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Air pollution with special reference to vehicular
pollution in urban cities��
Introduction
Air pollution has been aggravated by develop-ments that typically occur as countries becomeindustrialised: growing cities, increasing traf-fic, rapid economic development andindustrialisation, and higher levels of energyconsumption. The high influx of population tourban areas, increase in consumption patternsand unplanned urban and industrial develop-ment have led to the problem of air pollution.Currently, in India, air pollution is widespreadin urban areas where vehicles are the majorcontributors and in a few other areas with ahigh concentration of industries and thermalpower plants. Vehicular emissions are of par-ticular concern since these are ground levelsources and thus have the maximum impacton the general population. Also, vehicles con-tribute significantly to the total air pollutionload in many urban areas.
Pressure
IncrIncrIncrIncrIncrease in urban populationease in urban populationease in urban populationease in urban populationease in urban populationBetween 1951 and 1991, the urban populationhas tripled, from 62.4 million to 217.6 million,and its proportion has increased from 17.3%to 25.7%.
Nearly two-thirds of the urban populationis concentrated in 317 class I cities (popula-tion of over 100 000), half of which lives in 23metropolitan areas with populationsexceeding 1 million. The number of urbanagglomerations/cities with populations of overa million has increased from 5 in 1951 to 9 in1971 and 23 in 1991 (Pachauri and Sridharan1998).
This rapid increase in urban populationhas resulted in unplanned urban development,increase in consumption patterns and higherdemands for transport, energy, other infra-structure, thereby leading to pollutionproblems.
IncrIncrIncrIncrIncrease in number of vehiclesease in number of vehiclesease in number of vehiclesease in number of vehiclesease in number of vehiclesThe number of motor vehicles has increasedfrom 0.3 million in 1951 to 37.2 million in1997 (MoST 2000). Out of these, 32% areconcentrated in 23 metropolitan cities. Delhiitself accounts for about 8% of the total regis-tered vehicles and has more registered vehiclesthan those in the other three metros (Mumbai,Calcutta, and Chennai) taken together. Figure10.1 shows the steep growth in the number ofvehicles in India (Photo 10.1).
At the all-India level, the percentage oftwo-wheeled vehicles in the total number ofmotor vehicles increased from 9% in 1951 to69% in 1997, and the share of buses declinedfrom 11% to 1.3% during the same period(MoST 2000). This clearly points to a tremen-dous increase in the share of personaltransport vehicles. In 1997, personal transportvehicles (two-wheeled vehicles and cars only)constituted 78.5% of the total number ofregistered vehicles.
Road-based passenger transport has re-corded very high growth in recent yearsespecially since 1980-81. It is estimated thatthe roads accounted for 44.8 billion passengerkilometer (PKM) in 1951 which has sincegrown to 2,515 billion PKM in 1996. Thefreight traffic handled by road in 1996 wasabout 720 billion tonne kilometer (TKM)which has increased from 12.1 TKM in 1951(MoST 1996). In contrast, the total roadnetwork has increased only 8 times from 0.4
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million kms in 1950-51 to 3.3 million kms in1995-96. The slow growth of road infrastruc-ture and high growth of transportperformance and number of vehicles all implythat Indian roads are reaching a saturationpoint in utilising the existing capacities. Theconsumption of gasoline and HSD has grownmore than 3 times during the period 1980-1997. While the consumption of gasoline andHSD were 1,522 and 9,050 thousand tonnesin 1980-81, it increased to 4,955 and 30,357thousand tonnes in 1996-97, respectively(CMIE 2000).
IncrIncrIncrIncrIncrease in industrial activityease in industrial activityease in industrial activityease in industrial activityease in industrial activityIndia has made rapid strides in industrialisa-tion, and it is one of the ten mostindustrialised nations of the world. But thisstatus, has brought with it unwanted andunanticipated consequences such as un-planned urbanisation, pollution and the risk ofaccidents.
The CPCB (Central Pollution ControlBoard) has identified seventeen categories ofindustries (large and medium scale) as signifi-cantly polluting and the list includes highly airpolluting industries such as integrated ironand steel, thermal power plants, copper/zinc/aluminium smelters, cement, oil refineries,petrochemicals, pesticides and fertiliser units.
The state-wise distribution of these pre-1991 industries indicates that the states ofMaharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, AndhraPradesh and Tamil Nadu have a large numberof industries in these sectors. The category-wise distribution of these units reveals thatsugar sector has the maximum number ofindustries, followed by pharmaceuticals, dis-tillery, cement and fertiliser. It also indicatesthat agro-based and chemical industries havemajor shares of 47% and 37% of the total
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number of industries respectively. The statusof pollution control as on 30 June 2000 is asfollows: out of 1,551 industries, 1,324 have sofar been provided the necessary pollutioncontrol facilities, 165 industries have beenclosed down and the remaining 62 industriesare defaulters (CPCB 2000a). It may be notedthat in some of the key sectors such as ironand steel, 6 out of 8 units belong to the de-faulters category in terms of having pollutioncontrol facilities to comply with the standards.On the other hand, cement, petrochemicals andoil refinery sectors do not have any defaulters.
