;

. FMFRP 12-43

ProfessionalKnowledgeGainedfromOperationalExperienceinVietnam,1969, SpecialIssue,

Minesand Boobytraps

U.S. Marine Corps

PCN140 124300 000

DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY

Headquarters United States Marine Corps

Washington, DC 20380-0001

20July1989FOREWORD

1. PURPOSE

Fleet Marine Force Reference Publication (FMFRP) 12-43, Professional

Knowledge Gained from Operational Experiencein Vietnam, 1969, Special

Issue, Mines and Boobytraps, is published to ensure the retention and dis-

semination of useful information which is not intended to become doctrine

or to be published in Fleet Marine Force manuals. FMFRPs in the 12 Series

are a special category of publications: reprints of historical works which

were published commercially or by the U.S. Government Printing Office

and are no longer in print.

2. SCOPE

This reference publication complements existing training manuals on small-

unit tactics, patrolling, weapons, mines and booby traps, and leadership.

Written by a multitude of Marines during the Vietnam War, this volume

is an excellent compendium of lessons to be learned from the Marine Corps’

experience in 1969. It is enthusiastically recommended to all junior offi-

cers, SNCOS, and NCOS who will profit from the principles presented.

3. CERTIFICATION

Reviewed and approved this date.

BY DIRECTION OF THE COMMANDANT OF THE MARINE CORPS

M. P. SULLIVAN

Major General, U.S. Marine Corps

Deputy Commander for Warfighting

Marine Corps Combat Development Command

Quantico, Virginia

DISTRIBUTION: /1”, [ (]/1

MAY-JUN 1969

MINES AND BOOBYTRAPS

CONTENTS

SECTION PAGE

I ENEMY MINE WARFARE

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . 1Enemy Doctrine. . . . . . . . . 3Enemy Sources of Supply . . . . 3VC Mine Factories . . . . . . . 5Enemy Tactics . . . . . . . . . 6

II COUNTERMEASURES

Nontactical Countermeasures. . 9Tactical Countermeasures . . . 13Individual Countermeasures . . 15Immediate Action to TakeWhen and After an ExplosiveDevice is Tripped. . . . . . 22

Unit Training. . . . . . . . . 23

III ENEMY MINE INDICATORS

IV ENEMY MINES AND BOOBYTRAPS

Explosive AntipersonnelDevices. . . . . . . . . . .39

Nonexplosive Boobytraps, . . . 48Antitank and Vehicle Mines . . 56Antihelicopter Mining. . . . . 66

1

SECTION I

ENEMY MINE WARFARE

INTRODUC1’ION

The history of mine and boobytrap war-fare is almost as long as the history ofwar itself, Although these devices wereonce considered an unfair and cowardlymanner of fighting an enemy, nations con-tinued to develop and employ mines andboobytraps because they provided an effec-tive and simple means of inflictingcasualties upon an enemy force.

During the war with France, 1946-1954,the Viet Minh used improvised explosivemines and boobytraps et’fectively againstthe French forces. The VC/NVA have con-tinued to improve upon these techniquesand are emplo,yin~ mines and boobytraps asan effective weapons system against freeworld military forces in SVN today. l’henumber of Marine casualties, perhapsbetter than any other example, illustrateshow effective the enemy is with thesedevices. Marines landed in force in SVNduring March ).965and during the firstmonths of fighting approximately 65-75percent of all Marine casualties werecaused by mines and boobytraps. Much hasbeen learned about the enemy’s methods ofemploying mines and boobytraps since March1965, but despite this knowledge, Marines,at an alarming rate, continue to becomecasualties as a direct result of enemymines and boobytraps. During 1968, 37.7percent of all Marine casualties werecaused by the accidental detonation of amine or boobytrap. In other words, morethan one of every three Marines killed or

1

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‘;;oundedin SVN becomes a casualty as theresult of a mine or boobytrap. Althougha Great many detection means, ranging from:ntricate electronic devices to speciallytrained clogs, have been developed, experi-ence has shown that an alert Marine, awareof’what to look for and where to look, isthe most effective detection device.

The information contained in this bookis intended to make each Marine aware ofthe ways which the VC/NVA use mines andboobytraps and to describe the means toeffectively protect onets self and unitfrom these devices. To aid in thisobjective, mines and boobytraps frequentlyused by the VC/NVA are identified anddescribed.

StUdy this issue; the information init can Gave livesfellow Flarinesr.

-- yours and your

iii

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******

ENEMY DOCTRINE

Although modified by past guerrilla war-fare experience in Vietnam, VC/NVA minewarfare doctrine continues to closely par-allel that of the Chinese Communist Army.Extensive deliberate minef’ields have notbeen encountered in Vietnam. Rather, theenemy employs mines singly or in clustersto achieve his purposes.

In areas occupied and protected by freeworld forces, the enemy employs mines todelay and disrupt the use of roads andpaths and to cause the allies to divertforces to guard and clear those routes. Inaddition to the threat to military trafficand lawful civilian movement, the freeworld personnel and.equipment employed inpatrollin~ the roads and in detecting andremovj.n~ mines are prime targets,

In contested areas where friendly offen-sive operations or patrol activities areconducted, the enemy employs mines andboobytraps to inflict casualties, delayand channelize movement, and damage ordestroy equipment.

******

ENEMY SOURCES OF SUPPLY

The enemy uses a very limited number ofmodern machine-produced mines. The major-ity of enemy mines are handmade by the VCusing U.S. duds, discarded ammunition andequipment, and materials thrown away byU.S. forces as trash. Ninety percent ofall the material in enemy mines and booby-traps is of U.S. origin (see fig.1). Ofall the explosive devices produced locallyin VC mine factories, 95 percent are anti-personnel boobytraps.

