Upload
peter-sipes
View
600
Download
1
Embed Size (px)
DESCRIPTION
Pretty much what it says in the title bar. I analyzed Thomas More's Utopia from the standpoint of Brown and Levinson's positive and negative face.It's schoolwork and far too long, but it's pretty cool. Some of the stuff in here would have been good to know before I taught Utopia, but that's life. Also, I suspect there's an academic paper in here. Looking to have someone (me) talk about humanist Latin (Utopia really) at your conference? Let me know.
Citation preview
Sipes1
PeterSipesDiscourseAnalysis
Fightthepower:Howtoattackakingwithoutlosingyourhead
AbstractThomasMoresUtopiahashadalonghistoryofanalysis,frommanypointsofview.Reduced
toitsminimum,Utopiatellsthestoryofafictionallandwithoutrageouscustomsto16thCentury
Europeans.ButwhenviewedthroughthelensofBrownandLevinsonspolitenesstheory,itisamodel
forhowtogoaboutmakingapoliticalattack.ThomasMorewillmanagehisattackbyincreasingsocial
distancebetweenhimselfandEnglandsKingHenryVIIIandrecruitingreadersasZajdmansthird
partytoputsocialpressureonthekingtofindtheattackfunny.
IntroductionThomasMoresUtopiawassomemorablethatitlentitsnametoawholegenreofwriting:
utopianliterature.Hedescribesafictionallandwheregoldisforchainingslavesandpeopleare
displayednudebeforegettingmarried.ButviewingUtopiaasanamesakeforaliterarygenreignores
ThomasMoresphilosophicalintentinwritingit.IarguethatMorelaunchedanattackonHenryVIIIof
EnglandinUtopia.ThereasonthatthereissomuchdisputeonthispointisthatMorewasnotfreeto
attackHenryVIII.SinceHenryVIIIwasanabsoluteruler,hehadthefreedomtosettlematters.In
ordertokeephisheadattachedtohisneck,Moreneededtotendtohowthekingperceivedthebook.
HewilldothisthroughhumoranddistancingtheworldofUtopiafromEnglandandtheking.
TheexcitingpointaboutapplyingdiscourseanalysismethodstoRenaissanceliteratureisthatwe
canseethatthereistrulynothingnewunderthesun.Languagewasbeingusedthenforthesamesorts
ofpurposesasnow.
LiteratureReview
Sipes2
DiscourseAnalysis
Sowhatisdiscourseanalysis?Howdoesitdifferfromotherscholarlywork?Jonesdefines
discourseanalysisverybroadlyasthestudyofthewayssentencesandutterancesareputtogetherto
maketextsandinteractionsandhowthosetextsandinteractionsfitintooursocialworld(2012).So
thediscoursepartiseasy.Discourseislanguage,writtenorspoken,inuse.Theanalysisgetstrickier.At
itsbase,theideaistoteaseoutwhatisreallybeingsaid,becausepeopledontalwayssaywhatthey
mean,andpeopledontalwaysmeanwhattheysay(Jones,2012).Fromhere,allsortsofanglescan
beexplored,including,buthardlylimitedto:socialidentity,narrativestructures,ideologyand
pragmatics.Whilethispapermaytouchonthoseareas,thereareothersofmoredirectinterest.
Intertextuality
Noticingandusingintertextualityissecondnatureforpeople.Wedoitallthetimewithout
meaningto.Incasualconversation,intertextualityisthequotefromthemovieyousawoverthe
weekendwhentalkingtoafriendatlunch.Thetextoftheconversationanditsmeaningrelieson
someknowledgeofthemovieyousawovertheweekend.Yourfriendneedssomeknowledgeofthe
movietomakefullsenseofwhatyoutoldher. 1
Applyingmoreformality,Cullerexplainsintertextassayingthingsindiscoursewhichonehas
notexplicitlythoughtorreadbutarerelatedinsomepositivewaytowhatonehasinthepastthoughtor
read(1981).Thekeyhereisthatonediscourse,ortextdependingonterminology,relatestoanotherin
awaythatallowsforthemeaningintheformergainsmeaningfromthelatter.Infact,intertextualityisso
criticalthatCullergoesontostatethattoproduceastrongdiscourseonemustbeanacuteanalystof
1IusedtotellmymotherThesearentthedroidsyourelookingforwheneversheaskedaboutatopicIdidntwanttodiscuss.ShewasnotasfamiliarwithStarWarsasIwas,soshedidntgetthatsheshoulddropthattopicofconversation.Ifyouneedtoseethescenebecauseyouarentfamiliarwiththeintertext,gotohttp://youtu.be/DIzAaY2Jmsandjumptothe3:12mark.
Sipes3
intertextuality(1981).Andinfact,allpeopleareanalystsofintertextuality.Indiscourseanalysisthe
moveisfromaconversationalorliteraryallusiontoamorerigorousapproachtoapplyingintertextuality.
2
Positioning
Asmatterofcourse,participantsinaconversationarealwaysbuildingidentitiesforeachother
andourselves.Thisidentitybuildingiscalledpositioning,whichDaviesandHarrdescribethisway:
Positioning,aswewilluseitisthediscursiveprocesswherebyselvesarelocatedinconversationsasobservablyandsubjectivelycoherentparticipantsinjointlyproducedstorylines.Therecanbeinteractivepositioninginwhichwhatonepersonsayspositionsanother.Andtherecanbereflexivepositioninginwhichonepositionsoneself.Howeveritwouldbeamistaketoassumethat,ineithercase,positioningisnecessarilyintentional.Onelivesone'slifeintermsofone'songoinglyproducedself,whoevermightberesponsibleforitsproduction(1990).
Twothingsjumpout.Firstandforemost,wepositionourselvesandothersonanongoingbasiseither
withorwithoutintention.Wedoitwhetherwemeantoornot.Theotheritemisthatitisin
conversation.Utopia,whilenotaconversationwithinthedailyusesenseoftheword,isaconversation
insofarasabookistheauthorstooltohaveaonewayconversation. 3
SohowwillMoreaffectposition?InthecaseofUtopiaitwillbestrictlyverbal,sinceitisa
book.DaviesandHarrmakeitclearthatpositioningneednotbeverbal,thoughtheverbalisone
component.Infact,thewordsthespeakerchoosesinevitablycontainimagesandmetaphorswhich
bothassumeandinvokethewaysofbeingthattheparticipantstakethemselvestobeinvolvedin.