Small scale industries are a special featureof the Indian economy and play an importantrole in pollution. India has over 3 millionsmall scale units accounting for over 40 per-cent of the total industrial output in thecountry (CII and SII 1996). In general, Indiansmall scale industries lack pollution controlmechanisms. While the larger industries arebetter organised to adopt pollution controlmeasures, the small scale sector is poorlyequipped (both financially and technically) tohandle this problem. They have a very highaggregate pollution potential. Also, in manyurban centres, industrial units are located indensely populated areas, thereby affecting alarge number of people.
IncrIncrIncrIncrIncrease in power generationease in power generationease in power generationease in power generationease in power generationSince 1950-51, the electricity generationcapacity in India has multiplied 55 times froma meager 1.7 thousand MW to 93.3 thousandMW (MoF 2000). The generating capacity inIndia comprises a mix of hydro, thermal, andnuclear plants. Since the early seventies, thehydro-thermal capacity mix has changedsignificantly with the share of hydro in totalcapacity declining from 43% in 1970-71 to24% in 1998-99. Thermal power constitutesabout 74% of the total installed power genera-tion capacity. However, increasing reliance onthis source of energy leads to many environ-mental problems.
India’s coal has a very high in ash content(24%–45%). The increased dependence of thepower sector on an inferior quality coal hasbeen associated with emissions from powerplants in the form of particulate matter, toxicelements, fly ash, oxides of nitrogen, sulphurand carbon besides ash, which required vaststretches of land for disposal. During 1998-99,the power stations consumed 208 milliontonnes of coal, which in turn produced 80million tonnes of ash posing a major problemdisposal (CPCB 2000b).
Thermal power plants belong to the 17categories of highly polluting industries. As on30 June 2000, out of the 97 pre-1991 TPP’s,20 plants had not yet provided the requisitepollution control facilities (CPCB 2000a)(Photo 10.2).
Domestic pollutionDomestic pollutionDomestic pollutionDomestic pollutionDomestic pollutionPollution from different types of cookingstoves using coal, fuelwood, and otherbiomass fuels contributes to some extent, tothe overall pollution load in urban areas. Forexample, in Delhi, the share of the domesticsector is about 7%–8% of the total pollutionload (MoEF 1997). The main concern is theuse of inefficient and highly polluting fuels in
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the poorer households leading to adeterioration in indoor air-quality and health.However, a positive development in thedomestic energy consumption is that liquefiedpetroleum gas is fast becoming the mostpopular cooking fuel, especially in urbanareas, as it is cleaner and more efficient thantraditional cooking fuels (Photo 10.3).
Other sourOther sourOther sourOther sourOther sourcescescescescesThe problem of air pollution in urban areas isalso aggravated due to inadequate powersupply for industrial, commercial and residen-tial activities due to, which consumers have touse diesel-based captive power generationunits emitting high levels NOX and SOX. Inaddition, non-point sources such as wasteburning, construction activities, and roadsideair borne dust due to vehicular movementalso contribute to the total emission load.
State
Air pollutant emission loadAir pollutant emission loadAir pollutant emission loadAir pollutant emission loadAir pollutant emission loadThe direct impact of a growth in variouscausal factors/pressures is the increase in theemission loads of various pollutants, whichhas led to deterioration in the air quality. InIndia, there is no systemic time series data
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available related to air pollutant emissionloads and trends. The availability of emissionfactors for Indian conditions is another issuethat has not been given due attention so far.
TERI (1998) provides some broad esti-mates of the increase in pollution load fromvarious sectors in India. The total estimatedpollution load from the transport sectorincreased from 0.15 million tonnes in 1947 to10.3 million tonnes in 1997. In 1997, COclaimed the largest share (43%) of the total,followed by NOX (30%), HC (20%), SPM(5%), and SO2 (2%). Likewise, in the thermalpower sector, the total estimated pollutionload of SPM, SO2 and NOX increased from0.3 million tonnes in 1947 to 15 milliontonnes in 1997. In 1997, SPM claimed thelargest share (86%) of the total. In theindustrial sector, the total estimated emissionsof SPM from the 7 critical industries (iron andsteel, cement, sugar, fertilisers, paper and paperboard, copper and aluminium) increased from0.2 million tonnes in 1947 to 3 million tonnesin 1997.
The World Bank (1996) study shows thatpollution is concentrated among a few indus-trial sub-sectors and that a sector’scontribution to pollution is often dispropor-tionate to its contribution to industrialoutput. For example, petroleum refineries,textiles, pulp and paper, and industrialchemicals produce 27% of the industrialoutput but contribute 87% of sulphuremissions and 70% of nitrogen emissionsfrom the industrial sector. Likewise, iron andsteel, and non-metallic mineral products,produce about 16% of the industrial outputbut account for 55% of the particulateemissions.
