PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS IN ENGLISHLecture # 12

Grigoryeva M.

PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS

Phraseology as the branch of Linguistics. The problem of terminology

Definition of phraseological units. Criteria for phraseologacal units

Three approaches towards the study of phraseological units

Classification of phraseological units

Phraseology

is the branch of Linguistics

appeared in the 1940s

studies phraseological units of the language

Object of Phraseology

phraseological units,

their nature,

the way they function in speech

Problem of terminology

set expression idiom set phrase fixed word-groups word-equivalent phraseological unit

Phraseological Units

Phraseological units are word-groups that cannot be

made in the process of speech, they exist in the language

as ready-made units (idioms).

They are compiled in special dictionaries.

Phraseological Units

non-motivated word-groups cannot be freely made up in speech reproduced as ready-made units structurally stable possess stability of lexical components reproduced as single unchangeable collocations

Criteria to distinguish free-word groups from phraseological units

semantic criterion

structural criterion

syntactic criterion

Semantic criterion

free word-roups

each meaningful

component stands for a

separate concept

a red flower

phraseological units

convey a single concept

red tape

Semantic criterion

Phraseological units are characterized by different degrees of semantic change:

1. semantic change may affect the whole word-group (“complete transferred meaning”)

to skate on thin ice

to have one’s heart in one’s boots

Semantic criterion

2. semantic change may affect only one of the

components of a word-group

(“partially transferred meaning”)

to fall in love, small talk

Structural Criterion: restriction in substitution free word-groups –

components may be changed

The cargo ship/vessel is

carrying coal to

Liverpool/ Manchester

phraseological units – no word can be replaced without destroying the sense

to carry coals to

Newcastle

Structural Criterion: introducing additional components free word-groups –

change can be made without affecting the general meaning

The big ship is carrying

a large cargo of coal to the port of Liverpool

phraseological units – no additional components can be introduced

the white elephant –

NOT

the big white elephant

Structural Criterion: grammatical invariability free word-groups –

red flower – red flowers

phraseological units

to find fault with smb. NOT

to find faults with smb.

Approaches to the Study of Phraseological Units Semantic

functional

contextual

Semantic Approach

phraseological units are non-motivated (idiomacity)

phraseological units are opposed to free-word combinations which are completely motivated

Functional Approach

phraseological units are specific word-groups functioning like word-equivalents

like words they possess structural and semantic inseparability

Contextual Approach

phraseological units are used in specific contexts – non-variable, or “fixed”

non-variability is a stability of the lexical components within the semantic structure

Phraseological transference Based on Simile (intensification of some feature of an object by bringing it

into contact with another object)

As pretty as a picture

To fight as a lion

Based on metaphor(likening of one object to another)

Flog a dead horse

Join the majority

Phraseological transference Based on metonymy (transfer of a name-перенос наименования from one object to another

based on the contiguity of their properties, action)

A silk stocking –a rich well-dressed man

Synecdoche (a variety of metonymy- the replacement of the common by the private)

The flesh and blood

To hold one’s tongue

Classification of phraseological units Phraseological fusions (completely non-motivated)White elephant

“expensive but useless thing”

Phraseological unities (partially non-motivated)To wash one’s dirty linen in public

To discuss or make public one’s quarrels

Phraseological unities (are motivated and contain one component in its direct meaning)

To meet the necessity

Ways of forming phraseological units

By A.V. Koonin –the way they are formed

Primary ways (when a unit is formed on the basis of a free word-group)

Secondary ways (when a unit is formed on the basis of another phraseological unit)

Primary ways Transferring the meaning of terminological word-groupsTo link up

b) Transferring the meaning of free word-groupsGranny farm As old as the hills

c) By means of alliterationsad sack Culture vulture

d) By means of rhymingBy hook or by crook

High and dry

By means of expressiveness

My aunt!

