POISONSINTRODUCTION Poisons have played an important part in crimes, from early times, as a silent weapon of destroying life secretly and mysteriously. Many deaths occur as a result of poisoning. The police are called upon to investigate whether it is a case of suspected poisoning, to establish whether it is a case of accidental, suicidal or homicidal poisoning. The investigation of cases of poisoning is one of the most difficult tasks confronting the police, because the symptoms of different kinds of poisoning may simulate those of various diseases. The investigation is further complicated by the easy availability of variety of poisons ,the small amount of poison available for examination and the difficulty in their extraction and identification.TERMINOLOGIES POISON-It is a substance ,which when taken into the mouth or stomach or when absorbed into the blood ,is capable of seriously affecting the health, or destroying life by its action on the tissues, with which it immediately or after absorption comes into contact. TOXICOLOGY-It is a science of poisons .It deals with the nature,origin, properties ,mode of administration ,physiological action, the signs and symptoms, extraction and identification of poisons. TOXICOLOGIST-He detects and identifies foreign chemicals in the body, with a particular emphasis upon toxic or hazardous substances. DESCRIPTIVE TOXICOLOGIST-He performs toxicity tests to evaluate the risk that exposure poses to humans. MECHANISTIC TOXICOLOGIST-He attempts to determine how substances exert deleterious effects on living organisms. REGULATORY TOXICOLOGIST-He judges whether or not a substance has low enough risk to justify making it available to the public . TOXIN-It is any material exerting a life threatening effect upon a living organism. Poisons are a subgroup of toxins. Toxic materials exist in many forms (gaseous, liquid, solid, animal, mineral, and vegetable), and may be ingested, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin. Toxins work in minute quantities or low levels, requiring sensitive analytical instruments for detection. Some toxins have medicinal value, but many produce irreparable damage. Some toxins have antidotes and others do not. ACUTE POISONING-It is exposure to a poison on one occasion or during a short period of time. Symptoms develop in close relation to the exposure. It can be caused by less dangerous substances than those receiving the legal classification of "poison". CHRONIC POISONING-It is long-term repeated or continuous exposure to a poison where symptoms do not occur immediately or after each exposure. The patient gradually becomes ill, or becomes ill after a long latent period. Chronic poisoning most commonly occurs following exposure to poisons thatbio-accumulate, or arebiomagnified, such asmercuryandlead. LETHAL DOSE-The amount of a toxic agent necessary to cause death is known as lethal dose.