Vehicular emissionsVehicular emissionsVehicular emissionsVehicular emissionsVehicular emissionsThe drastic increase in number of vehicleshas also resulted in a significant increase inthe emission load of various pollutants.
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The quantum of vehicular pollutantsemitted is highest in Delhi followed byMumbai, Bangalore, Calcutta andAhmedabad. The daily pollution load gener-ated due to automobiles in 12 metropolitancities is shown in Table 10.1. Carbon monox-ide (CO) and hydrocarbons (HC) account for64% and 23%, respectively, of the total emis-sion load due to vehicles in all these citiesconsidered together (CPCB 1995).
Apart from the concentration of vehicles inurban areas, other reasons for increasingvehicular pollution are the types of enginesused, age of vehicles, congested traffic, poorroad conditions, and outdated automotivetechnologies and traffic management systems.
Vehicles are a major source of pollutantsin metropolitan cities. In Delhi, the dailypollution load has increased from 1,450tonnes in 1991 to 3,000 metric tonnes in 1997(MoEF 1997). The share of the transportsector has increased from 64% to 67% duringthe same period while that of the industrialsector (including power plants) has decreasedfrom 29% to 25% (MoEF 1997) (Photo 10.4).
Ambient air qualityAmbient air qualityAmbient air qualityAmbient air qualityAmbient air qualityUnder the National Ambient Air QualityMonitoring (NAAQM) network, three criteriaair pollutants, namely, SPM, SO2, and NO2
have been identified for regular monitoringat all the 290 stations spread across thecountry.
CPCB (2000c) analyses the status andtrends of air quality at various cities in Indiafor the period 1990-98. Figures 10.2 to 10.4show the minimum, maximum and annualaverages of SPM, SO2, and NO2 in 16 cities inthe country between 1990 and 1998. The mostprevalent form of air pollution appears to beSPM although there are many stations atwhich SO2 and NO2 levels exceed permissiblelimits. The high influx of population to urbanareas increase in consumption patterns, un-planned urban and industrial development andpoor enforcement mechanism has led to theproblem of air pollution.
The government has taken a number ofmeasures such as legislation, emission stand-ards for industries, guidelines for siting ofindustries, environmental audit, EIA, vehicular
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pollution control measures, pollution preven-tion technologies, action plan for problemareas, development of environmental stand-ards, and promotion of environmentalawareness. However, despite all these meas-ures, air pollution still remains one of themajor environmental problems. At the sametime, there have been success stories as wellsuch as the reduction of ambient lead levels(due to introduction of unleaded petrol) andcomparatively lower SO
2 levels (due to pro-
gressive reduction of sulphur content in fuel).
SPMSuspended particulate matter is one of themost critical air pollutants in most of theurban areas in the country and permissiblestandards are frequently violated several moni-
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tored locations. Its levels have been consist-ently high in various cities over the pastseveral years.
The annual average minimum and maxi-mum SPM concentration in residential areasof various cities ranged from 60 µg/m3 (atBangalore during 1991) to 521 µg/m3 (at Patnaduring 1995), while in industrial areas theannual average ranged between 53 µg/m3
(Chennai during 1992) and 640 µg/m3 (Cal-cutta during 1993). The mean of averagevalues of SPM for nine years (1990 to 1998)ranged between 99 µg/m3 and 390 µg/m3 inresidential areas and between 123 µg/m3 and457 µg/m3 in industrial areas indicating thatthe annual average limit of suspendedparticulate matter for residential areas (140µg/m3) and for industrial areas (360 µg/m3)had been frequently violated in most cities.
The maximum suspended particulatematter (SPM) values were observed inKanpur, Calcutta, and Delhi, while low valueshave been recorded in the south Indian citiesof Chennai, Bangalore, and Hyderabad.
The SPM non-attainment areas are dis-persed throughout the country. The states withmaximum SPM problems are Gujarat,Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh, whereSPM problems are high to critical in a largenumber of cities. The widespread criticality ofthe SPM problem in the country is due to thesynergistic effects of both anthropogenic andnatural sources. Some of these are extensiveurbanisation and construction activities, ve-hicular pollution increase, extensive use offossil fuel in industrial activities, inadequacyof pollution control measures, biomassburning, presence of large acid and semi-acidarea in north-west part of India, increasingdesertification, and decreasing vegetationcover.
