Pregnancy• Pathology professionals help keep mothers and babies healthy

• Antenatal and newborn screening tests are performed by pathologists and scientists

• Pathology tests include blood tests for anaemia, diabetes and infections

Pregnancy

• Some foods should not be eaten during pregnancy

• Some should be avoided because of the risk of infection e.g. raw eggs, unpasteurised cheese, pâté

• Others should be avoided because of the risk of toxicity e.g. liver, tuna

Pregnancy• Emma’s pregnancy was completely normal, with no complications

• During her pregnancy she had over 20 pathology tests including a pregnancy test, screening for syphilis, rubella and HIV, tests for anaemia, Down’s syndrome and a test to determine her blood group

Pregnancy

• In 2008 790,000 babies were born in the UK

• The average age of mothers was 29 years

• The average age of fathers was 32 years

• 1 in 34 babies is born a twin or triplet

Antibiotics• Antibiotics are drugs used to treat bacterial infections

• Antibiotics don’t work against viruses so are no good for a cold or ‘flu’

• Taking antibiotics unnecessarily can result in bacteria becoming resistant to the antibiotic

Antibiotics

• Preventing infection is an important role of pathologists

• Until the last century many women died after giving birth from childbed fever

• This was almost completely eradicated by better hygiene and the use of antibiotics

Antibiotics• John had a chest infection and went to see his GP

• He was prescribed antibiotics but only took 3 days of the week’s course

• His chest infection came back

• It is important to take the full course of antibiotics, even if you feel better

Antibiotics• Listeriosis is an infection cause by Listeria monocytogenes

• It is particularly harmful for pregnant women as it can cross the placenta and infect the baby

• Listeria can contaminate food even if refrigerated e.g. soft cheese, pâté

Transfusion• Blood transfusions save thousands of lives every year, including mothers and babies

• 8000 units of blood are used every day in the UK

• Do you know your blood group? The most common is O positive

Transfusion• Blood transfusions may be given following blood loss during childbirth

• Blood transfusions can even be given to babies before they are born

• In some circumstances blood lost during a caesarian section can be given back to the mother

Transfusion• Gemma and her husband are both blood group A but she is rhesus negative and he is positive

• Gemma was given an injection of anti-D to prevent serious illness in future pregnancies

• Anti-D has saved thousands of babies

Transfusion• Almost anyone can become a blood donor

• A unit of blood is 470ml

• You can give blood every 4 months

• All donated blood is tested for infections including HIV, hepatitis B and C, syphilis

Heart• Pathology is at the heart of modern healthcare

• Over 70% of diagnoses in the NHS involve pathology

• Pathologists and scientists help keep your heart healthy

• Heart disease is the most common cause of death in the UK

Heart• This is a baby’s heart at 12 weeks’ gestation

• The heart is already perfectly formed at this stage

• The baby’s heart beats faster than the mother’s

• Congenital heart disease affects around 1 in 100 babies

Heart• 1 in 5 people will die from coronary heart disease

• Some pathologists perform post mortem (autopsy) examinations

• Much of the knowledge about heart attacks has been gained from post mortems

Heart• Fred was admitted to hospital with pain in his chest

• Pathology tests showed that he had had a heart attack and that his cholesterol level was high

• Other risk factors include smoking, high blood pressure and inactivity

Ovum• An ovum is another name for an egg

• The egg contains half the genetic information needed to make a baby

• 1 in 6 couples suffer from infertility

• Clinical embryologists help them conceive – using IVF or other techniques

Ovum• Clinical embryologists are scientists who specialise in the investigation and treatment of infertility

• Nearly 2% of babies in the UK are born following assisted conception techniques such as IVF (in vitro fertilisation)

• The first IVF baby was born in 1978

Ovum• Tracey and Tom lost their first baby to an inherited disease

• They had IVF for their next pregnancy to make sure that their second child did not have the same illness

• A healthy embryo was selected and now they have a bouncing baby boy

Ovum• Over 13,000 babies are born from IVF each year

• Approximately 24% of IVF attempts are successful

• 23% of IVF pregnancies result in more than one baby

• The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority oversees all work involving human eggs, including IVF

Lab. coat• Many people think that all pathologists work in laboratories or mortuaries but that’s not the case