(DaviesandHarr,1990).Theseimagesandmetaphorspushthespeakerandlistenerintorolesin
manyways.IfIamaddressedasdude,thespeakerispositioningmemuchdifferentlythanaspeaker
2Holymetaintertextuality,Batman!Imtalkingaboutintextualitybyreferringtoabookaboutintertextuality.3Anotherwayofputtingit:BecauseIviewthebooksIvereadasconversationpartners,andbecauseIviewmanyoftheirauthorsasfriends,Ihaveahabitofinvitingthemintoconversationswithmyphysicallypresentfriends.AllisonGrady,http://ccsummerresearch.blogs.wm.edu/forthebloggers/
Sipes4
whoaddressesmeasMr.Sipesandevenmoredifferentlythanthespeakerwhoaddressesmeas
Sir.Thefirstspeakerpositionsmeasafriendwhosharescertainidentitypointswithme,theseconda
moredistantrelationshipthoughstillcloseenoughthatthespeakerknowsmynameandthethirda
completestranger.Butaddressformsarenottheonlywaypositioninghappens.IfIwalkintoaprint
shop,IpositionmyselfmuchdifferentlyifIsayIwantthistobeincolor,thanifIsayThiswillbe
twocolor:blackandPantone183224. Thefirststatementpositionsmeasaninexperiencedprint4
buyer.Theotherpositionsmeasaninsider,beIprinterordesigner.
Inadditiontotheseroles,thetextcanpositionthereaderasoutsidelookinginbyhowthe
readerpercieves[sic]thenarratorand/orauthortobepositioningthem(asreader)oritmaybecreated
bythereader'sperceptionofthecharactersthemselves(DaviesandHarr,1990).Readerperception
mattersforMore,sincetheking,amongothers,willbereadingUtopia.
Whoelsewillhepositionandhow?DavisandHarrnotethatonespeakercanpositionothers
byadoptingastorylinewhichincorporatesaparticularinterpretationofculturalstereotypes(1990).
Thispointiscritical,asthesecondhalfofUtopiaisanethnographyofthelandofUtopia.Infact,More
isnotonlypositioninghiscontemporaries,butallofus.AndthoughMoremaynothaveintendedUtopia
astravelliterature,thereareelementssuchascreatingadistinctionbetweentheknownandthe
unknown:itispredicatedonconfrontingfamiliarwaysofthoughtandperceptionwithaliennaturaland
culturalphenomena(BellerandLeerssen,2007,p.448).Utopiapositionsreadersasoutsiders,
whetheritwasMoresintentornot.
Face
Face,aslaidoutinBrownandLevinson,comesintwokinds:positiveandnegative.Negative
4RadiantOrchid,Pantones2014coloroftheyear.http://www.pantone.com/pages/index.aspx?pg=21129
Sipes5
faceisapersonsfreedomofactionandfreedomfromimposition.Positiveface,whichwillbethefocus
oflatersections,isapersonspositiveselfimage(1987,p.321).Thesetwokindsoffaceinteract
betweenthespeakerandhearer.
Presentedgraphically,thefollowingsortsofactionsshowtheinteractionoffacebetween
speakerandhearer.Thisgraphisbynomeansexhaustive.
Threatto Speaker Hearer
Positiveface
Apologizing Acceptingcompliment Breakdownofbodycontrol Breakdownofemotionalcontrol Selfhumiliation Confessions
Beingridiculed Beingcontradicted Ssexpressionofviolentemotion Irreverence,mentionoftaboos Gettingbadnews Sinitiatessensitivetopic Ssnoncooperation SmarksHsstatusthewrongwayinan
initialmeeting
Negativeface
Expressthanks Acceptingthanks/apology Excuses Acceptanceofoffers ResponsetoHsfauxpas Unwillingpromises/offers
Receivingorders/requests Gettingadviceorreminders Receivingthreats,warnings Gettingoffers Receivingpromises Acceptingcompliments Targetofexpressednegativeemotion
Figure1:ExamplesofFacethreateningacts(adaptedfromBrownandLevinson,1987).
Facethreateningacts(FTA)increaseordecreaseinseverityinaccordancetothreefactors.
Thefirstfactorissocialdistance(D)ofspeaker(S)andhearer(H).Thesecondisrelativepower(P)of
hearerandspeaker.WithintheDandPfactors,thedirectionoftherelationshipisopposite.D
considersthespeakersrelationtothehearer,andPconsidersthepowerthathearerhasoverspeaker.
Thethirdistheranking(R)ofhowseriousimpositionsareinagivenculture.(BrownandLevinson,
1987,p.331).
Wx=D(S,H)+P(H,S)+Rx
Sipes6
Aswecansee,therelationbetweenD,PandRisadditivenoonefactorismoreimportant
thananyother.Soinlightofthesefactors,whatdoessomeonedowhentheywanttothreatenanothers
face?Sneedstoconsiderthreethings:(a)thewanttocommunicatethecontentoftheFTAx,(b)the
wanttobeefficientorurgent,and(c)thewanttomaintainHsfacetoanydegree(Brownand
Levinson,1987).Tothatend,theyprovideastrategytree.
Figure2:FTAstrategies(adaptedfromBrownandLevinson,1987).
Startingfromtheleft,thefirstdecisionpointissimple:doesSdotheFTAornot?Ifnot,5.IfS
doesgoforwardwiththeFTA,thereisachoicebetweenonrecordandoffrecord.Anonrecord
statementisonewherethereisnootherpossibleinterpretation.Anoffrecordstatementisonewhere
thereisatleastoneotherpossibleinterpretation,i.e.implicature.Atthispoint,anFTAcaneitherbe
performedbaldlyorwithredressiveaction.AnFTAthathasredressiveactioncanthenmakethat
redressthrougheitherpositiveornegativepoliteness(BrownandLevinson,1987).