SO2The annual average level fluctuation of SO
2
was highest in residential areas of Howrah(West Bengal) recording between 40.6 µg/m3
and 103.8 µg/m3 while it was quite low in
residential areas of Nagpur, Chandigarh, andJaipur (below 10 µg/m3). Among the industrialareas, the recorded sulphur dioxide levels werehigh at Pondicherry, Calcutta, Mumbai, andHowrah, and low at Nagpur, Jaipur, andChandigarh. Thus, based on the mean averagesulphur dioxide value, Nagpur, Chandigarhand Jaipur are cities with the least problemsrelated to sulphur dioxide in the ambient air,while the problem is significant in Howrah,Calcutta, and Pondicherry, where annualaverage limits (60 and 80 µg/m3 for residentialand industrial areas) have been violated manytimes during the past several years.
The sulphur dioxide levels have generallyattained air quality standards in the countryexcept some cities of dense urban and indus-trial activities like Dhanbad (Bihar),Ahmedabad, Ankleshwar, Vadodara and Surat(Gujarat); Nagda (Madhya Pradesh);Pondicherry; and Howrah (West Bengal).Some of the measures taken such as cleanerfuel quality (reduction of sulphur content indiesel) and switch over to cleaner fuel optionhave contributed t lower SO2 ambient levels.
NO2The air quality monitoring data indicate thatthe annual average nitrogen dioxide has beenwell within the annual average limit (60 µg/m3
for residential area and 80 µg/m3 for industrialareas) at most urban cities except in someyears in residential areas of Howrah,Vishakhapatnam, Kota, and industrial areas ofHowrah. The annual average concentration hasbeen low at Nagpur, Chennai, Kanpur, andChandigarh while levels are moderate in othercities.
The nitrogen dioxide non-attainment areaswere at Vishakhapatnam (AP), Jabalpur (MP),Pondicherry, Alwar, Kota, Udaipur(Rajasthan) and Howrah (West Bengal). Thecriticality of problem was observed atVishakhapatnam, Kota, and Howrah.
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Status of other air pollutantsThe salient results of additional parameters atsome stations in the metropolitan cities ofDelhi, Calcutta, Mumbai, and Chennai for theyears 1996-97 are as follows (CPCB 1998):� The annual mean concentration of respir-
able particulate matter (RPM) is muchhigher than the prescribed limits of 120 µg/m3 (industrial) and 60 µg/m3 (residentialand other uses) in Delhi and Calcutta.However, RPM in Mumbai and Chennai isnot very high but is greater than prescribedambient air quality standards.
� Though particulate lead in the ambient airof Calcutta and Delhi is higher as comparedto the other two cities (Chennai andMumbai), it is well within the prescribedlimits for the different area classes.
� The concentration of polycyclic aromatichydrocarbons (PAHs) is showing an upwardtrend. However, at present permissiblelimits for PAHs have not been notified.
It may be noted that lead free gasoline hasbeen introduced throughout the country w.e.f.February 1, 2000, and in all metropolitancities since 1995. This has resulted in a down-ward trend in the lead concentrations in theambient air (CPCB 2000c).
Air quality at traffic intersectionsAir quality at traffic intersectionsAir quality at traffic intersectionsAir quality at traffic intersectionsAir quality at traffic intersectionsAir quality monitoring conducted at differenttraffic intersections in Delhi (MoEF 2000a)revealed the following:� Respirable particulate matter was exces-
sively high at all the monitoring locations.� Sulphur dioxide was recorded within limits
at all the locations.� Nitrogen dioxide was recorded well within
the limits except a few locations.� The carbon monoxide levels at most loca-
tions was much higher than the prescribedpermissible limit. This is because of hightraffic density and large number of motorvehicles operating on the roads.
Measures such as stringent emission normsfor vehicles, cleaner fuel quality, inspectionand maintenance programmes are expected tomake some contribution towardsimprovement in the air quality. However, inthe absence of mass transport system, thetremendous increase in personal vehicles is acause for concern.
Air pollution and health impactsAir pollution and health impactsAir pollution and health impactsAir pollution and health impactsAir pollution and health impactsIn India, millions of people breathe air withhigh concentrations of dreaded pollutants. Theair is highly polluted in terms of suspendedparticulate matter in most cities. This has ledto a greater incidence of associated healtheffects on the population manifested in theform of sub-clinical effects, impaired pulmo-nary functions, use of medication, reducedphysical performance, frequent medical con-sultations and hospital admissions withcomplicated morbidity and even death in theexposed population. As per a World Bank(1993) study, respiratory infectionscontribute to 10.9% of the total burden ofdiseases, which may be both due to presenceof communicable diseases as well as high airpollution levels, while cerebro vascular disease(2.1%) ischemic heart disease (2.8%) andpulmonary obstructions (0.6%) are muchlower. The prevalence of cancer is about 4.1%amongst all the diseases indicating that theeffects of air pollution are visualised on theurban population (CPCB 2000c).