3

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Figure 1.--Enemy equipment capturedby Marines on sweep operations in ICTZ.Note US M-26 grenade in center ofpicture. Oti]cr [;l’cnadesare locallyproduced using C-ration cans.

All dud amrnunltiorlis a source of’enemysupply . After airstrikes and artilleryand mortar missions, enemy salvage teamsmake sweeps to collect duds. Lighterordnance is carried away to preparationareas ; large bombs and pro~ectiles arebroken down and stripped on the spot. Insome cases the lar~er duds are rigged asboobytraps where they have fallen. Thisis especially true when the enemy feelsthe strike or fire mission was a prepara-tion for an infantry attack.

However, dud ammunition is not the onlysource of enemy supply. Carelessly dis-carded ordnance of all sizes and in anyquantity is collected by enemy salvageteams . Mortar rounds, “rockets, LAAW’S,

4

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grenades, and small arms ammunition aban-doned to lighten the load (or Improperlysecured and lost by fast-mcving Marines)have value as the explosive element inboobytraps. Even a single M16 roundejected to clear a stoppage can be usedby the enemy.

Additionally, materials discarded astrash and improperly destroyed such asration, ammunition, beer and soda cans,batteries, waterproof packaging materials,bandoleers, etc., provide the enemy avaluable source of supply to support hismine warfare operations. These itemshave, on numerous instances, been employedsuccessfully against Marines and theirequipment. Thorough police of friendlypositions upon departure and completedestruction of trash are n~andatory to denythe enemy this source of supply.

*S****

VC MINE FACTORIES

Primitive VC mine factories are usuallylocated in the areas they supply. Greatcare is taken in the camouflage and dis-persal of these facilities, Usually con-structed underground, effort is made todisperse the workshops and storage through-out a series of tunnels. These limitdestruction by working accidents or freeworld force artillery, air and naval gun-fire and protect against discovery. Asimportant as concealment of the minefactory, is the mobility of its personneland equipment. Even while the mine factoryis being settled in one position, newpositions are being prepared for rapiddisplacement . Rarely does a mine factory

5

remain in one place any longer than a fewweeks . There is no distinct pattern ofmovement. Factories have been known toreturn to previous positions even afterthat position has been discovered anddestroyed by Marine forces.

NVA-trained engineers provide theskilled nucleus for the enemy mine fac-tories, but supervision and labor areprimarily VC. The typical output of alocal VC mine factory is about 135 minesand explosive devices per month.

X%****

ENEMY TACTICS

ANTITANK AND ANTIVEHICULAR MINING

As we improve in our ability to detect:nines, the enemy counters with new twists~ucl]as increased use of’boobytrapsattached to a basic mine to create casu-alties amon~ mine-clear:lnc personnel ;l.arccrmines buried deeper with reducedactivation prezzure; and pressure electricdetonators with offset devices to explodemines under vehicles. Command-detonatingmines are normally used in densely popu-lated areas and pressure-type devices inless populated sections. The heaviestmining is along lines of communicationsnear fixed installations.

The enemy makes every effort to avoidrepeating practices which, when analyzed,could indicate a pattern. Therefore, theVC/NVA doctrine stresses where to usemines, not how. Listed below are a few ofthe kinds Of places where enemy antitankand antivehicular mines may be found:

eRoad junctions and the areas in thevicinity of the road near the junction,

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with all the mines set to detonate simul-taneously.

●Bridges and the approaches 5 to 15meters from the bridges.

●ld wheel and tread tracks in theroad, with care taken to duplicate thetrack after mine emplacement.

QUnderneath roads, tunneling in f’rom

the shoulders..Potholes in the road.●Areas recently cleared by free world

military forces. The enemy replaces themines that have been taken out.

ANTIPERSONNEL MINES AND BOOBYTRAPS

Enemy tactics in emplacing antiperson-nel mines and boobytraps differ from thoseused in antitank and antivehicular miningonly by where they put them. Locationsmost commonly used by the VC/NVA to emplaceantipersonnel mines and bOObYtI’apS are:

.Narrow passages.

.Pacldy dilces.

.Trail junctions,

.Hedgerows and tree lines.●Tunnels and caves.●Fence lines and gates.●Tree branches overhanging trails..Likely CP sites..High ground and ridgelines..Shady areas.●Stream fords.●Wells and natural watering pointson streams and rivers.

●Likely helicopter landing Zones.

* Remember: Any place a Marine frequentlywalks, takes cover, rests, or draws water

is a likely location for enemy antiperson-nel mines and boobytraps.

7

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SECTION II

COUNTERMEASURES

Countermeasures are those actions, bothtactical and nontactical, that can betaken by units and/or individual Marineswhich reduce the mine and boobytrap threat.Countermeasures decrease the enemy’sability to emplace mines and boobytrapsor limit their effectiveness if they areemplaced.

NONTACTICAL COUNTERMEASURES

The most effective way to counter theenemy’s mine and boobytrap threat is todestroy this threat at its source; i.e.,the elimination of the VC/NVA mine andboobytrap factories and the sources ofsupply for these factories.

Every effort must be made to locateexisting enemy mine and boobytrap factoriesand to determine likely locations forfuture factory sites. Hoi Chanhs, POW’sand captured documents must be carefullyprocessed because, with skillful handling,they provide vital information on factorylocation sites. Once found, existingfactories and future locations must bemade unusable.

