risk takers are truly free. All

decisions of consequence involve risk. Without

taking risks, you cannot grow or improve or

even live.



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g

2. There is really no such thing as

permanent security in anything on

earth. Not taking risks is really notmore secure than taking them, for

your present state can always be

changed without action on your part.



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3. You are supposed to be afraid when

you risk. Admit your fears--of loss, of

rejection, of failure.



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4. Risking normally involves a degree of

separation anxiety--the anxiety you feel

whenever you are removed from something

that makes you feel secure. The way to

overcome separation anxiety is to build a

bridge between the familiar and secure and

the new.

Decision Analysis


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With the aid of this methodology you will be in a

position to prepare and make decisions byfollowing a precise procedure when collecting

information essential for decision - making.

Decision Analysis


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The process of DA makes the decision transparent.

It shows why this decision was made and not

another.

Another advantage is that this process may be madea team - process ,the decision being transferred from

a single person to the team.

This DA can rarely meet all demands of a single

individual but will always achieve the best possiblecompromise for the parties involved in the decision.

The Elements of Good Choice


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1. The quality of ourdefinition of specific

factors that must be satisfied.

2.

The quality of our evaluation of theavailable alternatives.

3. The quality of our understanding of what

those alternatives can produce- for better

or worse.

The process of making the right decision is

divided into four steps:


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p

1- OBJECTIVES / Selection criteria

a - Stipulate

b - Classifying

c - Weighing

2 - Alternatives / Evaluation of alternatives

3 - Risk Assessment

4 - Final Decision

Objectives


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I- Stipulate

You have to stipulate generally acceptable objectives.

These objectives are derived from the results aimed at,

demanded or desired.They are limited by the means available.

Objectives / selection - criteria may be determined step

by step.

Basic objectives are laid down first, then general

objectives and finally exact objectives.

Example: buying a motor car


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Basic objective

- Lowest cost

General objective

- Lowest purchase price

- Lowest Maintenance costExact objective

- Low purchase price

- Little maintenance

- Low petrol consumption- favorable tax-class

- favorable insurance class

To determine the objectives ask the following


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questions:

- What do I want to achieve, where, when, to what

extent?

- What do I want to avoid, where, when, to whatextent?

- What means are available, where, when, to what

extent?

Cont.


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These questions enable you to clearly define an

objective.

Try to achieve a balance of objectives, e.g. not fivecriteria about money and one objective concerning

manpower only.

To avoid this you can draw up a list of basic objectives,on the basis of which the selection criteria can be

established.

Cont.


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These basic objectives can be then assigned points

or percentages, which must not be exceeded, to

avoid bias in judging selection criteria.

From what categories of significance can we

determine objectives with appropriate weighting?

Objectives - Selection Criteria

Purpose of Decision Person Responsible


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Goals:

Basic General Exact

%

% %

%

% % %

%

% %

%

% % %

%

% %

%

% % %

II-Classifying


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The objectives developed from the abovequestions now have to be investigated to see

whether they represent MUST or WANT

objectives


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MUST Objectives


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MUST- objectives must be realistic.

All non-measurable or non-mandatory objectives

are WANT- objectives.

WANT- objectives can be derived from MUSTobjectives.

In practice, decisions are frequently made on

WANT- objectives only.

III- Weighing


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The WANT objectives are weighted (from 10 down

to1) to set their relative values.

If the number of WANT objectives is so large thatthe general picture disappears (40 or more selection

criteria), it is a good idea to draw up basic objectives

under which the WANT objectives can be listed.

Decision analysis is applied to each basic objective

(including risk assessment)

Want Objectives


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ObjectiveGrade (1)

English (2)

IQ (3)GK (4)

Computer skills (5)

Personality (6)

Talent (7)

Want Objectives


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ObjectiveGrade (1)

English 1 (2)

IQ 3 3 (3)GK 1 2 3 (4)

Computer skills 5 5 5 5 (5)

Personality 6 6 3 6 6 (6)

Talent 1 2 3 7 5 6 (7)

Weighing Want Objectives


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Objective 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Frequency 3 2 4 0 5 6 1

Weight 7 6 8 4 9 10 5

Want Objective A B C D Total Final

Grade 7 10 5 6 28 7


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Grade 7 10 5 6 28 7

English 6 8 10 9 33 9

IQ 8 9 8 10 35 10

GK 4 5 7 4 20 4

Comp. Skills 9 7 6 8 30 8

Personality 10 6 4 7 27 6

Talent 5 4 9 5 23 5

Alternatives

Alternatives are possible avenues to reach an


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Alternatives are possible avenues to reach an

objective. Alternatives emerge from ones ownexperience or from the experience of others.

Where can you find inspiration for alternatives?

Trade-fairs

Developments

Public tenders

Catalogues

Inventions

Conversations

Exhibitions

Quotations

Advertisements

Evaluation of alternatives


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To compare and evaluate alternatives we needinformation that describes the alternatives in the

light of WANT objectives.