A WHO/UNEP study compared standard-ised prevalences of respiratory diseases indifferent areas of Mumbai, classified accordingto ambient average concentrations of sulphurdioxide. The study revealed a relatively higherprevalence of most respiratory diseases inpolluted urban areas than in the rural controlarea (WHO/UNEP 1992, cited in Repetto1994).
In India, in a study of 2031 children andadults in five mega cities, of the 1852 childrentested, 51.4% had blood lead levels above 10µg/dl. The percentage of children having 10µg/dl or higher blood lead levels ranged from39.9% in Bangalore to 61.8% in Mumbai.
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Among the adults, 40.2% had blood leadlevels of about 10 µg/dl (George Foundation1999, cited in CPCB 2000c).
Brandon, Hommann, and Kishor (1995)estimated the total magnitude of economiccosts associated with environmental degrada-tion in India. Using the 1991-92 air pollutiondata for particulates, SO
2, NO
X, and lead from
36 cities, health impacts were estimated interms of reductions in morbidity and mortalityif pollutant levels in these cities were reducedto the WHO annual average standard. Thetotal health costs due to air pollution wereestimated to be $517-2102 million. Also, thephysical impacts were in terms of 40,000premature deaths avoided.
TERI (1998) estimated the incidence ofmortality and morbidity in different groups inIndia due to exposure to PM10 and translatedthese impacts into economic values. The re-sults indicated 2.5 million premature deathsand total morbidity and mortality costs of Rs885 billion to Rs 4250 billion annually.
Noise pollutionNoise pollutionNoise pollutionNoise pollutionNoise pollutionStudies by the CPCB on the ambient noiselevels show that they exceed the prescribedstandards in most of the big cities. The majorsources of noise are vehicles and industrialmanufacturing processes (MoEF 1998).
Other impactsOther impactsOther impactsOther impactsOther impactsSome of the other impacts due to air pollutioninclude damage to materials, impact onvegetation (including yield loss), and physicaland aesthetic effects (such as reduction invisibility).
Response
Existing policy rExisting policy rExisting policy rExisting policy rExisting policy responseesponseesponseesponseesponseLegislationThe government has formulated a number oflegislations, policies, and programmes forprotecting the environment. Some of theserelated to air pollution are the Air (Prevention
and control of pollution) Act, 1981 and theEnvironment (Protection) Act, 1986. India hasalso adopted the Male declaration on Controland Prevention of air pollution and its likelytransboundary effects for South Asia in April1998.
Ambient air quality standardsAmbient air quality standards (both short-term, i.e., 24 hourly, and long-term, i.e.,annual) have been laid down for industrial,residential/rural/other, and sensitive areas withrespect to pollutants such as SO2, NOX, SPM,RPM, Pb, and CO. Ambient air quality stand-ards for NH3 have also been notified.
Guidelines for siting of industriesGuidelines for siting industries are prescribedso that the possible adverse effects on theenvironment and quality of life can be mini-mised. Some natural life-sustaining systemsand specific land-uses are more sensitive, andthat has been taken into account while specify-ing the minimum prescribed distance for sitinga given industry.
Environmental impact assessment(EIA)EIA is mandatory for 29 specific activities/projects and also for some of the activities tobe taken up in identified areas such as thecoastal zone, Doon valley, etc. The procedurefor examining the impact of different activitiesincludes the preparation of EIA report, hold-ing of a public hearing and examination by aduly constituted expert committee (MoEF1999). Also, MoEF has taken up carryingcapacity-based regional planning studies incertain selected areas of the country.
Emission standards for industriesThe CPCB has laid down the maximum per-missible limits for different pollutants formany categories of industries that contributeto air pollution. The standards have beennotified by MoEF under the Environment(Protection) Act 1986.
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Environmental auditSubmission of an environmental statement bypolluting units to the concerned State Pollu-tion Control Boards has been mademandatory under the Environment (Protec-tion) Act, 1986.
Zoning atlas for siting of industriesIn order to delineate the areas that are suitablefor industrial siting, a district-wise zoning atlasproject has been taken up by the CPCB thatzones and classifies the environment in adistrict. The industrial zones are identifiedbased on the sensitivity and pollution-receiv-ing potential of the district (MoEF 2000a).
Development of pollutionprevention technologiesIndustries are encouraged to use cleaner andlow waste or no waste technologies to reducewaste generation and the emission of pollut-ants. Various pollution prevention technologiesare being developed and promoted (CPCB2000c). A good scope exists for the demon-stration and replication of cleaner technologiesin clusters of small-scale industries such asfoundry (Howrah), pottery (Khurja), and glass(Firozabad).
Beneficiated coalThe Ministry of Environment and Forests hasmade it mandatory for thermal power plantslocated beyond 1000 km from the coal pit-head, or in urban, ecologically sensitive orcritically-polluted areas, to use beneficiated/blended coal containing ash not more than34%, with effect from June 2001. The powerplants using FBC (Fluidized Bed Combustion)and IGCC (Integrated Gasification CombinedCycle) combustion technologies are, however,exempted to use beneficiated coal irrespectiveof their locations (CPCB 2000b).