PositiveandnegativepolitenessarethebehaviorsthatflowoutofSsintentionstoH.WhenSis
tendingHspositivefaceneeds,Hshowspositivepoliteness.WhenStendsHsnegativefaceneeds,H
showsnegativepoliteness(BrownandLevinson,1987).Inessence,whensomeoneindicatestothat
theyacceptthepersontheyaretalkingtoasamemberofaningrouporasafriend,thatpersonshows
positivepolitenesstothepersontheyaretalkingto.Likewisewhensomeonespeaksandactsinaway
Sipes7
astominimizetheirinterferencewiththeotherperson,theyareshowingnegativepolitenesstotheother
person.Pleasenote:negativepolitenessisnotthesameasimpoliteness.Quitethecontrary,Brownand
Levinsonindicatethatnegativepoliteness,alongwithpositivepoliteness,isattheheartofredressive
actionactionthatattemptstorestorethehearersfacebeitpositiveornegative(1978).Butpoliteness
isnottheonlywaytosaveface.
HumorasanoutforFTAs
BuildingonBrownandLevinsonswork,Zajdmanfollowsupontheirclaimthathumorisone
possiblepositivefacesavingstrategy.Thekeytousinghumorasapositivefacesavingstrategyisto
makesurethatthehearerdoesnottakeoffense.Hedevelopsahierarchyofspeakerintentandhearer
interpretation.
Ssintention Hsinterpretation Ssexpectation Hsreaction
Meaningoffense Takingoffense insult insult
Meaningoffense Nottakingoffense insult amusement
Notmeaningoffense Takingoffense amusement insult
Notmeaningoffense Nottakingoffense amusement amusement
Figure3:PossibleresultsofajokingFTA(afterZajdman,1995).
Zajdmanpointsoutthatthefirstandlastconditionshavethespeakerandhearerinterpretingthe
communicationinthesameway,whichpresentsnoproblemforthespeaker.Inthesecondsituation,the
speakerhasnotfulfilledtheirintent,butthespeakercanfulfilltheiraim.Thespeakersimplyhastotry
harder(Zajdman,1995).Thethirdcondition,whenSmeansnooffense,butHtakesoffenseisthe
problem.ThissituationcanbeassimpleasSisnotawareHmightinterpretanutteranceasderogatory.
Inanycase,SisatstrategicadvantagetoH.IfStakesoffense,Scanalwaysclaimtonothavemeant
offense,whethertrueornot(Zajdman,1995).
Sipes8
ButthespeakersabilitytodisowntheirintentonewayortheotherisnotSsonlystrategic
advantage.Athirdpartycanalsobecomeaninadvertentallytothespeakeracriticalpoint.Why?
Whenthespeakerstartsspeakingthethirdpartyissupposedtoignoretheconversationaccordingto
politenesspostulatesbutthenthespeakersaysomethingfunnythatthethirdpartycannotignore.At
thispoint,thehearermayprefertosavefacebyfakingamusementagainsthisorherbetterjudgment
andallowtheFTAtopassforhumorratherthanadmitopenoffense(Zajdman,1995).Providedthe
jokeworks,ofcourse.
Analyzingthecorpus
Whilenotsomuchatheoreticalmodelofhowdiscoursefunctions,corpusanalysisisapowerful
tooltoputquantificationtointuitionsandhunches.Acorpusisatleastonetextpreparedfordigital
analysis(Jones,2012).Inthecaseofthispaper,Utopiaformstheprimarycorpus.Jonesemphasizes
thatcorpusanalysisisnotdiscourseanalysisperse,butratherthatitprovidesnewperspectivesonthe
datathatweremissedusingmoretraditionaldiscourseanalyticaltechniques(2012,p.33).
Thoughitispossibletousethetextunderanalysisasthesoleprimarycorpus,itisalsopossible
(andevendesirable)insomecircumstancestouseareferencecorpus,whichisanothercorpusthatyou
willcompareyourprimarycorpuswith(2012,p.79).Anexampleofareferencecorpuswouldbethe
BYUCorpusofContemporaryAmericanEnglish(http://corpus.byu.edu/coca/).Thereferencecorpus
maybebroaderthantheprimarycorpusornot,dependingonthepurposeoftheanalysis.
HypothesisTurningtowardworldlyconcerns,Moreattackingthepoliticalstructureandnotthereligious
structureinEnglandinUtopia,whichmeansthatheisattackingtheking,HenryVIII,andnotthepope,
LeoX.Heisgoingtogetawaywiththisattackbecauseheispositionsthekingwellandattendstothe
kingspositivefaceasheattackshim.
Sipes9
AboutThomasMoreSt.SirThomasMore(14781535),thoughneithersaintnorknightatthetimehewrote
Utopia,wasattheforefrontofEnglishhumanism.Hewasacomplexmanwhowasbothreligiousand
scholarly.Nauertnotesthatdespitehisdeeppiety,oneofthestrongestclassicalinfluencesonhimwas
thebiting,irreverent,andantireligioussatiristLucian,someofwhosedialogueshetranslatedfrom
GreektoLatinabout1503(2006,p.124).Lucian,whoserelationtoUtopiawillbeexploredinThe
namingofthingsinUtopia,wasoftenfunny,whichmayhavedrawnMoresattention.Hisfriend
Erasmusnotedthatheenjoyedjokingandthatwitalwaysgavehimpleasure,evenifdirectedagainst
himself(Curtright,2014,p.14).MoreswitplaysanimportantpartinhowhewillmanagetheFTAsin
Utopia.
Moreisalsoknownasareligiousman,butthatistooonedimensional.Therewasmoreto
Morethanhisreligiousbeliefs.HewasalsoascholarofAncientGreek.ThoughMorejustifiedhis
workonLucianbyreferringtotheauthorscriticismofhumanviceandfolly,thetruevalueofLucianfor
himwastheauthorsskillatlayingbaretheessentialambivalenceofthehumancondition,torn(asMore
himselfwas)bythecontendingimperativesofworldlyandspiritualgoals(Nauert,p.124).AndMore
trulywastornbyworldlyandspiritualgoals.AshislifeprogressedhenotonlydefendedhisCatholic
faithfromtheReformationonthecontinent,heservedKingHenryVIIIinvariouscapacities(British
Library,n.d.).
