INTRODUCTION

Some linguists do not ascribe proverbs and saying to the category of

phraseological unities because they are taken from people’s speech and underwent

changes while traveling from mouth to mouth. But anyway they are phraseological

units, because they have the direct meaning, Sometimes they may have the

opposite meaning.

Between all these notions related to phraseological units, phraseological

fusions are the most difficult to translate, because they lack motivation. Their

meaning cannot be deduced from the meanings of their component elements.

Every language has such patterns as phraseological units whom native

speakers are used to or look for their definitions in reliable sources in order to get

the point. Some of these have equivalents while others not, and the peculiarities of

translating them from English into Romanian seems to be very interesting due to

the fact that there can be word by word translation , there can be equivalences or

just explanation.

The motivation to study closer the phraseological units in S.W.

Maugham’s works was dictated by the large amount of idioms, which makes the

language more colorful and more expressive. Moreover, there is a dictionary of

phraseological units , where the English explanations or the Romanian equivalents

are indicated.

The purpose of this work is to identify the semantic and idiomatic

peculiarities of translating the phraseological units and to determine the means

used for this.

The objectives of this study are:

• to define the concept of translation;

• to define phraseological units;

• to classify the ways of translation;

• to analyze phraseological units from the semantic perspective;

• to establish the differences between different types of translation;

• to determine the effect of different ways of translation from English

into Romanian

• to characterize and classify the phraseological units on the basis of the

compiled corpus linguistic;

The research methods employed in the work are analysis, which was used

for the study of phraseological units and determining their essential features;

diachronic analysis, that focuses on the etymology and the historical evolution of

phraseological units; the classification, and the contextual analysis.

The actuality of the research is in the fact that there will be made an

analysis of the phraseological units of two countries, in two languages, and will be

found the similarities and differences. There are fewer works which analyze the

phraseological units from this point of view, and this make the actuality of the

research more interesting.

Nevertheless, an important task of grammarian working in the field of

phraseology is to bring together the finding of a common ground for a theory of

phraseology and practice of teaching foreign languages.

The central problem in the study of substantival phraseological units in

English and Romanian language is not merely to define another type of

phraseological units.

Despite the fact that there are many works devoted to the problem under

analysis some important aspects, such as structural or the substantival

phraseological units as components of grammar and semantic have not been fully

investigated. This defines the actuality of the work and its theoretical value.

In order to achieve the set aim we are to determine the following tasks:

• To consider the phraseology as a system of language.

• To study the types of phraseological units, idioms and their

classifications.

• To research the problems of translation of phraseological units.

The theoretical value of the term paper is to do thorough research in the field

of phraseology.

The novelty of the term paper is in the detailed investigation of

phraseological units and to show the problems of translation phraseological units.

This work consists of an introduction, two chapters, conclusion and bibliography.

Chapter I is entitled “PHRASEOLOGY. CLASSIFICATION OF

PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS” and present a theoretical approach to the studied

theme. In this chapter is given the definition of phraseological units as well as the

criteria for phraseological units. Also in this chapter is presented a classification of

phraseological units and phraseology is studied as the branch of linguistics. A

subchapter is dedicated to the problem of terminology.

Chapter II is entitled “TRANSLATION OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS

FROM ENGLISH INTO ROMANIAN” and it is a practical chapter where are

presented methods and techniques used in translation of Phraseological Units from

English into Romanian. Based on the methods described is done a contrastive

analyses of English and Romanian phraseological units.

The practical value of the work lies in the fact that the results of the

investigation can be used in courses of grammar and semantics, seminars in

semantic and grammatic problems from one language to another, and can also be

useful for practical courses of English Grammar and Romanian Grammar.