More important than neutralizing theenemy’s mine and boobytrap factories, isthe denial to the enemy of the source ofsupply with which he operates these fac-tories; i.e., unexploded U.S. ordnance,discarded equipment and improperly destroyedtrash. The fact that U.S. ordnance andsalvageable trash falls into enemy handscan be traced to several factors :

9

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DUnexploded Ordnance

The first factor and an important sourceof unexploded ordnance for the enemy isprovided by the free world military force’semployment of air, artillery and naval gun-fire support. Some ordnance items fail todetonate, become a “dud” and provide apotential mine or boobytrap. All Marineswho employ fire support should considerthis fact in the employment of supportingarms, and be careful not to call for firesin excess of what is required to accom-plish the mission.

oAbandoned Munitions

The second factor, another importantsource of explosive materiel supply for theenemy’s mine and boobytrap operations, isabandoned or lost munitions . T’he followingexamples, if allowed to occur, will assistthe enemy In lII:GcfforLc:

● Ovcrstocka~.—. A unllj overstocks ammu-nition and tl]cn 1s rcqulred to move onshort notice with only a basic load. Theremaining amrnuni.tion1s left on the aban-doned position.

eAmmunition Handling Procedures. Aunit attempts to turn in excess ammunitionto an ASP (ammunition supply point) and isrefused due to inefficient disposal pro-cedures .

@Abuse of Ammunition. A unit discardsammunition considered unserviceable becauseof dirt, tarnish, mud or other avoidableconditions or minor imperfections.

OLOSS in Transit. A helicopter slingbreaks on an ammunition resupply mission andall or a portion of the load is scatteredacross the countryside.

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QImproperly Destroyed Trash

The last factor, but far from leastimportant to the enemy!s mine and booby-trap Program, is his source of’supply fromfriendly trash. All items consideredunusable by free world forces must be com-pletely destroyed or properly disposed of.Figure 2 shows one example of the resultsof an improperly policed friendly area ofoperations . Discarded C-ration/soda cansare also commonly used in a type of booby-trap which is constructed with an M26grenade. The safety pin is removed andthe grenade is put in the can. When thecan is disturbed, the grenade slips out,the spoon pops and the grenade detonates.

Figure 2.--Shown is a VC grenade madefrom locally available materials inc-luding a carelessly discarded “Coke”can.

11

******

The VIP (Volunteer Informant Program)has proved to be an increasingly effectivecountermeasure to the enemy’s mine andboobytrap efforts. This program rewardsVietnamese individuals who turn in dudand abandoned munitions. Continued empha–sis on this program will significantlydecrease the enemy capacity to employ U.S.ordnance against free world forces. (Seefig. 3.) During one period, 188 of 259payments in the III MAF area were made tochildren who turned in explosives suitablefor the manufacture of boobytraps. To en-sure that the effectiveness of VIP reachesits full potential, it is the responsibilityof every individual Marine and each Marineunit to give VIP their complete support.

Figure 3.--Shown here is the VIP(Volunteer Informant Program) in action,Articles on ground have been turned into Marines by local villagers.

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TACTICAL COUNTERMEASURES

Tactical countermeasures employed byMarine units are very effective in reduc-ing the enemy’s capability of emplacingmines or boobytraps if such countermeasuresare aggressively planned and executed. Unitcommanders have several tactical measuresat their disposal, including the employmentof sophisticated electronic devices. Theyare :

● Employing portable ground radar andseismic intrusion devices.

. Maintaining a constant physical pres-ence throughout the TAOR to include out-posting of key roads. This is the most.effective tactical countermeasure, butsometimes difficult to achieve because ofthe number of Marines required to ensuregood coverage.

.Conducting aggressive patrolling.●Conducting reconnaissance patrols to

verify S-2 intelligence reports.●Employing scout-sniper teams..Conducting small unit cordon and

search operations in coordination withVietnamese units/police.

.Employing H&I fires over roads orover specific areas.

●Employing small stay-behind patrolsdropped off unnoticed from units passingnear a road.

●Paving or oiling dirt roads..Patrolling and outposting on and

near roads..Employing Kit Carson Scouts. Using

the native ability of the Kit Carson Scouts,coupled with their knowledge of the areaof operations and VC activities, can provehighly useful in locating devices. During

13

October 1968, Kit Carson Scouts found 229mines and boobytraps in the III MAF area.

●Scout Dogs. Using specially traineddogs (see fig. 4.) to detect the scent leftby the individual emplacing a mine orboobytrap. This scent is detectable 1-4days after emplacement. Since boobytrapsare generally emplaced shortly after initi-ation of friendiy operations, the chanceof discovery by dogs is good. A traineddog will use his vision to detect tripwiresand unnatural elements, and his hearing todetect sound waves created by tripwirevibration. Many dogs detect a tripwirewhen it touches the body hair of theirforelegs or chest. Most are agile enoughto back away before it is tripped. of 119dogs killed in SVN since January 196’7,only seven were killed by boobytraps.

Figure 4.--Specially trained dogssuch as the one shown here have provenextremely valuable in detecting enemymines and boobytraps.

14

INDIVIDUAL COUNTERMEASURES

Individual countermeasures are thosemeasures each and every Marine can take todiminish the effectiveness of a mine orboobytrap device which has been emplaced,and is found or is accidentally detonated.This can”be accomplished through physicalprotective measures, detection and destruc-tion measures, avoidance of explosivedevices, and through application of immedi-ate action when an explosive device hasbeen accidentally detonated.

DPhysical Protective Countermeasures

The individual Marine can take thesesteps to reduce the effectiveness of enemymines :

●Wear body armor and helmet..Sandbag vehicle flooring. When possi-

ble, place a heavy rubber mat over sandbagsto reduce secondary fragments such asshrapnel, sand, stones and pieces of sand-bag.

.Keep arms and legs inside vehicles toachieve maximum protection from sandbags.

●Maintain proper distance from otherpersonnel.