ACTION OF POISON ON THE BODY POISON TAKEN ORALLY-When a poison is taken by mouth,it first goes to the stomach , wher hydrochloric acid and some enzymes present in the stomach acts on it. As an intermediate reaction, vomiting and frothing may throw out the poison, and the remaining goes to the small intestine where the substance becomes assimilable. From there it enters into the blood circulation. It then goes to liver where it tries to detoxify the poison. From the liver it is sent to the kidney to be eliminated as urine in the metabolite form. The stomach and intestine(small)form one group of organs, wherein major part of the poison may be detected in its original form. The liver and kidney form another group, wherein the poison, both in its original and metabolite form, may be detected. The poison circulates throughout the body by means of blood. The localization of poison in tissues is not similar for all poisons. POISON TAKEN INTRAVENOUSLY-Here poison goes into circulation quickly. POISON TAKEN INTRAMUSCULARLY OR SUBCUTANEOUSLY-It goes into circulation slowly. Poison may remain in the tissue at the site of injection for few hours. Hence this tissue may be useful for detection of poison.CLASSIFICATION OF POISONS ON THE BASIS OF THEIR ACTION ON THE BODY:1. CORROSIVES STRONG ACIDS- eg, sulphuric acid ,nitric acid, hydrochloric acid STRONG ALKALIES- eg, sodium-,potassium- and ammonium hydroxides2. IRRITANTS INORGANIC Non-metallic-eg, phosphorus, chlorine, bromine, iodine, etc. Metallic-eg, arsenic, antimony, mercury, copper, lead, zinc ORGANIC Vegetable-eg, castor, madar, croton oil, aloes, etc. Animal-eg, snake venom, cantharides, insect bites. MECHANICAL-eg, glass powde ,diamond dust.3. NEUROTICS CEREBRAL Narcotic-eg, opium and its alkaloids Inebriant(intoxicant) eg ,alcohol, ether, chloroform, barbiturate chloral hydrate ,organo-phosphorus Deliriant- eg, dhatura ,cannabis ,cocaine belladonna, etc, SPINAL Excitant-eg,nux vomica,etc Depressant-eg, gelsemium CARDIO-RESPIRATORY Cardiac-eg, aconite, HCN, oleander, etc Asphyxiants-eg,CO,CO2,H2S ON THE BASIS OF PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF POISON: INORGANIC POISONS METALLIC Arsenic-arsenic compounds are marketed as insecticides in the form of arsenic trioxide or metallic arsenates. sometimes arsenic compounds are administered as medicine, in small doses. Mercury-mercury ,mercuric chloride and many organo mercury compounds are highly poisonous. They are used in chemical industry and as fungicides. Of all the salts of mercury. the chlorides and the nitrates are commony used in poisoning. Lead-Most of the lead compounds are poisonous and toxic in nature. This poison is cumulative in nature, and if given in small doses it acts slowly. Chronic lead poisoning from accidental and industrial causes is more common. The automobile exhaust contains an organic lead compound called tetraethyl lead.sindur used by indian ladies is also sometimes adulterated with red oxide of lead. Copper-Copper salts used in electroplating, chemical industry and as weedicides are toxic when the doses are high. Thallium-Thallium salts, which are used as rat poison might be encountered in cases of accidental poisoning in human beings. Antimony-It is uses for homicidal purposes. Radio isotopes- Those which are used for research purposes have injurious effect on human life. NON-METALLIC Cyanides- KCN and NaCN are highly poisonous even in small quantities. The toxicity of cyanides is largely dependent on the release of HCN in the stomach, when they react with the acid of the gastric juice. HCN is one of the most deadly poisons known. HCN is one of the most deadly poisons known. t paralyses the respiratory enzymes and destroys oxyhaemoglobin. A small quantity can result in death due to respiratoy failure. Yellow phosphorus-highly poisonous. Iodine-tincture iodine is sometimes found to be the cause of death, either accidentally or intentionally. only elemental iodine is poisonous. iodine is not poisonous in small quantities. Strong acids and alkalies-The action of sulphuric acid, HCl, nitric acid, NaOH, KOH, ammonium hydroxide in causing death is based on their corrosive action on skin and mucous membrane. They are seldom used for suicide or homicide in other countries. HOWEVER,IN INDIA SOME CASES ARE BEING REPORTED. Gases-CO, hydrogen sulphide, arsine, phosgene gases become the cause of death or cause severe injury.CO is one of the major causes of death by gas poisoning in many suicidal, some homicidal, and accidental cases. This gas is found in automobile exhaust gases, LPG and in fumes of heating appliances.CO also destroys oxyhaemoglobin as a result of which death occurs by respiratory failure. Highly dangerous gas MIC(METHYL ISO CYNATE) has been responsible to take the toll of more than 2000 lives and invalidating several others, in a gas leak tragedy, which took place in Bhopal in the year 1984. ORGANIC POISONS VOLATILE SUBSTANCES Ethyl alcohol-It is essentially a stimulant and an intoxicant. It is responsible for causing more deaths than any other single poison. Other alcohols-methyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol and amyl alcohol that are used in chemical industry are also poisonous. In india death due to methanol poisoning is very common. French polish, Methylated spirit, and Illicit liquors contain methanol in appreciable quantities. METHANOL POISONING CAUSES PARALYSIS,BLINDNESS AND DEATH. Phenol-phenol or carbolic acid is used as a disinfectant and also in chemical industries. Most of the disinfectants contain this substance or related substances. Due to the easy availability of disinfectants it may be encountered in accidental or deliberate poisoning cases. It is rarely used for suicidal purposes. Miscellaneous substances-a variety of organic chemicals are used in various industries out of which many are toxic. They may cause death if inhaled or swallowed. Common examples are chlorinated hydrocarbons, benzene, chloral hydrate and many others. Chloral hydrates is commonly met in poisoning cases as it is mixed indiscriminately in illicit liquors. NON VOLATILE MATERIAL Alkaloids-These are substances chiefly derived from plant materials. Many of the narcotics and vegetable poisons contain alkaloids. Common egs, are morphine, cocaine, etc. The poisoning due to the vegetable alkaloids in india was very common, as the poisonous plants grow in the countryside. Barbiturates-These are sleep inducing synthetic drugs commonly encountered in suicide cases. Glycosides-These are also of vegetable origin. They bring about death by cardiac arrest. egs are, digitalis, oleander, aconite. Insecticides and pesticides-they are being abused for homicidal and suicidal purposes. Sometimes accidental poisoning also takes place because of negligence. ABORTIFACIENTS Abortifacients are the drugs used for criminal abortions. Most of the drugs are required to be given in toxic doses, which at times result in death of the mother. The commonly used abortifacients in INDIA are: Ecbolics-drugs causing contraction of uterus and thereby causing expulsion of its contents. eg, quinine, etc Irritants-Metallic irritants(eg, salts of arsenic, mercury, lead, etc) and vegetable irritants(eg, juice of madar, etc) Drastic purgative- eg, castor oil, etc. Emetics-eg, tartar emetic.