Chapter I. PHRASEOLOGY. CLASSIFICATION OF

PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS

• Definition of phraseological units. Criteria for phraseological

units

Phraseology could be portrayed as gallery, where representations of the

nation’s cultural customs are collected. Under this perspective, this field of

language is not only the most colorful, but also probably the most egalitarian area

of vocabulary and it drowses its resources mostly from the very depths of popular

speech. Moreover, together with the study of synonyms and antonyms,

phraseology represents one of the most expressive disciplines within linguistics. It

is precisely due to its richness of expressions and to its heterogeneity that it seems

difficult to identify which are the borders of phraseology. Delimiting the object of

study of phraseology and finding a uniformed classification system seems to be a

difficult task (Gläser 1988, Mel’cuk 1988, Howarth 1998, Ruiz Gurillo 1997,

Cowie 1998, Moon 1998, Corpas Pastor 2000). In fact, the same terminological

diversity that linguists (Fernando and Flavell, 1981, Gläser 1988, Corpas Pastor

2000) have used to refer both to the generic discipline and to the elements it

studies highlights its instability. Despite the increasing amount of research within

phraseology in the past fifty years, and the consequent improvement regarding the

delimitation of the units that constitute its object of study, there seems to be still a

great diversity of criteria. This hinders the consolidation of a systematic and

scientific study of this topic.

Phraseology is an intermediary field, being close, in the reference literature,

both to vocabulary studies, since it studies fixed word combinations, characterized

by a unitary meaning, as well as to syntax, since phraseologic phenomena are

defined by syntactic relations of various kinds, which are realized on a syntagmatic

axis. Given the expressive nature of phraseologic phenomena, these have also been

associated to stylistics. Taking into consideration the possibility of differentiating

styles and functional variants of a language by analysing phraseologic units, it has

been particularly drawn closer to functional stylistics.

But beyond the closeness to different linguistic disciplines, phraseology

tends to be regarded as an autonomous discipline, with its own object and methods

of investigation.

The term phraseology designates the discipline as well as its object, the set

or totality of phraseologic units in a given language. According to the origin of

phraseologisms, a line has been drawn between two areas of investigation, namely,

linguistic phraseology understood as a community’s means of expression and

literary phraseology including aphorisms, witticism, word combinations with an

accidental character, belonging to certain writers, outstanding people. As an

autonomous discipline, the object of research of phraseology consists in

phraseologic units from a given language (or a group of languages).

The concepts, different authors define it differently, sometimes do not

provide a clear-cut definition, or conflate several terms that many scholars prefer to

distinguish. However, a closer comparative look at the vast majorities of studies

that exist allows for identifying a set of parameters that are typically implicated in

phraseological research. We believe a rigorous definition of co-occurrence

phenomena in general, and phraseology in particular, needs to take a stand

regarding at least the following six parameters.

• the nature of the elements involved in a phraseologism;

• the number of elements involved in a phraseologism;

• the number of times an expression must be observed before it counts as a

phraseologism;

• the permissible distance between the elements involved in a phraseologism;

• the degree of lexical and syntactic flexibility of the elements involved;

• the role that semantic unity and semantic non-compositionality / non-

predictability play in the definition.

As to the first criterion, the definition of a phraseologism we will adopt is

among the broadest conceivable ones. We consider a phraseologism to be the co-

occurrence of a form or a lemma of a lexical item and any other kind of linguistic

element, which can be, for example,

• another (form of a) lexical item (kith and kin is a very frequently cited

example of a nearly deterministic co-occurrence of two lexical items,

as is strong tea);

• a grammatical pattern (as opposed to, say, a grammatical relation), i.e.

when a particular lexical item tends to occur in / co-occur with a

particular grammatical construction (the fact that the verb hem is

mostly used in the passive is a frequently cited case in point).

We maintain a very productive idea flashed out by the linguist and

consisting in that phraseological meaning cannot be realized without the existence

of definite structures, i.e. it is impossible to study the features of phraseological

units without knowledge of their structure. There are, as far as his scheme goes,

seven main structural types of phraseological units in the English language. They

are as follows:

1. Unitop phraseological units (the term was introduced by A.I. Smirnitsky

consisting of one notional and one functional lexeme, or one notional and two or

three functional lexemes. By functional lexemes one should consider lexemes

which do not function as independent members of thesentence and serve for word

connection in the sentence (prepositions, conjunctions), and also for

characterization of the categories of number, definiteness or indefiniteness of

nouns (or articles).

2. Phraseological units with the structure of subordinate or coordinate

combination of words (to have a finger in every pie „to be involved in every plan;

high and mighty” the powerful minority).

3. Phraseological units with the partially predicative structure (i.e. lexeme +

subordinate clause): ships that pass in the night momentary encounters).