●Don’t travel alone,.Donlt pick up or touch what appear to

be attractive “souvenirs”. The VC/NVA preyupon the natural curiosity of Marines andheir desire to take home a souvenir.

b Beware : That “souvenir” is most likely—..a boobytrap.

oDetection Countermeasures

Once emplaced, a mine or boobytrap mustbe found before it causes multiple casu-alties through accidental detonation by

15

a Marine. Unfortunately, too many booby-traps are discovered only after they~~.nlode . It is imperative that detectiontechniques be stressed. Detection may beby :

@V~~ual ~n~pection, At present, thebest mine and boobytrap detector in theMarine Corps is an alert and observantMarine . Each Marine must know the areasin which boobytraps and mines are normallyfound and be alert for things which “justdon’t look right.” Examples are:

eMud smears, muclballs, clung, or aboard on the road.

eApparent road repair, ilewfill orpavin(j patches, ditching or culvert work,

oWires leadinG away from the side ofthe road.

el~ripwires across the trails; alongshoulders of roads at likely ambush sites;across the most accessible route throughdense vegetation; at fords, ditches andacrosc rice paddy dikes.

o’l?errainfeatures which do not appearnatural. Cut vegetation dries and changescolor; rain may wash away covering materialand cause an explosive device to sinkleaving a surface depression; a covereddevice may appear as a mound.

eSuspicious items in trees, branches,or bustles.

eMarkings used by VC/NVA to indicatethe location of a mine or boobytrap.

B probing, Suspicious spots must be care-fully probed with a probe or bayonet.

OMine detectors. Mine detectors are(le~j.~nedto assist the individual Marinein a detailed, deliberate sweep of a spe-cific area, usually a road. Particular

16

attention must be given to the time factorsof the individual sweeping situatjon, s+riceoverhasty opening of a road can mean anineffective sweep and quite possiblydestruction or injury to vehicular trafficand personnel. The average sweep ratevaries from almost nothing to about 5 m.p.h.depending, of course, on the proficiencyof the team and the number of contactsencountered. In using detectors, certainconsiderations must be kept in mind:

.Graveled roads make it difficult forthe AN/PRS-4 detector to discriminatebetween real and false targets,

.Metallic debris, such as can tops,small arms ammunition cases, and metalfragments from artillery rounds fired overroads at night to discourage mine laying,make it difficult for the AN/P153 deteotorto discriminate between real and falsetargets.

●The tendency for the enemy to burymines deeper than designed detection depths,and to deliberately plant metallic debrisin the road, calls for additional cautionIn the use of detectors.

.Operator fatigue. Consideration mustbe given to the fatigue experienced byoperators after 20 minutes of wearingdetector earphones. This condition can bedelayed to 1 or 2 hours by wearing earphonesover the helmet so that 2 to 4 inches existbetween ear and phone, This also permitsthe operator to hear a verbal alert foran ambush.

● Use of the Buddy System. This systemis not only useful in training inexperi-enced Marines, but also provides an extramargin of safety to the individuals whoemploy it. Two Marines working together,in the same area, have the advantage of

17

increased detection capability. mutualreassurance , and shared knowledge.

oDestruction Countermeasures

Once detected, mines and boobytrapsmust be marked and/or destroyed in placeby the discovering person or unit to pre-vent accidental detonation by a followingunit or individual Marine. Considerationsfor destruction are:

●Mines and boobytraps should not bemoved unless absolutely necessary and thenonly by qualified EOD or engineer person-nel. Many boobytraps are themselves booby-trapped, and if disturbed will detonate theassociated device.

explosive devices should be destroyedby engineers. If en~ineers are not avail-able , then devices may be destroyed byse].ected qualified personrlel wit,hl.neachurlit.

eMincs and boobytraps may be destroyedor neutralized by uue of Erappling hooks,demolitions , and (artillery f’ires. The LVTElincchar~e and the LV’1’11with plow-shapedmine excavator (figs. 5 and 6) should be con-sidered for use in areas of high ]tlinedensity.

oAvoidance Countermeasures

Strict application of training and care-ful planning of movements through dangerareas will enable unit commanders and indi-viduals to reduce casualties by simplyavoiding the explosive devices. The unitleader must analyze from the enemy’s view-point each area through which he intendsto move his men. He must ask himself thequestion, “If I were the enemy, where wouldI put the boobytrap?” This question canand.should influence both administrative

18

,,

Figure 5.--’l’he.LV’1’Efiri!lg lts organiclinecharge to clear mines.

Figure 6.--The LVTE with its plow-shapedmine excavator.

19

and tactical movements and is a factor tobe considered in the scheme of maneuverduring an attack. Some suggested meansfor avoiding mines and boobytraps are:

●Stay off trails, footpaths, carttracks , or other likely routes of travelas much as possible. Vary routes used tovillages and key terrain features. Use ofthe same route twice is an invitation tothe enemy to employ boobytraps. Keep theVC/NVA guessing as to which route will beused next.

.Move where local inhabitants move.‘1’he:epeople know the location of mostInines and boobytraps and will avoid theseareas . In a village, stay near the vil-agers and watch which buildings they use.Use Vietnamese as guides whenever possible.Have sufficient money on hand to pay forinformation on mine and boobytrap locationsand ,support VIP.

●Avoicl patterns . Constantly changedirection of movement. Check times ofdeparture and return of patrols to ensure,for example, khat all daylight patrolsdon’t return before supper and all nightt-ime patrols depart after supper. Avoidtilerepeated use of the same bivouac areas.

.Maintain intervals of 15 meters be-tween men and 100 meters between men andtracked vehicles. In view of the factthat the effective casualty radius of theM26 grenade is 15 meters, and that two ormore casualties are suffered for eachboobytrap grenade accidently detonated,the maintenance of proper interval is mostimportant.

.Move slowly. Rapid movement generatescarelessness. A unit must be allowed suf-ficient time to move to its objective.

●At times the enemy will show themselvesonly when they want to be seen. When

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pursuing the enemy, be especially alertfor deliberately emplaced boobytraps onthe axis of advance.