AboutUtopiaUtopiais,likeanythingelse,aproductofitstimes,andin1516thetimesbelongedtothe
humanists.ThehumanistmovementofRenaissanceEurope,withoutignoringotheraspectsofit,an
educationalreformmovementthatimpliedabroadgeneraleducation,but[that]alsoimpliedastrong
emphasisontheoratoricalskillsandsocialvaluesmostneededbytherulingelite(Nauert,p.13).As
Sipes10
such,MorewouldnothaveintendedUtopiatobereadbyordinarypeople,aboutwhichmorelater.
Further,Moresembraceofthehumanistrhetoricaltacticofinutramquepartem compels5
himtoapproachUtopiansocietyfrommanyangles.Indeed,Utopiaissplitintotwobooks:one
exploresthephilosophy,theotherdescribestheislandofUtopia.Initsverystructure,Moregivesus
twoanglestoconsider,butthereismorebecause[Utopia]isthusnotintendedtobereadasa
straightforwardpoliticaltreatise,but,likeErasmussPraiseofFolly,isinflectedwithmultipleironies
(CraneinHattaway,p.22).Indeed,Utopiacanbereadasatraveloguetoafictionallandwhere
ridiculouscustomsreign,butreaderscanalsochoosetoseeothermeaningsinitthepurposeofthis
paper.
AnalysisMoreneededtostrikeadelicatebalanceinUtopia.Hewantedtomakeanattack,buthe
couldnotdoitdirectly.ToattackopenlywoulddamageKingHenryVIIIspositivefacesobadlythat
someformofretributionwouldhavebeennecessary.Sincehecannotaffecttherelativepower
differencebetweenhimselfandthekingnorcanheaffecttherankingofoffense,thenhemustmanage
theattackbycreatingsocialdistance.Beforegettingtotheseangles,itisimportanttoestablishjustwhat
Utopiaisandisnot.
Isitapoliticalattack?
LexicalfrequencyofcertainkeywordsinUtopiaprovidesinsighttothisquestion.Obviously
Utopiawillbetheprimarycorpus.CicerosdeRepublicaisthereferencecorpus,becauseitisa
philosophicaldialogaboutgovernment. Sincethereissomeambiguitypossibleintheinflectedforms,6
thefrequenciesarereportedasarange.Comingupwithanexactfrequencyfigureisalargetask,so
5Onbothsides[ofacase],aLatinlegalterm.6Ifthatisstartingtosoundlikeagenreofdiscourse,youarethinkingwhatIamthinking.
Sipes11
CicerosvocabularyisreportedasarangeasfoundatthePerseusDigitalLibrary,whichgivesusa
broaderpossibilityforvocabularyfrequenciesinpoliticalworkswritteninLatin.
Latinword Englishequivalent
FrequenciesinUtopia FrequenciesinCicerosdeRepublica
publicusrexmagistratusmileslegatuslexprinceps
publickingbureaucratsoldierenvoylawprince
105tokens(38.13/10k)37tokens(13.43/10k)19tokens(6.90/10k)11tokens(3.99/10k)12tokens(4.36/10k)50tokens(18.16/10k)65tokens(23.66/10k)
(106.6551.08/10k)(124.12/10k)(10.312.24/10k)(2.240.48/10k)(5.830/10k)(43.0213.00/10k)(34.950/10k)
Figure4:FrequenciesofselectedwordswithpoliticalmeaningsinUtopia
Unsurprisingly,severalterms(magistratus,legatus,lexandprinceps)aresquareintherangesin
Cicerostext.Eventhewordsthatfalloutsideoftherange(milesandpublicus)arenotsofaroutofthe
rangeastolookstrange.Theonlywordthatseemssuspiciousisrex.Cicero,writinginthetimeofthe
antikingRomanRepublic,usesrexnearlytentimesasoftenasMoredoesinUtopia(124.12/10kvs.
13.43/10k).Moresomissionofrexisconspicuousbyitsminimalpresenceincomparisontode
Republica.Giventhatthefrequenciesofseveralkeywordsareinbroadagreement,exceptingrex,the
politicalnatureoftheworkisonsolidfooting.
Ifitispolitical,doesthatautomaticallyexcludeareligiousangletoo?No,noristhereneedto
judgethatquestionwithoutlexicalfrequencyanalysis.Likebefore,thereferencecorpusisreportedasa
rangeasfoundonthePerseusDigitalLibrary,butthistimethereferencecorpusisTertullians
Apologeticum,whichisareligiouswork .7
Latinword Englishequivalent
FrequenciesinUtopia FrequenciesinTertulliansApologeticum
sacer sacred 9tokens(3.26/10k) 10.530.50/10k
7Morespecifically,itsgenreisapology.
Sipes12
sanctusdeussacerdosreligio
holygodpriestreligion
8tokens(2.91/10k)39tokens(14.16/10k)24tokens(8.71/10k)29tokens(10.53/10k)
9.52/10k194.95104.74/10k3.002.00/10k17.04/10k
Figure5:FrequenciesofselectedwordswithreligiousmeaningsinUtopia
Inthiscomparisonhowever,severalkeywordsUtopiaisbelowthefrequencyrangesfoundin
Apologeticum.Thewordsacer(sacred)inUtopiaisinthelowendofthefrequencyfor
Apologeticum,butsacerdos(priest)inUtopiaisabovetherangefoundinApologeticum.Icannot
exactlyaccountforthisanomaly,butsincesacerdosisthepersonwhoconductsreligiousactivitythe
waythatrex(king)andmagistratus(bureaucrat)conductpoliticalactivity,itseemedbesttoincludeit.In
anyevent,themajorityofthewordsdealingwithreligionarebelowtherangeonemightexpectina
religiousworkbutexactlyontargetforapoliticalwork.Butwhosepolitics?
IsUtopiaEnglandindisguise?
