The New Frontier

Politics and Social Change in the 1960s

The New Frontier

1960 election Nixon-”Tricky Dick”-”Nixon doesn’t know who he

is” (Rep.); Congressman; Eisenhower’s VP 8 yrs; intelligent, combative

Kennedy-(Dem.) Young, bright, the look, wealthy family, suffered from physical ailments, but masked them; inexperienced

Kennedy-slogan-”We stand today on the edge of a New Frontier-the frontier of unknown opportunities and perils-a frontier of unfilled hopes and threats.”

Kennedy vs. Nixon

3 events shaped the campaign:

-Religious ?-Kennedy Catholic-Nixon agreed to debate on tv-1st ever televised debates (style)-civil rights-needed to increase minority voters (MLK arrest for trespassing in an all-white restaurant, R. Kennedy, campaign manager, phoned the judged and MLK was released on bail)

Kennedy vs. Nixon

Closest presidential election since 1888 Kennedy and LBJ won (303 to 219 electoral;

only 118,574 vote diff. in popular) Nixon actually carried more states

Kennedy vs. Nixon

Youngest elected; brought best and brightest

minds in Dean Rusk-sec. of state Robert McNamara-Dept. of Defense C. Douglas Dillon-Sec. of the Treasury McGeorge Bundy-asst. for national security affairs“ Inaugural address: p. 1231, “ask not what your

country can do for you-ask what you can do for your country”

Fresh promise, youthful energy

Kennedy/Admin.

Congress controlled by a conservative southern coalition that blocked many efforts

to increase fed. Aid to educ., health ins. For the aged, est. a Dept. of Urban affairs; initiatives to help unemployed youth, migrant workers and mass transit; tax cuts

Victories:-Alliance for Progress programs to help Latin America-Peace Corps (1961)-Trade Expansion Act (1962)-tariff cuts avg. 35% on goods b/w U.S. and Euro. Common Market-Housing Act-$5b to urban renewal/4 years-min. wage up; 3m additional workers-Area Redevelopment Act (1961)-$400m in loans to “distressed” areas-Social Sec. benefits up-$ for sewage-treatment plants-$ for accelerated space program (goal-land on the moon)

Kennedy Record

Engel v. Vitale (1962)-School prayer adopted by

NY State Board of Regents is unconstitutional (1st amend.)

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)-every felony defendant be provided a lawyer regardless of defendant’s ability to pay

Escobedo v. Illinois (1964)-person accused is entitled to a lawyer before interrogation

Miranda v. Arizona (1966)-in custody, must be informed of certain basic rights (Miranda rights)

Warren Court

Expansion of the Civil Rights Movement

Most important domestic issue in the 60s JFK entered reluctant to challenge race issues-

celebrated equality but did little to promote it; changed a little with MLK Jr.

His brother, Robert (atty gen.)-more committed

Expansion of Civil Rights Movement

Prior: Montgomery Bus Boycott, desegregation

of schools Greensboro, NC, 2/1/60-4 black college

students sat down at a white-only Woolworth’s lunch counter-led to sit-in movement

Led to wade-ins, kneel-ins, read-ins, etc. During the year after, over 3600 black and

white activists would spend time in jail

Civil Rights

1960-SNCC formed (Student Non-Violent Coordinating

Committee)-student activists Worked with King’s SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership

Conference) to broaden the movement Most activists practiced King’s concept of nonviolent

protest-refused to retaliate May 1961-Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) sent freedom

riders on buses to test a fed. Ruling that banned segregation on buses, trains and terminals; they were attacked at Anniston, AL-buses burned, attacked/beaten as they exited (John Lewis)

Kennedy, not inspired-wanted to tell them to “call it off”; R. Kennedy had to use fed. Marshals to protect the riders

Civil Rights

1962-Gov. Barnett of MS. Refused to allow James Meredith, an

African-Amer. Student to enroll at Univ. of Miss. Robert Kennedy dispatched federal marshals who were

assaulted; federal troops intervened (2 dead, many injured); finally admitted

In B’ham, AL.-series of demonstrations by Police Comm. Eugene “Bull” Connor-dogs, tear gas, cattle prods, fire hoses (seen on tv)