4. Phraseological units with the structure of subordinate clause (when pigs

fly (colloq.) never);

5. Phraseological units of nominative-communicative class, i.e. verbal

constructions with the structure of a word combination with a verb in the form of

infinitive and the structure of a sentence with a verb in the passive voice (break the

ice ¨C to make a beginning > the ice is broken the beginning is made).

6. Phraseological units with the structure of a simple or complex sentence (A

bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. Better an egg today than a hen tomorrow;

Do you see any green in my eye? Do you really think me to be so naive? Tell

it to the marines! Nonsense!).

In the literature dealing with phraseology, different terms, such as idiom,

phraseme or word-group have often been used to refer to the same category. Each

of them is defined according to different criteria and, for this reason, each term

leads to broader or narrower definitions and views. [11,p.90]

For this reason, although each phraseological unit in the corpus of this paper

has been carefully considered and selected, the pertinence of the inclusion of some

of them has been, and still is, open to discussion. The difficulty of providing a

“close and definite corpus” of phraseological units, arises from its heterogeneity

and variety and also the from fact that the same investigators are still struggling to

find a precise definition for this category. Below we provide some examples, for

the sake of discussion. In 1979 phraseological units were defined by R. Ginzburg

and her colleagues as follows:

“phraseological units are non-motivated word groups that cannot be freely

made up in speech but are reproduced as ready-made units”

Gläser, in turn, defines the phraseological unit as:

“a more or less lexicalized, reproducible bilexemic or polylexemic word-

group in common use, which has syntactic and semantic stability, may be

idiomatized, may carry connotations, and may have an emphatic or intensifying

function in a text”

Nevertheless, despite the heterogeneity of terminology, there seems to be a

general agreement in that a phraseological unit is a fixed word-combination whose

main features are summarized in Corpas Pastor’s Manual de fraseología. Here, she

lists the main features of a phraseological unit, summarizing them from previous

different authors. According to Corpas Pastor a phraseological unit :

• is an expression made of various words

• is institutionalized (institutionalization)

• presents some kind of semantic or syntactic specificity

(idiomaticity)

• has different degrees of stability (graduality and stability)

• is possible a certain variation of its components (variation)

• is usually characterized by an high frequency of use

In general function is a role which an element plays in activity of that

structure, part of which it makes.[6,p.28]

Some functions are constant, i.e. inherent in all phraseological units in any

conditions of their realization, other functions are variable, peculiar only to some

classes ofphraseological units. Communicative, cognitive and nominative

functions refer to the constant functions.

The communicative function of phraseological units is their ability to serve

as communicative or message means. Communication presupposes a mutual

exchange of statements, and message presupposes the transfer of information

without a feedback with the reader or the listener.

The nominative function of phraseological units is their relation to objects of

the real world, including situations, and also replacement of these objects in speech

activity by their phraseological denominations. The filling of lacunas in the lexical

system of the language is characteristic of the nominative function of

phraseological units. This function is peculiar to the overwhelming majority of

phraseological units, as they do not have lexical synonyms. The sub-kinds of the

nominative function are neutrally-nominal and nominal functions.

The neutrally-nominal function is the basic one for phraseological units, for

example, brown paper. At realization of such phrases in communication the fact of

a designation of the object is important, and not the stylistic use of the phrase. The

nominal function is also characteristic for semantically transferred phraseological

units (idiomatisms and idiophraseomatisms), but it is not neutral, it is stylistically

marked.

In Stilistica limbii române, Iorgu Iordan defines phraseologic structures,

referred to in the paper by the term “isolations”, as “fixed formulas, somehow

created for good, that are handed down through tradition and remain unchanged

both in terms of formal aspect and as meaning”, motivating his calling it

“isolation” with the fact that their “constitutive elements also isolate themselves

from the rest of the linguistic material, in the sense that they are treated

separately”. These structures are “interesting exclusively for their meaning which

is unitary, just like in the case of a single word”.[8,p.22]