SOME OTHER POISONS Algicide- a substance used for killing and preventing the growth ofalgae Avicide- any substance which can be used to killbirds Biocide- achemical substancecapable of killingliving organisms, usually in a selective way Fungicide- achemical compoundor biologicalorganismused to kill or inhibitfungior fungal spores Microbicide- any compound or substance whose purpose is to reduce theinfectivityofmicrobes Germicide- a disinfectant Bactericide- a substance that killsbacteria Viricide- a chemical agent which "kills"virusesoutside the body Herbicide- a substance used to kill unwantedplants Parasiticide- any substance used to killparasites Pesticide- a substance or mixture of substances used to kill apest Acaricide-pesticidesthat killmites Insecticide- apesticideused againstinsects Molluscicide-pesticidesagainstmolluscs Nematocide- a type of chemicalpesticideused to killparasiticnematodes(roundworms) Rodenticide- a category ofpest controlchemicals intended to killrodents Spermicide- a substance that killsspermEFFECTS OF POISONS Contact or absorption of poisons can cause rapid death or impairment. Agents that act on thenervoussystemcan paralyze in seconds or less, and include both biologically derivedneurotoxinsand so-called nerve gases, which may be synthesized forwarfareor industry. Inhaled or ingestedcyanide, used as a method ofexecutioningas chambers, almost instantly starves the body of energy byinhibitingtheenzymesinmitochondriathat makeATP. Intravenous injection of an unnaturally high concentration ofpotassium chloride, such as in the execution of prisoners in parts of the United States, quickly stops theheartby eliminating thecell potentialnecessary for muscle contraction. Most biocides, includingpesticides, are created to act as poisons to target organisms, although acute or less observable chronic poisoning can also occur in non-target organism, including thehumanswho apply the biocides and otherbeneficial organisms. For example, the herbicide2,4-Dimitates the action of a plant hormone, to the effect that the lethal toxicity is specific to plants. Indeed, 2,4-D is not a poison, but classified as "harmful" (EU). Many substances regarded as poisons are toxic only indirectly, bytoxication. An example is "wood alcohol" ormethanol, which is not poisonous itself, but is chemically converted to toxicformaldehydeand formicacidin theliver. Manydrugmolecules are made toxic in the liver, and the genetic variability of certain liverenzymesmakes the toxicity of many compounds differ between individuals. Here's a list of some of the common poisons and their symptoms:Acids (nitric, hydrochloric, sulphuric)Burns around mouth, lips, nose