After the alternatives have been compiled, we

check which of these alternatives meet the MUST

objectives.

This way we eliminate the unrealistic andimpractical alternatives.


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198/243

We determine the degree of the compliance.

Information compiled for the different alternatives in

the light of WANT objectives is entered on the form.Thereafter we determine for each objective which of

the alternatives fits it best.



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Having evaluated all information, we multiply the

score figures by the weight figures assigned to the

objectives.

The weighted scores are now added up.

The alternative with highest score-weight is the

provisional (tentative) decision.


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Risk assessment


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Every alternative has its risks, which impair

efficiency.

We must assess the effects of possible disadvantages,

which we may have to put up with.

Sources for risk assessment


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Limits of MUST objectives Alternative evaluation (highly weighted WANTS poorly

satisfied)

Forgotten objectives

Experience by others with the same or a similar

alternative

Professional fault-finders

Categories of comparison for the determination of

objectives.

Adversary effects of alternatives

How possible

of occurrenceof AE

1-10

How big are

implicationswhen AE

occur

1-10

Probability *

importance = risk

factor


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Total risks


204/243


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Adversary effects of alternatives

How possible

of occurrenceof AE

1-10

How big are

implicationswhen AE

occur

1-10

Probability *

importance = risk

factor

E 2 2 4

F 4 6 24


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F 4 6 24

Total risks 28

The Result


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Alt. A Alt. B Alt. C

Provisional

Decision 446 411 398

Risk Factor 107 71 28


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SUMMARY


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DA ensures systematic procurement and

processing of information .It makes a decision

transparent by showing what information led to

the decision . It also makes the decision

verifiable and storable

SUMMARY


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The individual steps of the decision process are:

-Establish objectives / selection criteria ( basic,general, and exact Objectives)

- Classify into MUST and WANT - objectives

- Weighting of WANT - objectives

- Specify and develop alternatives.

SUMMARY


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- Testing of alternatives with regard to MUST

objectives.

- Evaluation of alternatives for WANTobjectives.

- Determine risk - factors and calculates probabilityand implications of these risk factors.

- Make final decision.


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DA


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Risk Assessment

Final Decision


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Provisional

Decision

Risk factor

Alt 1 Alt 2 Alt 3 Alt 4 Alt 5

Provisional

Decision

165 366 340 264 292

Risk Factor 70 32 80 116 148


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POTENTIAL PROBLEM ANALYSIS
http://xn--%20-9yeqadmhu7cj5c1lxaf0h.doc/http://xn--%20-9yeqadmhu7cj5c1lxaf0h.doc/http://xn--%20-9yeqadmhu7cj5c1lxaf0h.doc/http://xn--%20-9yeqadmhu7cj5c1lxaf0h.doc/http://xn--%20-9yeqadmhu7cj5c1lxaf0h.doc/


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Example

Example-2

Potential Problem Analysis( Safeguard - program)
http://xn--%20-9yeqadmhu7cj5c1lxaf0h.doc/http://case%20of%20pyramid%20festival.doc/http://case%20of%20pyramid%20festival.doc/http://case%20of%20pyramid%20festival.doc/http://case%20of%20pyramid%20festival.doc/http://case%20of%20pyramid%20festival.doc/http://case%20of%20pyramid%20festival.doc/http://xn--%20-9yeqadmhu7cj5c1lxaf0h.doc/http://xn--%20-9yeqadmhu7cj5c1lxaf0h.doc/http://xn--%20-9yeqadmhu7cj5c1lxaf0h.doc/


217/243

Problem must not be allowed to arise in the firstplace.

For this reason, this methodology is concerned

with the events and the problems of the future.

One should however, not confuse safeguard -

programs with Planning Although both are

concerned with the future.

The difference is that the safeguard-program

guarantees the success of a plan.

Potential problem analysis is a Procedure that

Potential problem analysis


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Potential problem analysis is a Procedure that

enables us to walk into the future, see what it may

hold, and then return to the present to take action

now.

PPA is the pattern of thinking that enables us tochange and improve the future.

It is a protective process through which we ensure

that the future will be as good as we can make it.

Potential problem analysis


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PPA may sound very similar to the adverseconsequence thinking that is done at the end of

DA, but the two are quite different both in

purpose and process.

Cont.


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The potential adverse consequences of

alternatives compared in a DA are identified to

help us reach a balanced choice: an alternative

that fulfills most of our important objectives

at minimal risk.

In PPA, by contrast, we are constructing a plan

of action; we are going to do something, perhapsmany things to eliminate or reduce potential

problems.

Safeguard - program


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Safeguard - program comprises 4 phases:

1 - Specifying the parts of a plan and determining

the critical portions of it.2 - Possible deviations (potential problem)

3 - Conceivable (possible) causes

4 - Preventive measures

Specifying the parts of a plan,

determining the critical


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portions of it

A plan details all activities which are necessary for the

carrying out of a decision.