Definitelyyes.GoodeymapsoutthesimilaritiesbetweentheislandofUtopiaandEnglandinhis
paperMappingUtopia:ACommentontheGeographyofSirThomasMore.Withoutgettingintotoo
greatofdetail,thesizeoftheislandofUtopiaandEnglandareroughlythesame.Utopiaistwohundred
mileswide:soisEnglandinalinefromSt.AlbanstotheNorfolkcoast.Utopiahasfiftyfourcities,and
EnglandhadfiftythreeadministrativedivisionsalongwithLondon(Goodey,1970).
AdditionallythedescriptionsofLondonandAmaurotaremateriallythesame,particularlyinthe
beginning.A1572mapofLondon,convenientlyenough,hasadescriptionofthecityinLatin(Historic
Cities,n.d.).
DescriptionofLondononthemap DescriptionofAmaurot
haecestregiaillatotiusAngliaecivitasLONDINIUMadfluviumThemesimsita.
situmestigiturAMAUROTUM,inlenideiectumontis,guraferequadrata.namlatitudoeiuspauloinfracollisincoeptauerticem,milibus
Sipes13
passuumduobusadumenAnydrumpertinet,secundumripamaliquantolongior.
Thiscity,thecapitalofthewholeofEngland,LondonissituatedalongtheRiverThames.
ThereforeAmaurotissituatedinthegentleslopeofmountainwithanearlysquareshape.ForitsbreadthbegunjustwithinthepeakofthehillstretchestwomilestotheRiverAnyderandalittlebitlongeralongtheshore.
Figure6:DescriptionsofLondonandAmaurot.
Thestrikingpartisthattwodescriptionswrittenseparatelyisthattherearemanypointsof
convergenceinthedescriptions.Threeelementsareofparticularinterest.Thefirstisthenameofthe
city.Bothcitiesarenamedinthefirstsentence.Theverbisalsothesameforboth,thoughthemapsplits
theverb(estsita)andMoredoesnot(situmest).Butthetrulystrikingthingisthatbotharebeing
describedadfluviumThemesimandadflumenAnydrum.Thedifferenceinmeaningbetweenthe
wordsfluviumandflumenisnotlarge,sincetheybothultimatelyderivefromthesameroot,fluere(to
flow).WhilethisadditionalinformationsupportsGoodeyspaper,itisalsoworthnotingduetothe
strikingsimilaritiesinlanguageuse.
UtopiaisEngland.WhateverMorescommentis,itispoliticalandaboutEngland.
Settingitupwithpositioning
SinceUtopiaisanattackontheking,thefirstthingMoredoesinUtopiaistopositiontheking
inapositivelight.First,
inuictissimusAngliaeRexHenricuseiusnominisoctauus,unconqueredEnglandsKingHenrythatnameseighth,HenvryVIII,unconqueredkingofEngland
Immediatelyfollowedwith
omnibusegregiiprincipisartibusornatissimusfor.allexcellentprinceswith.artsmost.decoratedwhoisverywellequippedwithallthevirtuesofanexcellentruler
Sipes14
Whilethismayseemoverthetoptomoderneyes,itisnotexcessive.MorenextdescribesCharlesVof
Spainasmostserene(serenissimo).SoMoregivesHenryVIIImorepositiveattentionthanother
kingsnotonlyinnumberofwordsbutalsoinprimacyofposition.FurthermorehesetsHenryVIIIas
theactorinthissituation,asheisinthenominativecase.Moreinadvertentlytipshishandinthis
asymmetricaldescriptionofkings.Wardaughtellsusasymmetricuseofnamesandaddresstermsis
oftenaclearindicatorofapowerdifferential(2006,p.269).Andapowerdifferentialbetween
CharlesVofSpainandHenryVIIIofEnglanddefinitelyexistsforMore:hewasasubjectofHenry
VIII.Furthermore,immediatelybeforeHenryisthewordnegotium(business),whichisaworkwith
positiveconnotationinLatin.CharlesVwasfollowedbycontroversa(controversial),whichisaboutas
positiveinLatinasitsEnglishcounterpart. 8
ThenamingofthingsinUtopia
Inadditiontopositioningthekingpositively,MoreisgoingtopositionUtopiaasanonsense
land.HedoesthisbygivingpeopleandplacesinUtopiahavewondrous,evennonsensical,names.
NelsonsuggeststhatthenonsensicalnamingsystemconstitutesastructuringforceandthatMores
networkofGreekpunsdonotsimplyentertaintheyorganize(2001).
Beyondthis,MorehassetupaveryrichintertextualitywiththeGreeknamesintheLatintext.
Nelsonsuggestsoneresultofthatintertextuality:MoreistryingtocreateacontrastbetweenGreekand
Romannotionsofpolitics,withMorestakingouttheGreekpositionfortheUtopians.TheRomanview
isthatlibertyisastatusofnonintervention[and]libertyencouragesvirtue,whichinturnyields
8ThefullopeningofUtopia:cumnonexiguimomentinegotiaquaedaminuictissimusAngliaeRexHenricuseiusnominisoctauus,omnibusegregiiprincipisartibusornatissimus,cumserenissimocastellaeprincipeCarolocontrouersanuperhabuisset
Sipes15
justice(Nelson,2001). TheGreekpositionontheotherhandisthatjusticecomesfroman9
arrangementofelementsthataccordswithnature(Nelson,2001). TheGreeknamescertainlydo10
helpMorestakeouttheGreekposition,buttheydomore.
IsuggestthatMoreusestheGreeknamestoalignhimselfwiththeHumanistmovementand
createthecentralcontradictionsofUtopia.
Inonemove,MoremanagestosticktotheHumanistpurificationofLatintoitsCiceronian
coreandrefertothefantasticlandsofLuciansliterature.HegetsthebenefitsofwritinginLatina
cultured,educatedaudienceofeliteswithoutviolatingtheemergingLatinlanguagenormagainst
makingnewwords.BywritinginHumaniststyleLatin,healsopositionsreadersasbeingculturedand
educated.Thispositivepositioningoftheaudienceisimportant,asIwillshowlater.
MoresGreeknamesarealsocontradictorypuns,whichallowsforMoretoplausiblyclaimthat
thewholethingisajoke.SinceMoreisusingLuciansnamingasatemplate,theeasiestwaytomake
thepointistoshowafewofthenamessidebyside.