Aniline (hypnotics, nitrobenzene)Skin of face and neck quite dark

Arsenic (metals, mercury, copper, etc.)Severe, unexplained diarrhea

Atropine (Belladonna), ScopolaminePupil of eye dilated

Bases (lye, potash, hydroxides)Burns around mouth, lips, nose

Carbolic acid (or other phenol)Odor of disinfectant

Carbon monoxideSkin is bright cherry red

CyanideQuick death, red skin, odor of peach

Food poisoningVomiting, abdominal pain

Metallic compoundsDiarrhea, vomiting, abdominal pain

NicotineConvulsion

OpiatesPupil of eye contracted

Oxalic acid (phosphorous)Odor of garlic

Sodium fluorideConvulsion

StrychnineConvulsion, dark face and neck

Toxic effects are the undesirable results of a direct effect. They occur in a number of ways, most often produced by a dangerous metabolit . Toxic reactions often depend on how metabolites are processed by an individual's body, how proteins build up and bind at effector sites in the body. Some metabolites destroy liver cells, others brain tissue, and still others operate at the DNA level. Toxic reactions are classified as one of three (3) reactions: pharmacological -- injury to the central nervous system (CNS)

pathological -- injury to the liver

genotoxic -- creation of benign or malignant neoplasms or tumors

If the concentration of toxin doesn't reach a critical level, the effects will usually be reversible. Pharmacological reactions, for example, are of this type. In order to sustain permanent brain damage, dosages must be above a standard critical level. Pathological reactions can be repaired if discovered early enough, but most liver damage occurs over a period of few months to a decade. Genotoxic or carcinogenic effects may take 20-40 years before tumors develop. Most of the time, toxic metabolites are activated by enzymatic transformation, but a few are activated by light. This means that exposure of the skin to sunlight produces a photoallergic reaction or phototoxic reaction within 24 hours. It's important to understand that the target organ of toxicity is not the site where toxin accumulates. Lead poisoning, for example, results in an accumulation of lead in bone marrow, but the toxic effect is the creation of lesions on skin and soft tissue. Carcinogenesis is even more complicated, involving the creation of promotor electrophiles which serve to activate or potentiate the growth of latent tumors given some biological trigger or subsequent environmental attack. Different people, of course, have chemical allergies (as well as food allergies), depending upon the serology of their allergen-antigen history. In such people, toxic reactions take different forms. Other people have what are called idosyncratic reactions, which means they have certain unique genetic triggers. Furthermore, people exposed to multiple toxins can have synergistic reactions, which means that two or more toxins interact at the metabolic level to be greater or less than the effects of the individual toxins.ISOLATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF POISON- The forensic laboratory adopts several methods to isolate, identify and estimate poisons. INORGANIC POISONS from tissues,stomach contents,and other material are isolated by number of methods. VOLATILE ORGANIC POISONS are first extracted by steam distillation and later identified by chemical tests or by gas chromatograph NON VOLATILE ORGANIC POISONS are first extacted by suitable solvents and later identified by the thin layer chromatography or gas chromatography. Most modern methods like like high performance liquid chromatography, gas chromatography coupled with mass spectroscopy(GC-MS) are in use. More sophisticated techniques of Radio-immunoassay(RIA),enzyme linked immunosorbent assay are employed for quick and reliable assay of drugs and other toxic substances in blood,urine, saliva,etc.METHODS OF DECONTAMINATING AND EXCRETION OF POISONS FROM THE BODY AND THEIR ANTIDOTES Initial managementInitial management for all poisonings includes ensuring adequatecardiopulmonary functionand providing treatment for any symptoms such asseizures,shock, andpain.Poisons that have been injected (e.g. from the sting of poisonous animals) can be treated by binding the affected body part with apressure bandageand by placing the affected body part in hot water (with a temperature of 50C). The pressure bandage makes sure the poison is not pumped troughout the body and the hot water breaks down the poison. This treatment however only works with poisons that are composed of protein-molecules DecontaminationTreatment of a recently ingested poison may involve gastric decontamination to decreased absorption. Gastric decontamination can involveactivated charcoal,gastric lavage,whole bowel irrigation, ornasogastric aspiration. Routine use of emetics (syrup of Ipecac),catharticsor laxatives are no longer recommended.Activated charcoalis the treatment of choice to prevent poison absorption. It is usually administered when the patient is in the emergency room or by a trained emergency healthcare provider such as a Paramedic or EMT. However, charcoal is ineffective againstmetalssuch assodium,potassium, andlithium, andalcoholsandglycols; it is also not recommended for ingestion of corrosive chemicals such asacidsandalkalis.Whole bowel irrigationcleanses the bowel, this is achieved by giving the patient large amounts of apolyethylene glycolsolution. The osmotically balanced polyethylene glycol solution is not absorbed into the body, having the effect of flushing out the entiregastrointestinal tract. Its major uses are following ingestion of sustained release drugs, toxins that are not absorbed by activated charcoal (i.e.lithium,iron), and for the removal of ingested packets of drugs (body packing/smuggling).Gastric lavage, commonly known as a stomach pump, is the insertion of a tube into the stomach, followed by administration of water or saline down the tube. The liquid is then removed along with the contents of the stomach. Lavage has been used for many years as a common treatment for poisoned patients. However, a recent review of the procedure in poisonings suggests no benefit.It is still sometimes used if it can be performed within 1 hour of ingestion and the exposure is potentially life threatening.Nasogastric aspirationinvolves the placement of a tube via the nose down into the stomach, the stomach contents are then removed via suction. This procedure is mainly used for liquid ingestions where activated charcoal is ineffective, e.g.ethylene glycol poisoning.Emesis(i.e. induced byipecac) is no longer recommended in poisoning situations, because vomiting is ineffective at removing poisons.Catharticswere postulated to decrease absorption by increasing the expulsion of the poison from thegastrointestinal tract. There are two types of cathartics used in poisoned patients; saline cathartics (sodiumsulfate,magnesium citrate,magnesium sulfate) and saccharide cathartics (sorbitol). They do not appear to improve patient outcome and are no longer recommended. AntidotesPoison/DrugAntidote