King’s Letter from a Birmingham Jail-1963-to AL. white clergy (urging him to be moderate)-struggle too long, civil disobedience vs. unjust laws are needed to achieve social justice; need to educate southern whites about the injustice; focus on gaining more federal attention by provoking racists to display their hatred in public

Concept of confrontational civil disobedience outraged J. Edgar Hoover, head of FBI, agents followed King, bugged his phones/rooms, tried to discredit him

Civil Rights

1964-King awarded the Nobel Peace Prize JFK finally decided new legislation was needed

to deal with race issue, discrim. “has no place in American life or law”

Endorsed bill to end discrim. In public facilities, deseg. Schools, protect voters-blocked in Congress by southern conserv.

Civil Rights

AL. Gov. George Wallace-stood in door of Univ.

of AL.-to block enrollment of black students; stepped aside with federal marshals

NAACP official Medgar Evers shot in Jackson, MS. After civil rights speech by Kennedy

Civil Rights

High point-March on D.C.; Aug. 28, 1963 Over 200,000 Lincoln Memorial “We shall overcome” “I have a dream” speech; MLK Jr. 2 weeks later-B’ham bombing at church-killed

4 girls

Civil Rights

Foreign Frontiers

Bay of Pigs Invasion-Cuba; 4/17/61 No missile gap anymore; in the works, a CIA

operation training 1500 anti-Castro Cubans for an invasion of Cuba

Brutally subdued in 2 days 1100 men captured JFK-”colossal mistake” Underestimated Castro’s popularity, poor

communication, inaccurate maps, faulty equipment, ineffective leadership

Invaders defenseless-no American air cover

Early Setbacks

JFK met with Khrushchev 2 mos. Later-Khrus.

Was volatile, bullied the young, inexperienced JFK

Soviet aggressive stance; JFK responds with calling up army reserve and national guard units

Soviets erect Berlin Wall-Soviet willingness to challenge American resolve in Europe

Early Setbacks

Cuba feared another American-backed invasion; Soviets could

address the strategic imbalance caused by U.S. missiles in Turkey (aimed at Soviets); could demonstrate Soviet toughness

Americans see as a threat to security; Soviets in Cuba might demoralize anti-Castro efforts

10/14/62-U.S. intelligence discovers Soviet missile sites under construction in Cuba

JFK-naval quarantine (blockade) Closest encounter with nuclear war 13 days-talks, Soviet ships just short of the quarantine Soviet missiles removed from Cuba; obsolete missiles removed

from Turkey, Italy and Britain Sept. 1963-treaty: w/ Soviets and Britain-end nuclear testing in the

atmosphere, oceans and outer space

Cuban Missile Crisis

Geneva Accords Laos-struggle for power b/w Comm. Pathet Lao and Royal

Laotian Army; agreed to a neutral coalition Ho Chi Minh Trail-through e. Laos to supply Vietcong Diem-failure to deliver promised social and econ. Reforms, vs.

Comm. And Buddhist majority JFK continued to dispatch military advisors in hopes of

stabilizing the situation Ineffective; protests-Buddhist monks/fire Fall ‘63-Diem a lost cause; dissident generals propose a coup-

U.S. not to stand in the way Nov. 1-seized govt., Diem murdered, but the rebel generals

provided no more stability

Vietnam

Had announced intent to withdraw from S. Vietnam by

end 1965 Nov. 22, 1963 Dallas, Texas Shot in the back of the head, presence of wife Lee Harvey Oswald Motives unknown; fed. Comm. Advise he acted alone-

debate Jack Ruby (nightclub owner)-murders Oswald Televsion Arlington National Cemetary

Kennedy’s Assassination

LBJ & the Great Society

Conflicting character-not elegant, idealistic,

insecure, domineering-felt Kennedy/aides ignored him as VP, compassionate, ruthless; craved political power and public affection; had to be at the center of things-from TX.