SampleofLuciansnames SampleofMoresnames
aeroknpsairmosquito
UtopiaNoplace
thunnokephalostunahead
AnyderRiverNowaterRiver
nsomachiaislandbattle 11
AmaurotNotclear
9CicerosumsuptheRomanpositionindeofficiis1.20.Justicecomesfromnotharmingotherswithoutcauseandrespectingthedifferencebetweenprivateandpublicproperty.AtraditionalAmericanposition.10PlatosumsuptheGreekpositioninRepublic,pp.550553.Wealthandvirtue(andbyextension,justice)areopposites,thereforeweneedrulebywisementomakesureweavoidthisproblem.11Aseabattlewithislandsintheplaceofbattleships.
Sipes16
hippomyrmxhorseant
RaphaelHythlodaeus(Moresnarrator)RaphaelNonsensedistributing
Figure7:NamesinLuciansATrueStoryandMoresUtopia
Tobesure,LuciansnamesaremorefancifulthanMores,butthatobservationmissesthe
point.MoreismakingreferencetoLucianwithhisGreekbasednonsensenames,aswellasmakinga
joke.Whohaseverheardofanowhereplace?Awaterlessriver? Anunknowncity?Moresnarrator12
isevensuspect,sincehisnameimpliesthatheisaliar.Thesenonsensenamesdistancetheworkfrom
bothEnglandandpossibleinsulttoHenryVIIIspositiveface,sincetheyallowthekingtointerpret
themasajoke.
AtthesametimeMorealsobindsUtopiatoAncientGreecebymakinguseofnames
reminiscentofLucian.Thisintertextualrelation,duetohispreviousworkwithtranslatingLucian,serves
toincreaseUtopiasperceiveddistancefromcontemporarypoliticalcomment.
WritinginLatin
MostEnglishspeakingreadersofUtopiaencounteritinEnglish,andlikelyassumeMorewrote
inEnglish.Rightlyso,MorewasEnglish.ExceptthatMorewroteUtopiainLatin.Why?Blake
suggeststhatEnglishwasnotperceivedtobeasrichasLatinorFrenchintermsofvocabulary
(Hattaway,2000,p.78).Thatmaybe.
Thesimplefactisthat16thcenturyEuropewasdiglossic.Thehigh languagewasLatin.Itwas13
thelanguageoflearning,literatureandthechurch.Thelowlanguageswerethevernacularlanguages
spokeninthevariouscountriesofEurope.AsWardaughstates,akeydefiningcharacteristicof
diglossiaisthatthetwovarietiesarekeptquiteapartintheirfunctions(2006,p.89).Andtheywere
12InEnglandanyway.13High(H)andlow(L)aretechnicaltermsintalkingaboutdiglossia.Thereisnothinginherentlyhighorlowabouttheindividuallanguagesoutsideoftheirculturalpositionsanduses.
Sipes17
keptseparate.Latinwasavibrantlanguageinsuchfieldsasreligion,philosophy,politics,diplomacy,
law,educationandscience(WheelockandLaFleur,2005).Theassumptionthatamajorworkwould
bewritteninEnglishwasstillinthefuturewhenMorewroteUtopia.Shakespearesaudienceonthe
southsideoftheThameswouldhavetowaituntil1599fortheGlobetobebuilt. Evenlater,Isaac14
NewtonpublishedhisPrincipiainLatin.SotheEuropeandEnglandofUtopiawasstill
diglossicLatinwashigh,andEnglishwasnot.Asaresult,MorewouldwanttowriteUtopiainLatin.
Buteventhatisnotthewholestory.
IwouldarguethatMorewritesinLatinasapositioningtechnique.First,hepositionsevery
potentialreaderwhodoesnotknowLatinasanoutsider.Thetextisopaque.Second,Morepositions
potentialreaderstheeducatedelitewhodoknowLatinasthirdpartyalliesinZajdmansjoking
schema.Asmentionedabove,MorepositionsthemaseducatedandculturedwithhisHumanisticLatin,
whichfurtherpredisposedtheaudiencetohispointofview.ByreadingUtopia,theyseeHenry
lampooned.MoreispressuringHenrytofindtheattackfunny.SowhataretheattacksMoreismaking
ontheking?
TheUtopiansclothes
Hereisaclearpointofattack.Butwhyclothes?Tworeasons,bothofwhicharerelated,come
tomind.First,HenryVIIIworeluxuriousclothestoprojecthismajestyandwealth,oftenonlyonetime
(Hayward,n.d.).Second,hewasresponsibleforsumptuarylaws.Thepurposesofsumptuarylaws
varied,butthemainpurposesweretokeepthesocialbalanceintactandtoexercisegreatercontrol
overthemassesandthenobility(AbitofHenrylove,2012).Soontheonehand,Henryispositioning
himselfaspowerfulbywearinghiswealthandkeepingtherestofsocietyintheirpositionaswell.
14PleasedontaskhowIknowthiswithoutlooking.
Sipes18
TheUtopiansdidthingsdifferently.
namuestes,quarum,nisiquodhabitusexusdiscernitur,etcaelibatusaconiugio,unapertotaminsulamformaest,eademqueperomneaeuumperpetua,necadoculumindecora,etadcorporismotumhabilis,tumadfrigorisaestusquerationemapposita.
Fortheirclothes,whichareofthesameformthroughouttheislandexcepttomarkdifferencesbetweenthesexesandthemarriedfromtheunmarried,areperpetuallythesameforalltimes,noraretheyuglyoruncomfortable,andthentheyaredesignedforheatandcold.
Figure8:TheUtopiansclothes.
Asanethnography,itwouldbewrongtomisstheUtopiansclothes.ButMorehasasecond
intention,andhistargetisclear:theking.Whoworeclothesonceandhadrulesonwhocouldwear
what?Theking.Utopianfashionisinsharpdistinctiontotheking.Thefashionsneverchange.The
clothesarethesamesummerandwinter.Everyonewearsthesamethingwithonlythebroadestsocietal
differencesmarked.Remember,Morewritesthesewordsin1516,whenthreeroundssumptuarylaws
hadbeenpassedfromthetimeofHenryscoronationin1509(AbitofHenrylove,2012). Thisfact15
wouldnothavebeenlostonUtopiasEnglishreaders.