Deadlines are fixed for the activities and activities are

assigned to the persons responsible.

The more a plan is broken down into components , the

more details it contains, the easier it is to find the

weak points and critical areas.

Steps for breaking down a plan

Three program steps for breaking down a plan:


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p g p g p

1 - Note plan stepsMake a list of theapproximate steps in the

plan. Start and completion of these steps are

specified and persons are given responsibility.

2 - Sub - program for plan steps

If one plan is too complex or if responsibility

resets with several persons, sub - plan must beperformed . Specify start , completion and

responsibility for each critical sub - plan.

Steps for breaking down a plan


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3 - ActionThe time available , and the complexity or

importance of the task on hand are the guidelines for

deciding to adopt or to omit a particular plan-step.

The point of finding out the critical steps in a plan is to

locate any discrepancies in the most important

elements of a plan, and thus to avoid getting lost intrifles.

How can we determine thesecritical plan - steps?


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You ask , e.g.:- Is something new, unfamiliar or difficult being tried?

- Are there tight deadlines?

- Must a sequence of events be accurately maintained?

- Is work being done which is difficult to assign clearly?- Will there be disadvantages if something goes wrong?

- Is responsibility shared by more than one person?

- etc.

Cont.


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If the answer to one of these questions is yes, then

its a critical area (CA)

The critical plan- areas determined in this mannerare then investigated for possible deviations.

Possible Deviation(Potential Problem)


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Since we cannot expect that right thing will alwayshappen, we should anticipate what could go wrong?

What could go wrong?

What, specifically, is each problem?How risky is each problem?

Possible Deviation


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Write down every expected deviation:

How serious will it be if it happen?

How probable is it that it might happen?

To be able to do something against this deviation,

we must first find the conceivable (possible)

causes, which could bring about these possible

deviation.

Conceivable Causes


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Imagination, experience, logical thinking etc.,

will help you to recognize the conceivable

causes of a specific possible deviation.

Its useful to remember the 6 Ms:


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MAN - makes a mistake in the wrong jobMACHINE - special model, one-off job

Material - not available or wrong

Method - not ordered , unsystematic

Minute - delivery time , too late or too earlyMoney - too expensive, too cheap

All conceivable causes cannot occur all at once; to

ensure sensible and economical application ofsafeguards, we have to examine how probable it will

be for the cause to happen.

Preventive Measures


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Prevention is better than cure

Preventive action prevent undesirable events from

happening or, at least, reduces their probability of

materializing.Try to find feasible and practical preventive action for

each conceivable cause.

This not being possible in every case, you have to

accept certain risks.

Preventive Measures


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CONTINGENCY - ACTION must be made

available in case preventive action cannot be taken or

is insufficient and a risk threatening the success of

the project still exists.

Whilst preventive action is aimed at preventing

conceivable causes from arising, CONTINGENCY -ACTION is employed when something went wrong

in spite of all the prevention.

Reporting back


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It is a fact of the matter that Contingency - action

does not materialize on its own. It needs a trigger.

Specify a trigger, (a person or an arrangement) foreach Contingency action. Tell the trigger, when, in

what circumstances it must report back, and with

what message.

(You have to specify the reporting channels)


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GOODKARMA

METHOD Of POTENTIAL

PROBLEM ANALYSIS
http://goodkarma/GoodKarma.ppshttp://goodkarma/GoodKarma.pps


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First Specify exactly:

Purpose of program:

what must be done ?

where must it be done ?

when must it be done ?

how much shall individually be spent ?

Specify activities ( plan - step, sub - plan - step, action )

Cont.


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1 - Recognize and determine critical areas in the planWhat are the critical areas or single activities of a

plan which are particularly threatened by potential

problems ?

2 - Investigate critical areas for potential problemsWhat could go wrong?

Where, mostly go wrong ?

Evaluate potential problem

Probability H - M - L

Importance H - M - L

Cont.


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3 - Conceivable causes

4 - Specify preventive action against causes

Take Contingency - action against effects

5 - Establish alarm and reporting system

How long should the preventive action remain in

force?

Summary


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A safeguard program will enable you to carry

out projects without big surprises .

Unpleasant surprises fail to appear , since you

have investigated in detail those points ofyour program which could cause difficulties .

Such difficulties must not be permitted to

arise.

Summary


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The CRITICAL PLAN _ STEPS are determined first .Thereafter all critical parts of the plan are investigated

for

POSSIBLE DEVIATIONS, for which Possible(conceivable) causes are then established.

To safeguard the carrying out of the plan

PREVENTIVE ACTIO, is taken and

CONTINGENCY-ACTION, made available.

Summary


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Since Contingency - action must be triggered

off, TRIGGERS must be provided.

TEST- PERIODS are introduced to stoppreventive action after a specified period.


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Documents

Pst Presentation Fin