Pollution control in problem areasTwenty-four problem areas have been identi-fied in the country for pollution controlthrough concerted efforts involving all theconcerned agencies / industries. Action planshave been prepared and are being imple-mented (MoEF 2000a).
Epidemiological studiesMoEF has initiated the environmental epide-miological studies in 7 critically pollutedareas viz. Vapi (Gujarat), Angul-Talcher(Orissa), Chembur (Mumbai), Cochin(Kerala), Kanpur (UP), Mandi-Govindgarh(Punjab), Najafgarh drain basin Delhi andalso in Pune. The details of epidemiologicalstudies undertaken / under progress are givenin Annexure I (Table 10.2). The initialfeedback from the studies indicate that theincidence of symptomatic morbidity (eyeirritation, respiratory problem, and skin lesion/ irritation) is high in areas of industrialactivity. However, no conclusive data onmorbidity and mortality rates could beestablished having direct correlation with theenvironmental pollution (MoEF 2000b).
Control of vehicular pollutionThe various measures taken by government tomitigate emissions from transport sector are asfollows:
Stringent emission norms. The mass emissionstandards for new vehicles had been firstnotified in the year 1991 in India. Stringentemission norms along with fuel quality specifi-cations were laid down in 1996 and 2000.Euro I norms are applicable from 1 April 2000and Euro II norms will be applicable all overIndia from 1 April 2005. However, in the caseof the NCR, the norms were brought forwardto 1 June 1999 and 1 April 2000 for Euro Iand Euro II, respectively (CPCB 1999, SIAM1999).
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Cleaner fuel quality. To conform to the strin-gent emission norms, it is imperative that bothfuel specification and engine technologies gohand in hand. Fuel quality specifications havebeen laid down by the BIS (Bureau of IndianStandards) for gasoline and diesel for theperiod 2000-2005 and beyond 2005 for thecountry (BIS 1997a, BIS 1997b).
Given the increased usage of diesel in ourcountry, it becomes necessary to reduce itssulphur content. In a recent directive by theSupreme Court, the Ministry of Petroleumand Natural Gas is to supply diesel with0.05% m/m sulphur to the NCT by 31 De-cember 2000 and entire NCR from 30 June2001. For gasoline, lead has been phased outin the entire country w.e.f. 1 February 2000.Similarly the benzene content is to bereduced and by 1 October 2000, gasoline with1% benzene is to be supplied to the whole ofthe NCT region. For NCR, it should besupplied by 31 March 2001 (CPCB 2000c;CSE 2000). Later, it has to be extended toother parts of the country as well.
Inspection and maintenance (I&M). The firstand most important step towards emissioncontrol for the large in-use fleet of vehicles isthe formulation of an inspection and mainte-nance system. It is possible to reduce 30-40%pollution loads generated by vehicles throughproper periodical inspections and maintenanceof vehicles (CPCB 2000c). I&M measures forin-use vehicles are an essential complement toemission standards for new vehicles. In India,the existing mechanism of I&M is inadequate.Thus, there is a great need to establish effec-tive periodic I&M programmes.
Other stringent measures in certain areas. On1st April 1999, the specifications for 2T oilbecame effective. In order to prevent the useof 2T oil in excess of the required quantity,premixed 2T oil dispensers have been installedin all gasoline stations of Delhi (CPCB 1999).Other measures include bans on commercialvehicles more than 15 years old, a ban on the
registration of new auto-rickshaws with frontengine, replacement of all pre-1990 autos andtaxis with new vehicles using clean fuels; andthe removal of 8 year old buses from theroads unless they use CNG or some otherclean fuel. It is also planned that all buses inDelhi are to switch over to CNG instead ofdiesel by 31 March 2001 (CPCB 1999).
Role of the judiciaryIn recent years, the judiciary has played aprominent role in environmental protection.A number of judgements relating to stringentvehicle emission norms, fuel quality, introduc-tion of cleaner fuels, phasing-out of oldervehicles, and shifting of hazardous industrieshave provided a great deal of momentum tothe efforts for improvement of air quality.
Policy gapsPolicy gapsPolicy gapsPolicy gapsPolicy gaps� Prevention based environmental policy
needs to be strengthened. Issues such ascleaner technology and land use planningincorporating environmental considerationsneed to be given priority.
� Effectiveness and impact of various policymeasures not assessed.
� No separate transport policy exists at thenational and state levels.
� No well defined policy to promote privateparticipation in public transport.
� Lack of coordination between variousgovernment agencies to improve transportservices.
Knowledge/inforKnowledge/inforKnowledge/inforKnowledge/inforKnowledge/information/data gapsmation/data gapsmation/data gapsmation/data gapsmation/data gaps� Strengthening of monitoring at hotspots/
traffic intersections; more stations to beestablished and frequency of monitoringincreased.