Long-standing admiration for FDR-concern for the poor, civil rights

Foreign affairs-like Wilson-a novice Wanted to be the greatest American president-

promised more than he could accomplish in the end

LBJ

Domestic policy-1st priority Under LBJ, his forceful leadership broke the

legislative blocks Kennedy faced 9.3m families (20%)-below poverty line-”live on

the outskirts of hope”-poverty, color barriers Tax cuts tried under JFK; skeptical due to increase

in budget deficit; Revenue Act 1964-provided boost

Civil Rights Act 1964 (tried in ’63)-prohibited racial segregation in public facilities, outlawed discrim. In regis. Of voters and hiring employees

Politics and Poverty

Legislative program of his own-”war on

poverty” Expose-”The other America” (1962)-”culture of

poverty” Anti-poverty package $ would come from tax

revenues generated by corporate profits due to tax reduction in ’64 (1 of the longest sustained econ. Booms)

Politics and Poverty

Job Corps-16-21 age; for inner-city Head Start-disadvantaged preschoolers Work study-college students Grants-farmers, rural bus. Loans to employers-to hire long-term unemployed Volunteers in Service to America (domestic peace

corps) Community Action Program-poor directed neigh.

programs “Great Society”-end to poverty and racial injustice

Politics and Poverty

Program received a Rep. counterattack Barry Goldwater-AZ. Senator-leader of Rep.

right (conservatism) Proposed abolition of some programs (income

tax), drastic overhaul of others Extreme-frightened voters (bomb N. Viet.),

foolishly candid (ex. Questioning value of SS at retirement comm.)

Johnson-centrist; VP-Hubert Humphrey Landslide victory (486 to 52)

Election of 1964

Unparalleled since FDR’s days Medicare-program for the aged Medicaid-disabled, poor Elementary and secondary educ.-to “poverty-

impacted” school districts Carried 435 bills through Congress

Landmark Legislation

Appalachian Regional Development Act

(1966)-$1b to remote mountain areas of poverty

Housing and Urban Development Act (1965)-construction of 240,000 public housing units, $3b for urban renewal

1966-funds for rent supplements New Dept. of Housing & Urban Development-

led by Robert Weaver, the first African-American cabinet member

Landmark Legislation

Immigration & Nationality Services Act (1965)-

originated under JFK Abolish the discriminatory quotas based on national

origin (since 20s) Treated all nationalities and races equally Hemisphere ceilings: 170,000 from E. Hemis.,

120,000 from W. Hemis.; no more than 20,000 from 1 country/year

Immediate family members of American residents allowed w/o limit

1960s-Asians and Latin Americans-largest new group

Immigration Act

Successes: Highway Safety Act, Traffic Safety Act,

Higher Educ. Act Aimed to improve health, nutrition, educ.; clean up

environ. Many were mismanaged, underfunded, ill-conceived Medicare-costs skyrocketed Provided welfare programs, but productive jobs? Bureaucracy Welfare fraud Helped to generate a conservative backlash that

fueled Rep. resurgence

Assessing the Great Society

Civil Rights to Black Power

1965-drive to enroll African American voters March from Selma to Montgomery-met by

state troopers, but Johnson provided troops for protection

Voting Rights Act of 1965-suspended literacy tests, fed. Govt. to oversee registration and elections

Nearly 250,000 newly registered

Civil Rights Legislation

Race riots-LA, Chicago, Cleveland, etc.-people

killed, many in jail, property damage; in cities; initiated by blacks

“black power”-1966-Stokely Carmichael (head of SNCC)-made it the objective

H. Rap Brown-succeeded Carmichael-”get you some guns” and kill

Carmichael moved to Black Panther Party-Oakland, CA., 1966; headed by Huey Newton & Eldridge Cleaver (terrified public, spasms of violence)

Black Power

Spokesman for black power-Malcolm X, voice of

urban black militancy Disciple of Elijah Muhammad-black Muslim leader Extremist Broke from Muhammad; committed to an est. of

alliances between blacks and non-white people Autobiography, 1964 Gunned down in Harlem by rival faction of black

