Protestant Challenge

Henry VIII of England

• 1509Henry VIII becomes King of England, marries Catherine of Aragon, youngest child of Isabella and Ferdinand

Catherine of Aragon

Pope Leo X with Cardinal Giulio de’Medici and Luigi de’ Rossi (by

Rafaello)

Martin Luther

• 1517October 31 Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses to the door of the Wittemburg Cathedral

• 1521 January 3 Pope Leo excommunicates Luther

Pope Clement VII(by del Piombo)

• 1525 Henry of England sends his secretary William Knight to Rome to petition Clement for an annulment of his marriage to Catherine (Catherine is the Aunt of Emperor Charles V)

Jean Cauvin (John Calvin)1509-1564

• Spread of protestantism in France and Switzerland

• 1562 French Huguenots sail for Florida

• 1565 massacre (Matanzas) of Huguenots in Florida by Spanish troops

The Scientific Challenge

• combined with Protestantism, it creates a further diminution in the “infallibility” of Rome (esp. Galileo’s notion that the Earth was not the centre of the cosmos)

Giambattista Vico New Science

• - analyses human history in terms of process and development- suggests that human history reflects what he calls a “corso”, that it is not unilinear but cyclical, all the while guided by divine providence- but he certainly believed that there was value in studying history and social sciences- most importantly, Roman history no longer presented a series of moral exempla but rather it embodied a process of universal human history- gave rise to a more pragmatic use of Rome’ as a tool to be studied and used in bringing about social evolution or revolution

Jean Jacques Rousseau, Discourse on the Origins and Foundations of Inequality Among Men and Social Contract

• - pays attention to a society’s institutions , Rome merited particular and further study

Galileo Galilei1564-1642

• with the printing of Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, Galileo was called to Rome in 1633 to face the Inquisition and was found guilty of heresy

Early Tourists

• As early as 1548 Thomas Hoby (a Protestant) translated The Book of the Courtier into English, then he and other courtiers traveled to Italy to watch the Papal elections following Paul III’s death in 1549

• 1614 the famed English architect Inigo Jones was present at the Coronation of Pope Paul V (Borghese pope) on the eve of the blossoming of Bernini’s Rome

• 1640’s: Alexander Chapman and John Raymond compose a guidebook and an itinerary for Italy

• 1650’s – increase in travel simply to see the artwork and th eplaces of antiquity; Francis Mortoff (An Englishman reports having seen the works of “isaac Angelo” nd of the famous “Barnino”

• 1670 – the publication of Richard Lassel’s Voyage of Italy - marks the genuine arrival of the trend and coins the phrase “Grand Tour” and the widespread use of the term “tourist” – before this “tourism” did not really exist as a social phenomenon

• while there must have been exceptions, people traveled for pilgrimage, war, business, to go to school, diplomatic missions but not simply to be broadened by the experience

• A certain Mrs Flaxman reports that for her first meal in Italy she was served: a macaroni soup with cheese, some “nasty rice fritters with cheese”, slat fish, pickled fish, a plate of “little fried things that were palatable but as I feared they were snails I could not be prevailed upon to eat any>” She also notes that “any kind of flesh could not be got for love or money” (Black, Jeremy. The British and the Grand Tour. London: Croom Helm, 1985, p. 76)

• “One cannot help regretting … the bestowing so much industry and art upon so silly subjects as the life and actions of one enthusiast and the fabulous martyrdom of a bigot. Corporal and ridiculous representation of the Deity serve to corrupt and debauch our ideas of him …” (Andrew Mitchell, 1734 cited in Black, 191)

•“The volcanic nature of the country around Rome tends to confirm that opinion of those who from the language of St. John recollect that Rome, like Sodom, shall be utterly burnt with fire,” .. Rome should be visited with the lantern of Christianity, that we may justly discriminate between the parade of religion and the real impiety of this dark, gloomy, and superstitious city.” (Robert Gray, 1794, cited in Black 199)

• They visited ruins and sometimes repeated itineraries from classical times; eg. Andrew Mitchell verified Virgil’s descriptions of the Falls at Terni while Sir Richard Hoare repeated Horace’s journey from Rome to Taranto