●Artillery and mortar fires near andin the area of operations will not onlydiscourage boobytrap emplacement, but willalso neutralize devices by sympatheticdetonation, overturning and burying em-placed mines, and rupturing tripwires.Employment of these fires beside a road,before and during a road sweep, will dis-courage command detonation of road mines.

.At all times, a lightweight stick(bamboo) or a slender steel rod can behelpful if used to feel for tripwires.

.Mark detected mines and boobytrapsso those following may avoid them.

.Helicopters can be used to extract aunit which finds itself in a heavily booby-trapped area.

●At times, the flanks of a road areboobytrapped out to 250 meters as anobstacle to road sweep security teams.Tanks , preceding the infantry, can detonatethese boobytraps. When trafficabilitypermits, tanks moving off and parallel tothe road sweeps can also reduce tank road-mining incidents. Random selection of tanktravel between road and adjacent terrainwill keep the NVA guessing as to the actualroute the tank will take.

.When on roads, stay in the well-usedportion and off shoulders.

●FO11OW the tracks of the vehicle ahead,If there is no vehicle ahead, stay out ofthe ruts.

●Avoid holes, depressions, and objectslying on the road.

+ Remember: A boobytrap too easilydetected can be a ruse resulting in detona-tion of other explosive devices emplacednearby.

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*****%

Immediate Action To Take When and Afteran Explosive Device Is Tripped

It is recognized that little reactiontime exists once the detonation chainstarts. The maximum delay for the M26 andforeign grenades ranges from 4 to 9 seconds.If the delay element has been modified, theminimum fuse delay can be less than 1 1/2seconds . However, since the time availablecannot be predicted, certain immediateaction can assist in reducing casualtiesand the degree of personal injury.

b Immediate Action

FIRST: Be alert for the “pop” of theexploding cap, the tug of thetripwire, or the warning ofanother Marine.

‘J)FIIRII: Drop to Lhe ground immediately.

Immediate act:Lon is designed as an instinc-tive reaction based on minimum fuse delay.h’hen using it also remember:

.Do not attempt to outrun the explosion,The 800 fragments of the M26 grenade havean initial velocity of over 5000 feet persecond. During the available delay, how-ever brief, an individual can best removehimself from the cone of the explosion bydropping to the ground. He must assumea minimum delay in every case.

eIf possible, when dropping to theground, present the smallest target to theforce of the explosion by pointing thefeet in the direction of the charge.

.All those nearby should drop to theground when the warning is sounded.

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●DO not immediately rush to the aidof Marines wounded by mines or boobytraps.Frequently there is a second boobytrap inthe vicinity of the first. The man near-est each casualty should carefully clearhis way to the wounded individual andrender first aid. Under no circumstancesshould the unit leaders or others crowdnear the wounded men.

.Conduct a brief but careful searchfor other explosive devices in the imme-diate vicinity before moving on.

.If a device is tripped and does notexplode, follow the same immediate actionand then blow it in place.

******

UNIT TRAININGWe have discussed preventive counter-

measures , tactical countermeasures andindividual countermeasures. Simply real-izinfl that these countermeasures existlSII’t ~ufric:icnb, IIL.L:+:Imperablve thatevery Marine becomes knowledgeable of andproficient in the execution Or the counter-measures discussed. ‘fhis task can beaccomplished through an aggressive andcomprehensive unit and individual trainingprogram. Such training should emphasize:

●Wearing of helmets and body armor.●Dispersion between men.. Alertness .QVisual detection techniques?operation of electronic detection

equipment..Demolition training which enables

Marines to destroy explosive devices inplace.

.Employment of the buddy system.

.Avoidance of patterns .

.Immediate action procedures and actionto take subsequent to the detonation of anexplosive device.

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SECTION III

ENEMY MINE INDICATORS

If the enemy emplaces mines or booby-traps in the vicinity of villages or inareas where he moves or expects to move,he often indicates the location or direc-tion of the explosive devices in somemanner. The VC/NVA may not always followthe examples in this publication in abso-lute detail, but as a general rule, theindicators are usually found in a regularpattern such as sticks or stones in a lineor sticks placed on or in the ground. Thisregularity of pattern is the danger signal(see fig. 7). Any arrangement of sticksand stones which appears unnatural indicatesa strong possibility of the presence of

mines and boobytraps. The illustrationswhich follow are examples of marking pat-terns indicating the presence of minesand boobytraps which have been encounteredthus far in SVN.

ARROW MARKERS

\

‘.

A

A. Three ~ticks are placed on the trail inthe form of an arrowhead. The importantthing to remember is that the point of thearrow does not always point in the directionof’the boobytrap. The symbol can only beconsidered as a means to identify an areaas being boobytrapped,

B. A variation of the three-stick arrowheadshows a fourth stick, Again, no definitepattern has been established as to directionor the reason for the fourth stick (usuallyI)rokerl). But it does mean boobytraps inthe area.

c. The “Y” arrangement is sometime5 foundfarther down the trail from the arrowheadindicating the limit of the danger area.No pattern or specific distance has beenestablished.

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BAMBOO RECTANGLE MARKER

As shown, this marker usually indicatesa boobytrap within the square. Most ofthese symbols found l]avebeen laid outwII,lJ bamboo 18 to 42 incl~es in length.

IJAM1300MARKER

A piece of bamboo 6 to 8 inches long isstuck in the ground at an angle of 45degrees. Generally, boobytraps can beexpected along the axis of the bamboo ineither direction.

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BAMBOO TRIPOD MARKER

The bamboo tripod consists of bamboo,usually about 18 inches long, tied to-gether to form a tripod. Wire, vines ,cord or string is wrapped around the legsnear the bottom to hold the tripod inplace. This device has been found directlyover punji pits, boobytraps, and mines.

