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Physiology
M.Ilker Gelisen MD
Agenda
• What is physiology? • •From cell to human (levels of organization) • •A review of the organ systems • •Introduction of the concept of homeostasis • •Themes in Physiology
Physiology– Study of the normal functioning of a living
organism and its component parts • Physiology is the study of the normal function
of cell, tissue, organs, systems and organisms
• Physiology can be divided into the following specialties:
– Cell physiology – study of cell
– Special physiology - study of specific organ
– Systemic physiology – study of system
– Pathological physiology (Pathophysiology) – study of the effect of disease on cell, tissue, organ and
system.
The Specialties of Physiology
Levels of Organization
BiosphereAtoms Molecules Cells Tissues OrgansOrgan
systems OrganismsPopulations of
one speciesEcosystem of
different species
CHEMISTRY
MOLECULARBIOLOGY
CELLBIOLOGY
PHYSIOLOGYECOLOGY
Levels of Organization
Levels of Organization - Human
Organ Systems in Review
• Integumentary• Musculoskeletal• Respiratory• Digestive• Urinary• Reproductive• Circulatory / Cardiovascular• Nervous • Endocrine• Lymphatic / Immune
Protection from environmental hazards; temperature control
Support, protection of soft tissues; mineral storage; blood formation
Locomotion, support, heat production
Directing immediate responses to stimuli, usually by coordinating the activities of other organ systems
Directing long-term changes in the activities of other organ systems
Internal transport of cells and dissolved materials, including nutrients, wastes, and gases
Defense against infection and disease
Delivery of air to sites where gas exchange can occur between the air and circulating blood
Processing of food and absorption of organic nutrients, minerals, vitamins, and water
Elimination of excess water, salts, and waste products; control of pH
Production of sex cells and hormones
Organ System Major Functions
Integumentary system
Skeletal system
Muscular system
Nervous system
Endocrine system
Cardiovascular system
Lymphatic system
Respiratory system
Digestive system
Urinary system
Reproductive system
Human Body
Interrelationships Among Body Systems
Necessary Life Functions• Maintain boundaries• Movement– Locomotion– Movement of substances
• Responsiveness– Ability to sense changes and react
• Digestion– Break-down and absorption of nutrients
Necessary Life Functions
• Metabolism—chemical reactions within the body– Produces energy– Makes body structures
• Excretion– Eliminates waste from metabolic reactions
Necessary Life Functions
• Reproduction– Produces future generation
• Growth– Increases cell size and number of cells
Survival Needs
• Water– 60 of body weight– Provides for metabolic reaction
• Stable body temperature• Atmospheric pressure – Must be appropriate
Survival Needs
• Nutrients– Chemicals for energy and cell building– Includes carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins,
and minerals• Oxygen– Required for chemical reactions
Homeostasis X
• Homeostasis—maintenance of a stable internal environment – A dynamic state of equilibrium
• Homeostasis is necessary for normal body functioning and to sustain life
• Homeostatic imbalance– A disturbance in homeostasis resulting in disease
Key Themes in Physiology:
1. Homeostasis (Body systems work together (Integration of function) Internal vs. external failure of homeostasis 2.Communication and movement across cell membranes Vital to integration & homeostasis Cells communicate with other cells, tissues & organs
• A homeostatic regulatory mechanism consist of :– A receptor – senses an environmental change or
stimuli.– A control center –processes information supplied by
receptor and generates a response (command)– An effector – an organ or cell that responds to the
command of control center.• A variation outside the desired range triggers an
automatic response to correct the situation– Negative feedback
Homeostatic regulation
Maintaining Homeostasis
• The body communicates through neural and hormonal control systems– Receptor• Responds to changes in the environment (stimuli)• Sends information to control center
Maintaining Homeostasis
– Control center• Determines set point• Analyzes information• Determines appropriate response
– Effector• Provides a means for response to the stimulus
Feedback Mechanisms
• Negative feedback– Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms– Shuts off the original stimulus, or reduces its
intensity– Works like a household thermostat
•In positive feedback an initial stimulus produces a response that enhances the change in the original condition. For instance:
• Damage to blood vessel wall will cause release of chemicals.