� Additional air quality parameters need to bemonitored such as ozone, benzene, PAH,PM2.5, dry deposition of sulphates and nitrates.
� Private/Community participation in moni-toring activity.
� Emission factor development for variousactivities.
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� Emission load mapping at regular intervalsfor all the urban areas.
� Air pollution modelling as a tool for fore-casting and urban planning.
� Strengthening of information on numberof vehicles on road, vehicle usage, etc.
Policy rPolicy rPolicy rPolicy rPolicy recommendationsecommendationsecommendationsecommendationsecommendationsDespite the aforementioned legislative/policymeasures as well as a host of other decisionstaken by the government, air pollutionremains a major concern. Besides continuingand consolidating the ongoing schemes/programmes, new initiatives and definiteprogrammes need to be formulated for theefficient management of urban air pollution.
Vehicular pollution controlSince vehicles contribute significantly tothe total air pollution load in most urbanareas, vehicular pollution control deserves toppriority. A practical strategy should be devisedthat reduces both emissions and congestion,using a mixed set of instruments, which aredictated by command and control, and/or themarket based principles. Some of the theseare:� Augmentation of public transport system.� Mass Rapid Transport System may be
considered for the fast expanding and majorurban areas in the country.
� Incentives and regulations affecting vehi-cles with a view to reducing the rate ofgrowth in ownership of personal vehicles.
� Traffic planning and management. Also,construction of express highways linkingmajor urban areas should be undertaken.
� Taxes on fuels, vehicles—the revenue sogenerated could be used for pollutioncontrol measures.
� Further tightening of emission norms andfuel quality specifications.
� Greater promotion and use of alternativefuels such as CNG/LPG/Propane/ batteryoperated vehicles. Expansion of CNGdispensing facilities and increased fiscalincentives for CNG kits.
� Replacement of two-stroke engines.� Curbing fuel adulteration—state-of-the-art
testing facilities and deterrent legal action.� Strengthening of inspection and mainte-
nance (I&M) system: The I&M system,comprising inspection, maintenance, andcertification of vehicles, is crucial forregulating pollution for the large fleet ofin-use vehicles. It should include testing ofvarious elements of safety, road worthinessand compliance to pollution norms.
Industrial pollution control� Thrust for cleaner technologies
• Waste minimisation technologies involv-ing process change, raw materialsubstitution, improved housekeeping,etc.
• Waste utilisation technologies involvingreclamation and utilisation of wastes assecondary raw material
• Flue gas desulphurisation• Combustion modification for NO
X
reduction• Incentives for the development and
adoption of clean technology and emis-sion reduction
� Database on clean technology• Database on available technologies, their
performance, sources, investment re-quired, etc, should be created, regularlyupdated, and widely disseminated
� Strengthening of emission standards• Emission standards for various
categories of industries need to bestrengthened. To shift from pollutioncontrol to pollution prevention, rulesrelated to load based standards insteadof concentration based standards needto be enforced.
� Appropriate siting of high pollution poten-tial industries/projects
� Fiscal incentives for pollution preventionand control measures
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Other pollution abatement measures� Strengthening of monitoring network
• The monitoring network requires amassive quality control programme andexpansion of its operations to cover newstations as well as more pollutants (e.g.,RPM10, RPM2.5, O3, Pb, CO, and hydro-carbons such as benzene and PAHs) on aregular basis. Smaller cities should alsobe covered so that preventive measurescould be taken before the pollutionproblem becomes acute.
� Information dissemination/mass aware-ness/training• State-of-the-art technology should be
used for wider dissemination of environ-mental information. Transparency andaccess to the data to be improved. Meas-ures such as pollution bulletins and airpollution forecasts should be started on aregular basis
• Massive thrust should be provided tomass awareness campaigns involvingcommunity organisations such as resi-dents associations, students, voluntarybodies and NGOs. Strategic action plansfor implementation should be devised
• Support measures such as training andeducation for the industry, governmentalagencies, and the public, as well asgreater coordination among institutions,are important
� Air quality management strategy• A comprehensive urban air quality
management strategy should be formu-lated that includes information relatedto urban planning, ambient air quality,emission inventory, and air quality dis-persion models.
• Effectiveness of EIA as a tool and envi-ronmental audit needs to be criticallyassessed
• Systematically planned emission loadmapping studies should be undertaken atregular intervals. Development of emis-sion factors for Indian conditions shouldbe taken up
� Fiscal measures• Economic instruments need to be in
place to encourage a shift from curativeto preventive measures, internalisation ofthe cost of environmental degradation,and conservation of resources. The rev-enue generated may be used forenforcement, collection, treatment facili-ties, and research and development.