Muslims (just before had started to abandon anti-white rhetoric)

Black Power

Only about 15% were attracted MLK-”we can’t win violently” 2 accomplishments of black power: helped

African Americans take greater pride in their racial heritage; forced others to focus attention on the plight of poor inner-city blacks

Black Power

Vietnam

JFK-over 16,000 military “advisers” Johnson-doubted Vietnam was worth the military

involvement, but didn’t want to appear weak 1965-184,000; ‘66-385,000; ‘69-542,000 About 58,000 dead; 300,000 wounded Cost-about $150b (money away from Great

Society programs) About 570,000 draft offenders; 563,000 less-

than-honorable military discharges Divided the country and toppled admin.

Vietnam

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution-following 2

“attacks?” on U.S. destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin (off N. Viet.)-authorized the president to “take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the U.S. and to prevent further aggression”

2/5/65-Pleiku, SV-Vietcong killed 8, wounded 126 Americans; response: Operation Rolling Thunder-1st sustained bombing of NV

“search and destroy” operations throughout SV

Escalation

“Americanize” the Vietnam War-consistent with

containment theory, domino theory Johnson-didn’t want to have military involvement

reach levels that would involve Soviets or Chinese-just wanted to force a negotiated settlement

Opposition to the war, “living room war”-tv Senate Foreign Relations Committee-to investigate

American policy in Vietnam Even Sec. of Defense Robert McNamara was

wavering Underestimated the tenacity/will of the NV

Context for Policy

Tet (Vietnamese New Year)-1/31/68-Tet Offensive-

coordinated attack by the North in to the South-attack cities, embassies

General Westmoreland-proclaimed a major defeat for the Vietcong-casualties enormous

Effect on American society more telling-War was going well? NV not going to give up

LBJ’s popularity down to 35%, civil rights leaders felt betrayed, money toward war-$322,000 for every Communist killed, $53 for each person w/ poverty programs

Turning Point

LBQ-embittered, isolated, depression, paranoia Vietnam war a stalemate?, Great Society programs

fragmented 1968-relection? All candidates were challenging

LBJ’s Vietnam policy (Robert Kennedy, NY senator, announced a run; Sen. Eugene McCarthy)

Predicted a humiliating defeat for LBJ March 31-speech on tv-announced a limited halt to

NV bombing and new initiatives for a cease-fire; also, that he wouldn’t seek a nomination

Turning Point

Sixties Crescendo

April 4, 1968-MLK Jr. Memphis, TN. James Earl Ray-hostile toward blacks, organized conspiracy? Ignited riots in over 60 cities

June 5, 1968-Robert Kennedy In the head by Sirhan Sirhan-resented Kennedy’s support of

Israel (Jordanian) Had convincingly defeated McCarthy for presidential

nomination

JFK, Malcolm X, MLK Jr., Robert Kennedy-marked the decade

Traumatic Year

Chicago-Aug. ‘68-gathering of Democ. Delegates outside Chicago

convention hall to call for nomination of Hubert Humphrey (LBJ’s VP); About 20,000 police/national guard stood watch over protesters; Chicago mayor Richard Daley-warned he would not tolerate disruptions; Riots broke out-tear gas and clubs struck demonstrators (televised)

Disarray of Democ. Led to Rep.-gathered in Miami Beach to nominate Richard Nixon; became the spokesman for “Middle America”-offered vision of stability and order that appealed to a majority of Americans (silent majority)

American Independent Party-AL. Gov. (Democ.) George Wallace –maintained race position; reactionary to riots, welfare; never a possible winner but could throw off electoral vote

Chicago & Miami

Election of 1968-Nixon started with a large lead,

but narrowed as the election approached statements by others hurt their chances Narrow popular victory-diff. of approx. 500,000;

electoral vote 301 to 191; Wallace received approx. 13.5% of the votes-best showing by 3rd party since La Follette w/ the Progressives

Nixon’s promise-”peace with honor” in Vietnam and a middle ground on which a majority of Americans, silent or otherwise, could come together

Nixon Again