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BROKEN BUSH OR STICK MARKERS

A. The enemy has been known to break thetops of small saplings and bushes pointingthe broken part in the direction of theboobytrapped area. Usually mines andboobytraps are planted 50 to 100 metersfrom this marker.

B. A stick or length of bamboo broken ata right angle and lying across the road ortrail may mean an enemy mine or boobytrap200 to 400 meters ahead.

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BANANA LEAF MARKERS

A banana leaf or other similar leaf isfolded down the center with a thin stickapproximately the thickness of a toothpickwoven through in two places. In additionto marking mines, this may indicate anambush area. There is no pattern as tolocation or distance of mines or ambushesfrom this marker.

iii-...

PARALLEL STICK MARKER

Short sticks or lengths of bamboo laidparallel to a road or trail usually meanthe road or trail is free of mines orboobytraps.

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C*.z

GROWING GRASS MARKER

Il!IGrowing grass is sometimes tied to

f’ormfour growing sheaves of grass. Thetied sheaves form a square of about 6 feet.The mine is buried or concealed in thecenter of the square.

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TRAIL MARKERs

These devices have been used extensivelytogether. The mine or boobytrap Is placed(buried) under two large leaves. In frontand to the rear, at no special distance,stakes are driven. The markers have alsobeen used independently of each other attimes.

C*

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FORKED-STICK MARKER

A forked stick Is driven verticallyInto the ground and another stick is laidinto the fork with the elevated end point-ing to the danger area, Distance toexplosive device is unknown. This signmay also indicate enemy direction ofmovement.

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ROCK MARKERS

Various formations of rocks and smallstones are used to mark boobytrapped areas.No pattern of distance or location hasbeen established.

‘>.$fii ,.

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SPACED-STICK MARKER

#--’

Three sticks, one on each side of aroad or trail and one in the middle,usually mean the road 1s not to be used.A mine or boobytrap is usually 200 to400 meters from the marker. Stones havebeen used in the same manner.

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i!ii$$1,

TRACK MARKER

I&TCCCEE[

Iccgccc[*The enemy has capitalized on our habit

of following old vehicle tracks by placingmines in these tracks. Mines are some-times marked with crossed sticks or anarrangement of stones. The location ofthe mine in relation to these markers isunknown. The mine may be under themarker or up to 400 meters farther on.

‘ii36

STAKES WITH X-MARKER

An MIA1 antitank mine with approximately25 pounds of TNT was discovered under thismarker. The mine had been marked withstakes at each corner and three sticksforming an ‘lx1lover the mine.

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-..__ _,

-T ---

SECTION IV

ENEMY MINES AND BOOBYTRAPS

EXPLOSIVE ANTIPERSONNEL DEVICES

Mines and explosive boobytraps employedby the enemy against friendly personnelare limited in type and quantity only bythe availability of explosive materialsand the imagination of the enemy. Any-thing that can be made to explode andcause injury can be rigged as an anti-personnel mine or boobytrap.

Antipersonnel mines and explosiveboobytraps are very successfully employedby khe VC/NVA. Part of this success isbecause Marines are not familiar with thephysical description of explosive devicesnormally employed by the VC/NVA, and thus

fall to recognize them prior to accidentaldetonation.

The following illustrations representsome of the devices employed by theVC/NVA in SVN.

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--..,

iii r.

SUN-BAKEDAPPROX ~“

SAFETY PINREMOVED

MUDBALL MINE

MUD OR CLAYTHICK \

M26 HAN DGRENADE

The mudball mine consists of a hand-grenade encased in sun-baked mud or clay.The safety pin (pull ring) is removedand mud is molded around the grenade.After the mud dries It holds the leverof the grenade in the safe position. Themudball is placed on trails or anywheretroops may walk. Stepping on the ballbreaks the dried mud apart and releasesthe lever detonating the grenade. TheU.S. M26 and M33 handgrenades have beenthe most commonly used grenades for thispurpose although other lever-type grenadesmay be used.

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. .- .- -

TIN CAN ANTIPERSONNEL MINE

The tin can mine is constructed fromsheet metal or any discarded metal con-tainer (C-ration, beer, or soft drinkcan) . The firing device for the explosiveis an improvised fuse with zero delayaction. A handgrenade fuse may be usedby removal of the delay element. The minefunctions by a tripwire attached to thepull ring. Pressure on the tripwire pullsthe pull ring, activating the mine in thesame manner as a handgrenade.

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.-..

iii .

CAST-IRON ANTIPERSONNELFRAGMENTATION MINE

1- . I fXST IRON lAWfDWOOD I

J....1. 31

This mine, made of cast iron, reserllblcsa stick handgrenade with a very shorthandle . The word “MIN” is often foundcast into the body. The handle houses apull-friction igniter. A tug on a trip-wire attached to the friction igniterwill activate the fuse.

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----- .

iiii

CHINESE COMMUNIST NO. 8DUAL-PURPOSE MINE

4Almost identical to the CHICOM No.Dual-Purpose Mine, this device also has adouble-acting fu9e. Like the No.4, apressure of 300 pounds on the pressurespider or a pull of 10 pounds on an attachedtripwire will detonate the mine. Slightlylarger than the No.4, this mine contains 5pounds of explosive and has an overallweight of 12 pounds. It is made of metaland coated with creosote for waterproofing.

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. .. .

BOUNDING FRAGMENTATION MINE

if

HANDGRENADE

LEADS TOWOOD CYLINDER

ELECTRICDETONATOR

‘Iihebounding mine is improvised fromexpended U.S. M2 bounding mine or M48 trip-flare cases. A wooden cylinder slightlysmaller in diameter than the mine case ishollowed out so that a standard grenadecan fit inside. The wooden cylinder (withenclosed grenade) i.sthen fitted into themine case and the grenade’s safety pin isextracted. When the mine is detonated,the cylinder and grenade are propelledupward. As the wooden cylinder and grenadeseparate, the handle flies off the grenade,activating the fuse.