• Chemicals will trigger blood clotting
• Clotting process increases release of chemicals
• More chemicals means accelerated clotting
• Accelerated clotting means more chemicals
Homeostasis
Variable(in homeostasis)
Stimulus:Produceschangein variable
Variable(in homeostasis)
Imbalance
Imbalance
Changedetectedby receptor
Stimulus:Produceschangein variable
Receptor (sensor)
Variable(in homeostasis)
Imbalance
Imbalance
Changedetectedby receptor
Stimulus:Produceschangein variable
Input:Informationsent alongafferentpathway to
Receptor (sensor)
Variable(in homeostasis)
Controlcenter
Imbalance
Imbalance
Changedetectedby receptor
Stimulus:Produceschangein variable
Input:Informationsent alongafferentpathway to
Receptor (sensor) Effector
Variable(in homeostasis)
Output:Information sentalong efferentpathway to activate
Controlcenter
Imbalance
Imbalance
Changedetectedby receptor
Stimulus:Produceschangein variable
Input:Informationsent alongafferentpathway to
Receptor (sensor) Effector
Variable(in homeostasis)
Response ofeffector feedsback toinfluencemagnitude ofstimulus andreturns variableto homeostasis
Output:Information sentalong efferentpathway to activate
Controlcenter
Imbalance
Imbalance
Negative Feedback: The Control of Body Temperature
Feedback Mechanisms
• Positive feedback– Increases the original stimulus to push the
variable further– In the body this only occurs in blood clotting and
during the birth of a baby
Function versus Process
• Function explains the “why”– Teleological approach
• Process or mechanism describes the “how”– Mechanistic approach
• Red blood cell example– “Because cells need oxygen and red blood cells
bring it to them.” – “Oxygen binds to hemoglobin molecules
contained in the red blood cells.”
Homeostasis – Most cells contact extracellular fluid– Out out – Out– In– In in
Extracellular fluid:the internal environment
of the body
Intracellularfluid of
most cells
Material entersand leavesthe body
Material entersand leaves
the body
External environmentof the body
Homeostasis and Controls• External or internal change
• Loss of homeostasis– Sensed by
organism• Physiological
attempt to correct
• Negative feedback loop
Homeostasis and Controls• Successful
compensation– Homeostasis
reestablished• Failure to
compensate– Illness– Death
• Study of failure to compensate is pathophysiology
Organism inhomeostasis
Externalchange
Internal changeresults in
loss of homeostasis
Compensation succeedsCompensation fails
WellnessIllness or disease
Organism attemptsto compensate
Internalchange
Homeostasis and Controls
Themes in Physiology
• Homeostasis – Control systems
• Biological energy use• Structure-function relationships– Molecular interactions– Mechanical properties of cells, tissues, and organs
• Communication– Chemical and electrical signals
Themes in Physiology
• A simple control system
Inputsignal
OutputsignalController
Concept Mapping
• Organizational tool for relationships and processes
• Schematic diagram of structure and function– Cells, tissues, and organs
• Flow charts – Diagram processes in sequence
Concept Mapping: Types of MapsPerson workingoutside on a hot,
dry day
Loses body waterby evaporation
Body fluids becomemore concentrated
Thirst pathwaysstimulated
Person seeks outand drinks water
Internal receptorssense change in
internal concentration
Water addedto body fluids
decreases theirconcentration
(b) A process map, or flow chart
Homeostasis
Process of maintaining stable internal environment compatible for life
–Most organ systems contribute to homeostasis
–Exception: reproductive system
Negative Feedback Control in Homeostasis
– Primary mechanism for maintaining homeostasis– External change triggers change in regulated
variable in internal environment triggers reaction to oppose the change and return regulated variable toward normal (set point)
Negative Feedback Mechanisms
– Set point = desired level of regulated variable– Sensors detect level of regulated variable and provide input to
integrating center– Integrating center compares set point to actual level of
regulated variable– Error signal = difference between actual level and set point– Integrating center sends output to effectors to return
regulated variable toward set point
Negative Feedback Control of Car Speed
Negative Feedback Control of Body Temperature
Negative Feedback Loop
Positive Feedback Loop
Positive feedback loops cause a rapid change in a variable.
Thermoregulation
– Homeothermic animals – regulate body temperature within a narrow range
– Poikilothermic animals – do not regulate body temperature
Homeothermic Animals
– Normal body temperature = set point• Differs in animal species• Humans: 37oC (98.6oF)
– Hypothermia = decrease in body temperature– Hyperthermia = increase in body temperature• above 41oC, dangerous• above 43oC, deadly
Mechanisms of Heat Transfer Between Body and External Environment
– Radiation - thermal energy as electromagnetic waves
– Conduction - thermal energy through contact– Evaporation - heat loss through evaporation of
water• insensible water loss• sweating
– Convection - heat transfer by movement of fluid or air
Components of Thermoregulatory System
– Thermoregulatory system maintains core body temperature
– Detectors - thermoreceptors (central and peripheral)
– Integrator - hypothalamus– Effectors - sweat glands, blood vessels in
skin, skeletal muscles
Thermoneutral Zone
Range of outside temperature where alterations in blood flow alone regulates
body temperature
25-30oC– Body temperature increase:• blood flow to skin increases
– Body temperature decrease:• blood flow to skin decreases
Negative Feedback Control of Body Temperature
Thermoregulation
Fever
– Fever accompanies infections– White blood cells secrete pyrogens– Body temperature set point increases– Fever enhances immune response
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