• Incentives for environmentally benignsubstitute, technologies and energyconservation
� Promotion of renewable energy sourcessuch as hydro, wind, and solar
� Use of cleaner fuels like LPG and kerosenefor domestic consumption would reduceindoor air pollution
� Air quality standards should be based onlocal dose-response relationships for whichappropriate environmental epidemiologicalstudies should be undertaken
� Non-point sources of pollution also to becontrolled such as pollution from genera-tors, waste burning, etc
� Increase in green cover. Appropriate designof green belts/barriers and proper selectionof plant species
� Noise pollution is also a major problem inmetro cities and adequate preventive andcontrol measures need to be taken.
� Enforcement mechanism• Significant improvements in the en-
forcement mechanism required toensure that the policies are implementedboth in letter and spirit
• Wherever necessary, the policies/stand-ards need to be reformulated keeping inmind the fast-changing scenario
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• An effective environment managementplan should be devised that includesenvironmental strategy, regulation, insti-tutional capacity-building, and economicincentives and penalties.
References
BIS (1997a) Gasoline fuels-specification. New Delhi:Bureau of Indian Standards
BIS (1997b) Diesel fuel-specification. New Delhi:Bureau of Indian Standards
Brandon, C.; Hommann, K.; Kishor, N.M. (1995)‘The cost of inaction: valuing the economy-widecost of environmental degradation in India’. 46 pp.A Paper presented at the UNU conference on theSustainable Future of the Global System, Organ-ised by the United Nations University/ Institute ofAdvanced Studies, National Institute for Environ-mental Studies, Japan, Tokyo, 16-18 October
CMIE (2000) Energy. Mumbai: Centre for Moni-toring Indian Economy Pvt. Ltd.,
CII; SII. (1996) India: an emerging environmentalmarket- a handbook for trade and business opportu-nities. New Delhi: Confederation of IndianIndustry and Sanders International, Inc. 78pp.
CPCB (1995) ‘Air pollution and its control’.Parivesh Newsletter 2(1), June 1995. Delhi:Central Pollution Control Board. 20 pp.
CPCB (1998) Annual report (1997-98). Delhi:Central Pollution Control Board
CPCB (1999) ‘Auto emissions’. Parivesh Newsletter6(1), June 1999. New Delhi: Central PollutionControl Board
CPCB (2000a) ‘Polluting industries’. Pariveshnewsletter 2000, Delhi: Central Pollution ControlBoard
CPCB (2000b) ‘Clean coal initiatives’. PariveshNewsletter, June 2000, Delhi: Central PollutionControl Board
CPCB (2000c) Air Quality status and trends in India,National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Series:NAAQMS/14/1999-2000. Delhi: Central Pollu-tion Control Board
CSE (2000) ‘Giving a Breather’. Down to Earth9(2). New Delhi: Centre for Science and Envi-ronment
George Foundation (1999) ‘Project Lead Free: Astudy of Lead poisoning in Major Indian cities’.International Conference on Lead Poisoning,Prevention and Treatment (Proceedings), 8-9February 1999, Bangalore
MoF (2000) Economic survey (1999-2000). NewDelhi: Economic Division, Ministry of Finance
MoST (1996) Report of the working group on Roadtransport for the Ninth five-year plan (1997-2002).New Delhi: Ministry of Surface Transport pp.136
MoST (2000) Handbook on transport statistics inIndia (1999). New Delhi: Transport researchwing, Ministry of Surface Transport
MoEF (1997) White paper on pollution in Delhi withan action plan. New Delhi: Ministry of Environ-ment and Forests. 67pp.
MoEF (1998) India - Sustaining Development. NewDelhi: Ministry of Environment and Forests
MoEF (1999) Annual report (1998-99). New Delhi:Ministry of Environment and Forests
MoEF (2000a) Annual report (1999-2000), http://envfor.nic.in/report, June 2000. New Delhi:Ministry of Environment and Forests
MoEF (2000b) Personal communication from Dr G KPandey, Director, MoEF. New Delhi: Ministry ofEnvironment and Forests
Pachauri, R.K.; Sridharan, P.V. (1998) Looking Backto Think Ahead: growth with resource enhancementof environment and nature. New Delhi: TataEnergy Research Institute. 346 pp.
Repetto, R. (1994) The “Second India” revisited:Population, Poverty, and Environmental stress overtwo decades. Washington, D.C.: World ResourcesInstitute. 95 pp.
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SIAM (1999) Fuel and Vehicular Technology. NewDelhi: Society of Indian Automobile Manufactur-ers
World Bank (1993) World Development report: invest-ing in health. Washington, DC: The World Bank,Oxford University Press. 329 pp.
World Bank (1996) India’s Environment: taking stockof plans, programs and priorities. South AsiaRegional Office, The World Bank. 319 pp.
WHO/UNEP (1992) Urban air pollution in megacitiesof the World. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, WorldHealth Organisation/United NationsEnvironment Programme
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Annexure I
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