. .

VC “TOE POPPER” MINE

This mine is fabricated of cartridgecases or pieces of pipe of various sizes.It is loaded with a charge of blackpowder, a primer, and a variety of frag-ments for missile effect. When the victimsteps on the mine, the igniter detonatesthe black powder charge and propels thefragments upward.

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-.

CARTRIDGE TRAP

CARTRIDGE TRAP\

CAMOUFLAGED BAMBOO SLAT

NAIL OR FIRING PIN (

WOODEN OOARD---

Four simple and easily obtainablecomponents make up this mine; a bambootube, a nail, a piece of wood, and anysmall arms ammunition or M79 round. Thepiece of wood is used as a base. Thebamboo tube is placed upright on thewooden base and a nail is driven up throughthe wood to penetrate the bottom of thebamboo . The cartridge is then wedged intothe bamboo so that the primer is touchingthe point of the nail. Partially buriedalong a trail or path, the pressure of aman’s foot stepping on the nose of thecartridge forces the primer onto the nail,firing the cartridge,

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iii

DIRECTIONAL FRAGMENTATIONMINE (DH-1O)

% !f!Lg!l*Commonly referred to as a “CHICOM or

VC claymore,” this mine has characteristicssimilar to the U.S. M18 Claymore Mine.Fused electrically, it is a command-deto-nating device designed for employment fromambush or defensive positions. It has arange of 150 to 200 meters and is effectiveagainst personnel and thin-skinned vehicles.

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)

iii 1.

POMZ-2 ANTIPERSONNEL MINE

BODY PULL WIRE

\

INSIDE HERE1

4Chinese Communist copies of the Soviet

POMZ-2 mine are now being employed by theVC/NVA . Weighing only 4.4 pounds, it ise~sily carried and can be emplaced quickly.Fused for detonation by tripwire (tensionrelease or pressure release), it can alsobe rigged electrically for command deto-nation.

******

NONEXPLOSIVE BOOBYTRAPS

The idea of nonexplosive boobytraps isas old as man. From the simple earth pitlined with sharpened stakes to highlysophisticated mechanisms of triggered coilsand latches, the enemy employs them all.The principle employed is simply to useanything that will catch the victim bysurprise.

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BARBED-SPIKE PLATE

BARBED–SPIKE PLATE

The barbed-spike plate is the basicelement of all enemy nonexplosive booby-traps. The plate, a flat piece of’woodor metal, is used as a base to fastenany number of barbed spikes. The spikes,ranging in length from several inches toseveral feet, are fastened securely tothe base. When a man steps or falls onthe spiked plate, or’is struck by one, thespikes will penetrate, producing aserious wound.

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—

SPIKE TRAP BOX

TOP \

k–-–––40C-----4

‘i’ili:~device i~ a simple wooden boxmade of boards joined together with fourcorner posts . The box has a lightweight topbut the bottom is removed. Barbed spikesare placed in the ground at tl~ebottompointing upward. This trap is usuallyset up on dirt roads and trails to takeadvantage of favorable camouflage.

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--.— . .

POINTED BAMBOO STAKES

Made of bamboo which has been sharpened,the stakes are stuck In the ground andcovered withl grass. When a weapon is firedor a grenade thrown, ‘troops seek cover and

are impaled.

C*

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.—, -

SPIKE ‘1’RAppIrr

SPIKE TRAP PIT.3-

‘~- ii, q ~ NJiii CHtiNG

a&Q5&,,7,~CROSSBEAM LOC~7NANH NGANG GIIJ

,J$J4=#ox?:;,

h, ,~

A trap pit is a large trap box with abamboo top. Stakes are made of sharpenedbamboo or barbed spikes and used to linethe box. When a man steps on the trap hewill fall into the pit, The top turns onan axle; thererore, the trap does not needto be reset to work again. The pit isoften prepared as a defensive obstacle andthen made safe by locking it in place witha crossbeam (so it can be crossed safelyby the enemy) until the desired time ofl..ls~.

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— —.

iii%

TRAP BRIDGE.——

TRAP BRIDGE

CUT AT THE MIDDLE ANO COVERED WITH MUD

‘\

A small footbridge i.spartially cut inthe middle, ‘l’hecut is then camouflagedwittl coverings of’mud, etc. Barbed spikesor sharpened bamboo stakes are emplacedunder the cut, using the water, mud orfoilage under the bridge as camouflage.The weight of a man on the bridge willcause it to collapse, tumbling the victimonto the spikes. Like the spike trap pit,bridges can be prepared in this manner,then braced for normal use, At theapproach of free world forces the bracesare removed.

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___ _

aSTEEL ARROW TRAP

STEEL ARROW TRAP

OAMBOO

TRIPWIRE CROSSESTHE ROAD

This trap utilizes a bamboo tube(usually about 3 feet long) as a launcher.A steel arrow is placed in the tube.Using a block of wood as the bolt, a stripof strong rubber for power and a catch tolock the rubber strip, the device is firedTwith a tripwire. When the victim tri~sthe wire, the latch disengages, allowingthe rubber strip to launch the arrow.

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BAMBOO WHIP

A strip of springy bamboo from 3 to 10feet in length is used to make a bamboowhip. A barbed-spike plate is secured tothe tip of the bamboo (or several of thespikes driven through the bamboo), and thewhip is drawn back and secured. A tripwireis then latched to the whip and the wire isstrung across the trail. When a man tripsthe wire, the bamboo is released, and whipsaround, striking the victim with the spikes.

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. . . _

ANTITANK AND VEHICLE MINES

Mines employed by the enemy againstwheeled and tracked vehicles vary fromconventional antitank mines of foreignmanufacture to rigged duds and locallyproduced explosive devices. All the in-dustrially produced mines are of the typefused for detonation at from 150 to 400pounds of pressure. They are buriedslightly beneath the surface of the ground.The enemy generally employs these mines asdesigned but has varied fusing and posi-tioning so that there is no definite pattern.