By using synonyms

Really and truly

By means of distorting (искажение)

Odd ends Odds and ends

By using a sentence in different sphere of life

That cock won’t fight (metaphor) cock fighting sport

Using some unreal image

To have butterflies in the stomach

To have green fingers

By using archaism

In brown study

By using expressions of writers or politicians in everyday life

American dream (Alby)

The winds of change (Mc Millan)

Secondary ways Conversion

To vote with one’s feet vote with one’s feet

(expressing a protest by going away)

Analogy

Curiosity killed the cat Care killed the cat

Contrast

Thin cat (a poor person) Fat cat (a rich person)

Shortening of proverbs by clipping the middle

You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear to make a sow’s ear

(To make a mistake)

Semantic classification V.V. Vinogradov

According to the degree of motivation of the meaning

Fusions (highly idiomatic – can’t be translated word by word)

At sixes and sevens

Unities (can be guessed from the meaning of the components but it is transferred - metaphor or metonymy)

To play the first fiddle

Collocations (words are combined in their original meaning but the combination is different )

Cash and carry

Structural classification

A.I.Smirnitsky comparing with the words

One top unit (comparison with affixed words --have only one root morpheme)

Two-top unit (comparison with compound words –usually have two root morpheme)

One-top unit verb +post position type “to give up”

To art up

To nose up

To sandwich in

Passive type structures “to be tired”

To be interested in

Prepositional- nominal (the semantic centre is in the nominal part)

On the doorstep

Two-top units Attributive-nominal

A month of Sundays - целая вечность

Verb-nominal

To read between the lines – понимать скрытый смысл

Phraseological repetitions

Now and never

теперь или никогда

Ups and downs (antonyms)

взлеты и падения

Cakes and ale (alliteration)

удовольствия жизни

Cool as cucumber (partly or perfectly idiomatic)

Хладнокровный

Syntactical classification I.V.Arnold based on parts of speech

Noun phraseologisms

verb phraseologisms

adjective phraseologisms

adverb phraseologisms

preposition phraseologisms

interjection phraseologism

Noun phraseologisms N+N

maiden name

N’s +N

ladies’ man

N+prep+N

skeleton in the cupboard

N+A

knight errant

A+N

high tea

N+subordinate clause

Ships that pass in the night ( chance acquaintances)

verb phraseologisms V+N

To take advantage

V+V

To pick and choose (

V + one’s +N +prep

To pick and choose

V+one+N

To give one the bird

V+subordinate clause

To see how the land lies

Аdjective phraseologisms A+and +A

High and mighty

(as)+A+as +A

As loose as a goose

Adverb phraseologisms Adv+prep +N

Once in a blue moon

Preposition phraseologismsPrep +N+prep

In course of

Interjection phraseologismCatch me!

Ни за что!

Well, I never!

Вот уж не ожидал!

God bless me!

The main sources of native phraseological units Terminological and professional lexics

Center of gravity (physics) British literature

Green-eyed moster

Jelousy

W. Shakespeare British traditions and customs

Baker’s dozen Superstition and legends

Black sheep Historical facts and events

To do a Thatcher Facts of everyday life

A carry coal to Newcastle

The main sources of borrowed phraseological units The Holy Script

The kiss of Judas (Matthew XXVI:49)

Ancient legends belonging to different culture

To cut the Gordian knot

Facts and events of the world history

To cross the Rubicon

From other languages

Tilt at windmills (acometer molinos de viente – Spanish)

Proverb (пословица)

sum up the collective wisdom of the community, a popular truth or a moral lesson in a concise and imaginative way

are metaphorical

Proverbs moralize

Hell is paved with good intentions admonish

If you sing before breakfast, you will cry before night

criticize

Everyone calls his own geese swans

give advice

Don’t judge a tree by its bark

Proverbs

lexical components are stable meaning is figurative are ready-made units are easily transformed into phraseological units

don’t cast pearls before swine –

to cast pearls before swine

Saying (поговорка)

are non-metaphorical, not figurative

grammatically they are finished sentences

Where there is a way, there is a will

Familiar Quotations (крылатые выражения)

come from literature

in contrast to proverbs, they do not express finished judgment

To err (ошибаться) is human.