• Many pathologists work on hospital wards and in outpatients clinics

• Even lab-based pathologists are part of multidisciplinary teams

Lab. coat• The image of the mad scientist working in an isolated lab does not reflect reality

• Scientists and pathologists work in teams and must have good communication skills

• There are 20,000 scientists working in pathology in the UK

Lab. coat• Andrew is training to become a clinical scientist

• Clinical scientists work in a wide range of pathology specialties including biochemistry, cytogenetics, molecular genetics, immunology, microbiology, histocompatibility and immunogenetics

Lab. coat• There are many different types of laboratory, reflecting the 19 pathology specialties

• Many hospitals open their labs to the public during National Pathology Week

• This is a great opportunity to meet pathologists and scientists and find out what goes on behind the scenes

Operation• Surgeons perform operations but pathologists examine the tissue removed

• Histopathologists examine tissue with the naked eye and under the microscope

• If you’ve had your appendix or a mole removed, a pathologist will have examined it

Operation• Nearly 20 million histology slides are examined in the UK every year

• Special stains are used to identify particular tumours or infective organisms

• Histopathologists are all doctors and undergo at least 8 further years of training after qualifying

Operation• Kelly’s baby was too big to be born naturally so she had a caesarian section

• Pathology tests were performed to make sure that Kelly and her baby stayed healthy

• Approximately 1 in 4 babies is born by caesarian section in the UK

Operation• Histopathology is a vital part of many people’s health care

• Histopathologists diagnose cancer as well as less serious diseases

• They are involved in screening for diseases such as cervical, breast and bowel cancer

Glucose• This represents a molecule of glucose, the sugar that provides fuel for the body

• Clinical biochemists are pathology scientists who measure chemicals like glucose in the blood, urine or other body fluids

• Glucose levels are controlled by the hormone insulin

Glucose• If the body doesn’t make enough insulin, diabetes may develop

• Clinical biochemistry is essential for the management of diseases like diabetes

• Other chemicals that are measured in the blood include sodium, calcium and cholesterol

Glucose• Penny has had diabetes since she was a child

• She has got used to giving herself regular insulin injections

• She measures her own blood sugar levels and varies the amount of insulin she injects

Glucose• Around 2.3 million people in the UK have been diagnosed with diabetes

• It is thought that another 500,000 are not aware that they have the disease

• Resistance to insulin occurs in all pregnant women – but only some develop diabetes

Y chromosome• Everyone has two sex chromosomes, which determine whether you’re male or female

• Men have an X and a Y chromosome (XY)

• Women have two X chromosomes (XX)

• Many diseases have genetic causes

Y chromosome• Geneticists are pathologists who specialise in genetic disease

• They can detect some diseases that run in families and predict who will be affected

• There are more than 6000 known genetic diseases e.g. sickle cell anaemia and cystic fibrosis

Y chromosome• 3-4% of babies have a genetic disease or birth defect

• 30% of children and 10% of adults in hospital are there because of genetically related disease

• Many common diseases also have a genetic component e.g. diabetes, heart disease and cancer

Y chromosome• Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an inherited disease that particularly affects the lungs and gut

• People with CF are more likely to get chest infections and digestion problems

• Pathology tests can diagnose CF before, during or after pregnancy

The 19 pathology specialties include:

• Histopathology

• Haematology

• Clinical biochemistry

• Medical microbiology

• Immunology

Forensic pathology

• The best known pathology specialty

• Is the specialty shown on TV

• Is one of the smallest specialties

• Involves less than 1% of pathologists

Pathology in the NHS:

• Involves 20,000 scientists

• And 7,000 pathologists

• Uses 4% of the health budget

• Is involved in 70% of diagnoses

Pathology tests are essential for the diagnosis

and treatment of common diseases, for example:

• Diabetes

• Cancer

• Heart disease

Pathology tests help keep mothers healthy,

including testing for:

• Anaemia

• Infections

• Rhesus incompatibility

• Diabetes

Pathology tests help keep babies healthy,

including testing for:

• Cystic fibrosis

• Thyroid disorders

• Sickle cell anaemia

• Metabolic disorders

Pathology is:

• The study of disease

• The science behind the cure

• The heart of modern healthcare