******

SOVIET ANTITANK MINE TMB-2

Designed to avoid detection by a minedetector, this mine is constructed of blackor brown tar-impregnated cardboard! It iS

gauged for activation by a force of 350

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—.- -

pounds of pressure. Further, it can bewaterproofed by use of wood and plasticsheeting, without losing its nondetectioncharacteristic . It contains 11 pounds ofexplosive and has an overall weight of15.4 pounds.

ii!?-.CHINESE COMMUNIST NO. 4

DUAL-PURPOSE MINE

Intended for employment against bothvehicles and personnel, this mine incor-porates a double-acting fuse that willdetonate the mine under either of twocircumstances : The first, when a load of300 pounds of pressure is applied to thepressure spider; the second, when a pullof 10 pounds is exerted on a tripwirefastened to the fuse’s striker-retainerpin. Constructed of creosoted metal, itcarries 4 pounds of explosive and has anoverall weight of about 10 pounds.

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-—

CONCRETE I?RAGMENTATION MINE

—.i . . ..- -4

coo .—. . .

This mine is constructed of explosiveencased in a cylindrically shaped concreteshell with a flat side for stable emplace-ment . A 2-inch-diameter pipe on one endof the mine serves as a carrying handleand detonator housing. The two swivels ontop of the mine are used to tie it to anobject. Usually employed as a command-detonating mine, it is equipped with anelectrical firing device.

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—-. .

C*NVA CAST-IRON FRAGMENTATION

ANTITANK MINE

Produced in North Vietnam, this egg-shaped mine is made of cast iron withserrations on its outer surface. Designedfor command detonation, the mine is fusedwith an electrical detonator and weighs12 pounds.

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‘%-

(3>f-.!.

VC MOUND-SHAPED MINE

/ CAR9VWGmE

--l -@clDET0NAT08LEAD

Ill lING ,“E

Manufactured locally in VC mine fac-tories, this mine contains an iron-pipedetonator encased in concrete. Anothercommand-detonating mine, it is fusedelectrically and weighs 13 pounds.

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—

VC ROUND VOLUME MINE

I l/- .30i

W1OMA1M UAO

Produced locally in VC mine f’ac~ories,this mine is a prototype of numerous otherVC-manufactured explosive devices. Con-structed of sheet metal, with welded seams,it generally weighs about 15 pounds, ofwhich 13 pounds are explosive. Commanddetonated, it is fused electrically andemploys two detonators, one in each end ofthe mine. The same principle of construc-tion is applied to salvaged artillery shellcasings, expended LAAW launchers, and mostother devices using metal containers.

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. . . ,,

VC BOX MINE AND DEMOLITIONS

m.—

Tll)l-TlPECCOBAHHbI14

The VC box mine is constructed of woodutilizing discarded ammunition boxes or anyscrap material. Mine detectors will notlocate these devices. They can be water-prool’cd with plastic sheeting. Box minesarc produced in various sizes but the mostcommon contains about 40 pounds of explosive.The mine can be fused for command detonationor self-detonation by the use of variousdevices. The explosive charge is usuallymade up of standard Soviet or ChineseCommunist l-pound demolition blocks.

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iii .

B-40 ANTITANK BOOBYTRAP

RPC ROUND

11006 TER

S* MBOO POLK48 DEGRCCS

Wlnr

ANT I TANK 8ooflYrRflP

A length of bamboo is emplaced at anangle of 45 degrees along the shoulder ofa road. A B-40 rocket is then placed inthe bamboo tube and fired electrically bycommand detonation as the tank or vehiclecrosses the line of fire.

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%-

@.

l,.

SOVIET ANTTTANK MINE ‘I’M-41------

Constructed of blued steel, sometimespainted olive drab or white, the TM-41carries an explosive charge of 8 poundsand ilasa total weight of 12 pounds. Aforce of 350 pounds of pressure on the lidwill activate the firing device. Withvery little additional waterproofing itcan remain operational indefinitely.

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-.

iii ..

CHINESE COMMUNIST MIA1ANTITANK MINE

Manufactured in Communist China, thismine is similar to and often mistaken fora U.S. pre-World War II mine. Made ofmetal, it is painted olive drab with theyellow markings IIMINEMlAl-TNT”, It iSactivated by 200 pounds of pressure onthe pressure plate. This mine contains4 pounds of explosive and weighs 11.5pounds .

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ANTIHELICOPTER MINING

The degree of success that the employ-ment of helicopters has had on restrictingand containing VC/NVA activities is evi-denced by the enemy’s efforts to destroyor neutralize these machines. In additionto intense ground fire, the enemy hasdevised numerous helicopter landing zonedestruction systems. Such destructionsystems range from the primitive plantingof long pointed stakes to imaginativeexplosive devices. Because of its design,the helicopter is extremely vulnerable tothese devices, particular the rotors andairframe.

******

HELICOPTER EXPLOSIVE TRAPS

Grenades, artillery/mortar rounds, orany other type of exploding ordnance aremounted in trees or on the surface of thelandinc zone. The explosive devices arerigced for tripwire detonation and the

66

wire is strung to loosely emplaced poles.The rotorwash of landing helicopters willblow the poles from their loose position,tripping the device.

******

A 13-year-old Vietnamese boy recentlyclaimed that the VC had forced him toreconnoiter helicopter landing zones. Theboy was instructed by the VC to placehandgrenades In the zones with stringswrapped around the levers, pieces of paperattached to the free ends of the stringsand the rings (pull rings) pulled. Rotor-wash from landing helicopters would thenblow the paper, unwrap the string, andrelease the safety lever.

a

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