paracetamol(acetaminophen)N-acetylcysteine

vitamin K anticoagulants, e.g. warfarinvitamin K

opioidsnaloxone

Iron(and otherheavy metals)desferrioxamine,DeferasiroxorDeferiprone

benzodiazepinesflumazenil

ethylene glycolethanolorfomepizole, andthiamine

methanolethanolorfomepizole, andfolinic acid

Cyanideamyl nitrite/sodium nitrite/sodium thiosulfateorhydroxocobalamin

OrganophosphatesAtropineandPralidoxime

MagnesiumCalcium Gluconate

Calcium Channel Blockers (Verapamil,Diltiazem)Calcium Gluconate

Beta-Blockers (Propranolol,Sotalol)Calcium Gluconateand/orGlucagon

IsoniazidPyridoxine

AtropinePhysostigmine

ThalliumPrussian blue

Hydrofluoric acidCalcium Gluconate

AnticholinergicsCholinergics(and vice-versa)

Enhanced excretionIn some situations elimination of the poison can be enhanced usingdiuresis,hemodialysis,hemoperfusion,hyperbaric medicine,peritoneal dialysis,exchange transfusionorchelation. However, this may actually worsen the poisoning in some cases, so it should always be verified based on what substances are involved. Further treatment In the majority of poisonings the mainstay of management is providing supportive care for the patient, i.e. treating the symptoms rather than the poisonSOME STANDARD LABORATORY TESTS FOR TOXIN DETECTIONSCREENING TESTS Physical tests -- boiling point, melting point, density, and refractive index

Crystal tests -- treatment with a chemical reagent to produce crystals

Chemical spot tests -- treatment with a chemical reagent to produce color changes

Chromatography (thin-layer or gas) -- used to separate components of a mixture

CONFIRMATION TESTSMass spectrometry -- this is a combination of gas chromatography/mass spectrometry which is generally accepted as the confirmation test of choice. Each toxin has a known mass spectra, or "fingerprint", which is infallible proof of its presence at the chemical level