Makinggovernmentofficialslookbad
MorealsomakesnonUtopiangovernmentofficialslookbad.Again,Moremakesreferenceto
theirclothes.
totusillesplendorapparatuspudendusuidebatur,etinfimumquemqueprodominisreuerentersalutantes,legatosipsosexaurearumusucatenarumproseruishabitos,sineulloprorsushonorepraetermiserunt.quinpuerosquoqueuidisses,quigemmasacmargaritasabiecerant,ubiinlegatorumpileisaffixasconspexerunt,compellarematremaclatusfodere.
Allofthatsplendorseemedtobeshamefullyelaborate.[TheUtopians]greetedeachofthelowlyaslordsandwithoverlookedtheambassadorswithoutanyhonoratallmistakingthemforslaves,sincetheyworechainsofgold.Andifyouhadalsoseenthechildren,whohadthrownawaythegemsandpearls,whentheysawthemfixedtothehatsoftheambassadors,calltheirmothersanddigtheirsides.
15Ok,soparliamentintroducedthelaws,butkeepinmindthattheAffordableCareActof2010originatedintheUSCongress.Whatdowecallit?Obamacare.LetssayImnotconvincedthatalawsoriginationinparliamentmeantthatitwasntHenryslaw.
Sipes19
Figure9:Theambassadorssplendoroverlooked
Rightoff,Morecallstheambassadorssplendor(splendor)shameful(pudendus).Thento
underlineit,hehasUtopianchildrenpointouttheirjewelsandgoldchains.Children,beingchildren,
pointoutwhennormsarebroken.Onechildsaysthefollowing.
enmater,quammagnusnebulomargaritisadhucetgemmulisutitur,acsiessetpuerulus!atparensserioetiamilla,taceinquitfili,estopinorquispiamemorionibuslegatorum.aliicatenasillasaureasreprehendere,utpotenulliususus,quippetamgraciles,uteasfacileseruusinfringere,tamlaxasrursus,uticumfueritlibitumpossitexcutere,etsolutusacliberquouisaufugere.
Hey,mom,thisbigclownstillusesgemsandpearls,justasifhewereasmallchild!Butthatparentsaysearnestly,Bequietson,heis,Ithink,oneofthefoolsoftheambassadors.Otherspassedjudgmentonthegoldenchains,sincetheywereofnouse,obviouslysothinthataslavecouldbreakthem,andalsosoloosethathecouldrunfreewheneverhewantedtobreakthem.
Figure10:Theambassadorsmocked
Thechildcallstheambassadoragovernmentofficialanebulo(clown)whodresseslikea
smallchild.Thechildispositioningtheambassadorsasnotjustchildren,butsmallchildren
(puerulus)anFTAtotheambassadorspositiveface.Whethertheambassadorhearsthisattackon
hispositivefaceisnotinthetext,butwe,thereaders,doseethisattackonhispositiveface.Thechilds
mothergoesontosilencethechildsFTAbutthenlabelstheambassadorsasmoriones(fools)ina
separateFTAthatwewitness.Bytheendofit,Morehasthewholecrowdpassingjudgmentonthe
ambassadorsinawaythatpositiontheminanegativelight.
Anattackonagovernmentrepresentativemaybeconstruedasanattackonthegovernment,
whichinthecaseof1516Englandmeanstheking.SinceUtopiaispoliticalandaboutEngland,itissafe
tosaythatwemayinterpretthetheambassadorsasstandinsfortheEnglishgovernment,whichisto
sayHenryVIII.
War
Sipes20
PerhapsthemostdirectthingMorecouldtoinsultthekinginabookistosuggestthatHenryis
badatkinglythings.Warbeingthemostkinglyofthings.
First,MorestatestheUtopiansopiniononthematter.
bellumutpoteremplanebeluinamsummopereabominanturWar,anobviouslybeastlythingiswhattheyloatheverymuch.
Thenwhentheyengageinwar,theUtopiansavoidneedlesskilling.
siabipsisuictoriasit,haudquaquamcaedegrassantur,Ifbythemthereshouldbevictory,theydontgoprocedewithslaughterbyanymeans,
fugatosenimcomprehendunt,quamocciduntlibentius.fortheywouldratherapprehendthosethatfleethankillthemfreely.
NotthatHenryVIIIsreignwasknownformassivemilitarybloodshed,butMoredepictstheUtopians
asbeingaversetobloodshedwhennotnecessary.Infact,whentheydogotowar,heshowsthe
Utopiansashavinggoodreason.
nontemerecapessunttamen,nisiquoautsuosnestueantur,theydonottaketo[war]rashlyanyway,unlesstheyshouldeithermaketheirborders
safe
autamicorumterris,infusoshostespropulsent,orpushoutenemiespouredinfromthelandsoftheirallies.
Thisreasoningisfarfromthereasoningthatwentintothe1513EnglishinvasionofFrance.Why
didHenrypackuptoinvadeFrance?KingFerdinandofSpain,HenryVIIIsfatherinlaw,induced
theEnglishtojointheHolyLeague(Viault,1992).ItispossiblethatMoreisreflectingcommon
opinionthattheinvasionofFrance,whilenotafailure,wasnotseentofallintothecategoryofjustwar.
RemindinghisreadersofHenrysfailureinjudgmentaboutwaristhemostseriousFTAtoHenrys
positivefaceinUtopia.MoreisremindingthereadersofHenrysfailureasaking.Hegoestowarfor
Sipes21
frivolousreasons.
PersonaMore
OneofthelastthingstorealizeisthatMoreisboththeauthorandacharacterwithinthebook.
ThomasMorethemanissimplyMore,whereasThomasMorethecharacterinUtopiaisPersona
More.BydoingthisMorecreatesfurtherdistancebetweenhimselfandthebook.Ifheisaskedabout
it,hecanalwaysdismissPersonaMoreswordsasbeingthoseofaliterarycharacterratherthanhis
ownwords.