Drug overdoses and alcoholic poisonings will provide most of the work for toxicologists, hence a couple of allied subfields may be drawn upon: (1) a field inhabited by what are called Drug Recognition Experts (DRE); and (2) alcohol intoxication measurement (a subject talked about in a previous lecture). Both are sought-after areas of police training. Another related subfield involves carbon monoxide poisoning, which may involve an automobile engineer or fire safety specialist. The Drug Recognition Expertise evolved out of experiments in California with the LAPD during the 1970s in which police officers were trained to identify and recognize certain types of drugs based upon the impairments and physiological symptoms. The examination that such specially trained police officers conduct goes beyond normal Nystagmus testing and more closely resembles the taking of vital signs by a nurse or paramedic, combined with structured interviewing and observation. DRE's opinions are limited by law to identification of a class or family of drugs, not to a specific drug. Standardized checklists and computer programs exist to make this a growing area of modern drug testing.DRUG TESTING The traditional field testing methods run the gambit of color to crystalline tests, and consist of a variety of names, the controversial Nalline test being the most well-known, which presumably indicates recent use of narcotics. Here's a list of some common drugs and specific tests for them:OpiumMarquis test (formaldehyde/sulfuric acid)

MarijuanaDuquenois-Levine test (vanilla/hydrochloric acid/chloroform)

LSDVan Urk test (p-dimethylaminobenoldesone/hydrochloric acid)

CocaineScott test (cobalt thiocyanate/hydrochloric acid/chloroform)

BarbituratesDillie-Koppanyi test (cobalt acetate/isoprophylamine)

Opium is a true narcotic, providing an euphoric escape from reality. It is derived from the milky secretions of the poppy bulb before flowering. In raw form, it turns dark brown and stays moist. The most common type of opiates are: Morphine -- a natural alkaloid that makes up 10% of poppy juice

Paregoric -- morphine mixed with an alcohol solution

Codeine -- alcoholized poppy juice crystals

Heroin -- poppy juice treated with hydrochloric acid; 3x more powerful than morphine

Demerol and Methadone -- synthetic opium-like substances made in laboratories

Marijuana is technically a hallucinogen but has been thrown in with narcotics since Reyna v. State 1968. It tends to make a person lethargic rather than euphoric (an effect like alcohol but without the aggression). It's active ingredient is THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) which is contained mostly in the flower tops and to a lesser extent in stems and seeds. One particular species, Cannabis Sativa, as opposed to other species, e.g. Cannabis Indica, Cannabis Ruderalis, tends to contain more THC (Delta-9-THC) as the main cannabinoid, than the other species, if "species" is the right word since Small & Cronquist's (1976) study found only one single species with two subspecies (Sativa & Indica), each divisible into a cultivated and wild variety. Cannibis Indica has a significant amount of THC as well, along with several other cannabinoids. The THC content is heavily affected by the sex of the plant, with female plants generating substantially more resin than their male conterparts. Toward this end, during plant growth, males are generally removed before pollination occurs. The average marijuana cigarette contains only 1% THC while hashish (made from ground flower tops) is 10% THC. Other hallucinogens include: Peyote -- green, mushroom-like buttons on cactus plants

Psilocybin -- naturally-growing mushrooms

Mescaline -- the active ingredient in peyote, synthetically produced

LSD -- 400 times stronger than mescaline

PCP -- animal tranquilizer

Nutmeg and Jimson Weed -- other naturally-growing plants

Cocaine is technically a stimulant, but has been thrown in with narcotics since too many cases to remember. It's a natural alkaloid found in coca leaves (C17 H22 CLNO4). For making what is called freebase or crack, it's melting point needs to be lowered, and this is done by releasing the hydrochloride in it (HCL) through mixing it with a sodium substance like baking soda, adding water, letting it cook slowly, and then letting it cool off. The crystal residue or pellets are called "crack" which is a widely abused drug. Other stimulants range from the least powerful (benzedrine and dexedrine) to the most powerful (methamphetamine). Barbiturates are known by the color of their tablets: Nembutal (yellow jackets); Seconal (reds); Tuinal (Christmas trees); and Amytal (blues). Steroids are another group or family of drugs, and the anabolic ones (that promote muscle growth) exist in about 80 different varieties. So-called designer or "rave" drugs are hallucinogens, mostly, which have been chemically altered in some way to as not to be placed on the controlled substances list. However, under emergency measures, the DEA can put anything on the list they want. Such drugs are: MDMA, XTC, Ice, and Nexus. Here's the controlled substances list and some sample penalties for trafficking:Schedule I(no medical use)Heroin, Opium, Mescaline, Psilocybin, LSD, Marijuana, Hashish15 years/$125,0005 years/$50,000(marijuana)

Schedule II(some medical use)Methadone, Morphine, Cocaine, Amphetamines, Methamphetamine, PCP15 years/$125,000

Schedule III(moderate dependence)Codeine, Steroids5 years/$50,000

Schedule IV(limited dependence)Barbituates, Lithium, Valium3 years/$25,000

Schedule VCough Syrups1 year/$10,000

Quite a few interesting defenses exist to a drug charge. With marijuana, for example, one could raise the "species defense" and then the plant would have to be proved to be Cannibus Sativa. With steroids, one could raise the "roid rage" defense, that their behavior was out of control. A basic defense is that the person was not trying to feel good, but feel better, a "medical necessity" defense. It's unconstitutional to make the status of being an addict a crime in itself (Robinson v. California 1962). Drug charges can also be challenged on scientific grounds, as follows: Sampling method -- is the fraction tested representative? Usable vs. Measurable Quantity Rule -- sometimes just a trace is found (as on pipe or bong scrapes) and case law varies with some states requiring a "usable quantity" Pure vs. Aggregate Weight Rule -- pure is the uncut amount, but most states follow an aggregate weight rule so, for example, 10 pounds might refer to the blotter paper the LSD is on

Case reports Two of these cases involved poison. In Essex, James Emery had given his pregnant lover twelve poisonous pills, hoping to cause a miscarriage. Evidence that her death was due to arsenic was given by Mr Tomkin, a surgeon, and Mr Baker, an operative chymist.9In Yorkshire, the court accepted that Ann Barber's husband James had also died from arsenic poisoning, a fact to which the surgeon and apothecary John Hindle testified. He was firm in his conclusions, but was forced to admit that although he had made certain tests for arsenic, it was the first time he had done so. According to the newspaper report, he stated that Mr Postuett, a medical person was also present when the autopsy and chemical tests were performed.10The two correspondents, almost certainly reflecting the progress of the trials themselves, did not linger on the evidence of poisoning, being far more concerned by the motives of the two accused and the details of their private lives. If these reports can be taken as accurate reflections of the issues that most concerned the court, then it would appear that the medical and scientific evidence of poisoning was not contentious. There was no clash of opinion, legal or medical, or difficulty in convincing the jurors that death was due to arsenic poisoning. Although Ann Barber had a barrister, his cross-examination of Hindle was based on a brief he received on the morning the trial began. James Emery had no lawyer. In one of the illicit liquor tragedies, about hundred people started vomiting and became unconscious after drinking illicit liquor ,known as khopdi.Many lost their eyesight and some died within a couple of days. Methyl alcohol was found in the vomits, viscera and liquor samples. A boy was found in an unconscious state near a railway yard. He was removed to the hospital where he died. The viscera of the boy was collected and sent to the laboratory for chemical examination. The viscera showed the presence of dhatura alkaloids. A sadhu who was seen offering the boy prasadam was held. some PRASADAMWAS SEIZED FROM HIS POSSESSION. The prasadam on examination showed the presence of dhatura alkaloids. Based on the laboratory findings the sadhu was prosecuted for murder of the body. A woman aged 24 was admitted to a hospital with the history of attempted suicide. Her stomach was washed and she was progressing. She gave a statement later that she consumed bed-bug poison because of unbearable stomach pain. After 2 days her condition took a violent turn. She gave dying declaration that her husband with the help of 2 other persons forcibly poured bed-bug poison into her mouth. The stomach wash and viscera of the victim were analysed, and parathion and malathion were detected in them. A small empty bed-bug poison bottle was recovered from a brush nereby the house where the lady lived. The examination of its contents revealed presence of parathion and malathion which are insecticidal poisons.A charge of conspiracy and murder was leveled against herv husband and his friends. A lady was found dead in her bead. Her nightgown and the bedsheet bore brown strains probably from the tea.The examination of thes stains showed presence of barbiturate. Barbiturate and ethanol were also detected in the viscera and the postmortem blood.