Thefinalword
InonelaststrokeofcreatingsocialdistancetominimizetheFTA,Moreclosestheworkvery
dismissively,
haecubiRaphaelrecensuitperquamabsurdeuidebanturinstituta(More)WhenRaphaelfinishedthese[recountings,they]seemedcompletelyabsurdlyfounded
Sowhateverhisintent,PersonaMoredismissesitasnonsense,whichistheperfectwaytousehis
advantageasthespeakeraccordingtoZajdman.Thekingcannottakeoffense:thewholethingisajoke
anyway,andthereadersallknowit.
ConclusionIntheend,Moremanagedtocreateenoughsocialdistancebetweenhimselfandthekingto
minimizeUtopiasthreattoHenryspositiveface.BypublishingtheworkinLatin,hepositioned
Utopiaasseriousworkthatexcludedmostpotentialreadersbutalsopositionedthereadersasalliesin
Moresattack.Hethenproceededtomocktheking,asseenbyhisloveofclothesandfailuresinwar.
Butintheend,MoredidmanagetoexecutehisFTAwithredressiveactionpositivepositioningofthe
kingandcreatingsocialdistancetominimizethethreat.HewassosuccessfulthathebecameHenry
VIIIsLordChancellorin1529(BritishLibrary,n.d.).
Sipes22
Ofcourse,theironyisthatHenryVIIIdecapitatedMorein1536foranotherdifferentFTA.
BibliographyAbitofHenrylove.(2012,May17.)SumptuarylawsunderHenryVIII.Retrievedfrom:
https://bluffkinghal.wordpress.com/2012/05/17/sumptuarylawsunderhenryviii/Pleasesemiacademicbloggers,givemeawaytofindyourrealname.AbitofHenryloveandBluffkinghalarenotwhoIwanttocite.
Beller,M.,&Leerssen,J.T.(Eds.).(2007).Imagology:theculturalconstructionandliterary
representationofnationalcharacters:acriticalsurvey(Vol.13).Amsterdam:Rodopi.$97.54fortheebook?NowyouknowwhyImcitingBellerandLeersseninsteadoftheauthoroftheactualchapterofthebookImciting.
BritishLibrary.(n.d.)16thcenturydreams:ThomasMore.Retrievedfrom
http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/utopia/more1/moreutopia.htmlBrown,P.andLevinson,S.(1987).Politeness:Someuniversalsinlanguageusage(Vol.4).
Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Thisissuperwonderfulonceyoutakethetimetoreallygetintowhattheyresaying.
Cicero,M.T.(1889).Librorumderepublicasex.C.F.W.Mueller(Ed.).Leipzig:Teubner.
Retrievedfromhttp://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0474.phi043.perseuslat1:1.1Culler,J.(1981).Thepursuitofsigns:Semiotics,literature,deconstruction.Ithaca,NY:Cornell
UniversityPress.IactuallyputthisoneonemyAmazonwishlisttobuylater.
Curtright,T.(2014).ThomasMoreonHumor.Logos:AJournalofCatholicThoughtandCulture,
17(1),1335.Davies,B.,&Harr,R.(1990).Positioning:Thediscursiveproductionofselves.Journalforthe
TheoryofSocialBehaviour,20,4363.Retrievedfromhttp://www.massey.ac.nz/~alock/position/position.htm
Goodey,B.R.(1970).Mapping"Utopia":AcommentonthegeographyofSirThomasMore.
GeographicalReview,1530.ItwouldhavebeengoodtohavereadthisbeforeItaughtUtopia.IstillrememberthedayIfiguredthisoutformyself.
Sipes23
Hattaway,M.(Ed.).(2000).ACompaniontoEnglishRenaissanceLiteratureandCulture(Vol.8).JohnWiley&Sons.
Hayward,M.(n.d.)Treasuredpossessions:ThematerialworldofHenryVIII.Retrievedfrom
http://www.hrp.org.uk/Resources/Maria%20HaywardFINAL.pdfAlso,thiswebpagehassomeinformationaboutHenryVIIIsclothes:http://www.royalarmouries.org/visitus/leeds/leedsgalleries/tournamentgallery/henryviii/henryviiiportrait
HistoricCities.(n.d.).[MapofLondonwithLatindescriptionfromBraunandHogenbergs1571atlas].
BraunandHogenburg:Civitatesorbisterrarum.Retrievedfromhttp://historiccities.huji.ac.il/mapmakers/braun_hogenberg.htmlCheckoutthehighresLondonmap.Itsgorgeous.http://historiccities.huji.ac.il/british_isles/london/maps/braun_hogenberg_I_A_b.jpg
Jones,R.(2012).Discourseanalysis:Aresourcebookforstudents.Routledge.
Thelayoutofthebookiskindofconfusingatfirst,butonceyougettheswing,itswonderful.Hedrawslotsofexamplesfromeverydaydiscoursedata.LikeFacebook.
More,T.(2013).Utopia.Chicago,IL:PluteoPleno.
ALatinEnglisheditionofUtopia.IdidthetranslationstoEnglishmyselfanyway,sincetheEnglishtranslationisabitofanantique.
Nauert,C.G.(2006).HumanismandthecultureofRenaissanceEurope.CambridgeUniversity
Press.Nelson,E.(2001).GreeknonsenseinMoresUtopia.TheHistoricalJournal,44(4),889917.
IfyouloveLucian,thisisasuperinterestingreadonintertextuality.Tertullianus,Q.S.F.(1931).Apologeticum.T.R.Glover(Ed.).Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversity
Press.Retrievedfromhttp://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0275.stoa009.perseuslat1:1.1
Viault,B.(1992).EnglishHistory.NewYork,NY:McGrawHill.Wardaugh,R.(2006).Anintroductiontosociolinguistics,5thedition.Malden,MA:Blackwell.
Ivegottenmoreuseoutofthisbookthan$1shouldget.Wheelock,F.M.,&LaFleur,R.A.(2005.)WheelocksLatinreader:SelectionsfromLatin
Sipes24
literature(2nded.).NewYork,NY:Collins.Zajdman,A.(1995).Humorousfacethreateningacts:Humorasstrategy.JournalofPragmatics,
23(3),325339.Ifexplainingajokekillsit,whatdoesanacademicpaperdotoajoke?Inanycase,ifyouretrulyinterestedinhumorandface,thisisthepaperforyou.Itsgood.