An essential thing to be taken into account is the connection between

phraseologisms and metaphor. In Lexic românesc. Cuvinte, metafore, expresii,

Stelian Dumistrăcel claimed that “the connection between metaphors and

idiomatic phrases asserts itself on its own by the fact thatthey have the same

stylistic function, expressivity and, logically speaking, by the fact that both carry a

certain (figurative) meaning”. Concerning proverbs, Cezar Tabarcea went as far as

to claim that they are deictic metaphors. It is known that in structures with a fixed

nature, the degree of connotativeness accumulates from several sources. Elena

Slave compares the connotative resources of a word with those of a lexical

combination, showing that, whereas the connotation of a word results from

addition, that of an idiom results from synthesis. For example, the connotation of

the word îngeraş (little angel), with the meaning of “child” is obtained from the

latent connotation of the meaning “child”, plus the affective connotation of the

suffix -aş and the one springing from the metaphor used, while the connotation of

the compound zgârie-brânză (tight-fisted; literally: scratch-cheese) is the result of a

synthesis superior to the two sources, namely brânză (literally, cheese) which, by

the referential and socio-cultural aspect evokes a certain atmosphere, and zgârie

(literally, scratch), whose connotative value results from the meaning of the act as

related to the object brânză.

A very significant fact is that, as Cristina Florescu also observed, the

connotativeness of fixed structures often manifests itself at the level of the

colloquial register. Therefore, the features which may be taken as criteria for

distinguishing phraseological units are stability (manifested in the high frequency

of occurrence in the language) and semantic unity (reflected in the lack of the

correspondence between the general signification of the structure and the

accumulation of significations of the constituent elements). The two characteristics

are closely interconnected: the global signification associated with the group leads

to its repetition, its frequent use leading to stability.

From this point of view the sub-kinds of pragmatic function are stylistic,

cumulative, directive, valuative and summarizing functions. The stylistic function

is a special, in comparison with neutral way of expression, purposefulness of

language means for achievement... of stylistic effect with preservation of the

general intellectual content of the statement. The stylisticfunction realizes in

speech connotative features of a phraseological unit. In the language there is only

stylistic colouring. The idea about it is given by marks and comments in stylistic

dictionaries which, unfortunately, are still far from being perfect. Comparison of a

phraseological unit with its variable prototype also helps to reveal stylistic

colouring.[1,p.74]

Developing, on the Romanian material, the phraseological theory in its

functional-semantic aspect, M. Cerencu singles out some functions of

phraseological units. These functions are peculiar also to English phraseological

units:

• the expressively-figurative function (catch at a straw; forbidden

fruit, etc.);

• the emotionally-expressional function (damn your eyes!; go to

the devil!);

• the function of speech concision by omitting some components

(do not count your chickens! instead of do not count your chickens before

they are hatched).

Proverbs, especially short ones, even not of the reduced kind, carry out the

function of speech laconisation, for example, prevention is better than cure – action

taken to prevent an illness, dangerous event, etc., from taking place is wiser and

more useful than any action that is taken to reduce its harmful effect. It is evident,

that the definition is almost five times longer than the proverb itself.

The semantic compression, characteristic for phraseological units, is one of

the displays of language economy. All these functions, and also the function of

hyperbolization and intensity are sub-kinds of the stylistic function. The

cumulative function is peculiar, for example, to proverbs. They are generalization

of life experience of the people.

With the cumulative function «one more, the second function is closely

connected – directly managing, directing, influencing, and in separate prospect

bringing up, forming a person. We named it directive».

Examples of proverbs with the directive function can be the following: as

you brew, so must you drink; cut your coat according to your clot; look before you

leap, etc.

The summarizing function of a phraseological unit consists in the fact that it

is the short resume of the previous statement, e.g., that's flat (coll.) – it is

definitively solved, resolutely and irrevocably: Well, I will not marry her: that's

flat.

Summarizing function in a context is characteristic of many proverbs, for

example, all's well that ends well; in for a penny, in for a pound, etc. Pragmatic

character is also carried by the evaluative function.[3,p.82]

A kind of the pragmatic function is the contact-establishing function

consisting in creation of easy dialogue between the author and the reader or the

listener, and also among the characters themselves. Introducing a luxury car that

will not take you for a ride.

The given advertising heading concerns the car, and two meanings of the

phraseological unit «take smb for a ride» are played up

• to kill, finish off smb;

• to inflate, deceive smb.

Proverbs are often used in the function of confirmation of a thought. It is

also one of the sub-kinds of the pragmatic function.

It is an ill bird that fouls its own nest – «only the bad bird defiles the nest»:

Augustus: ...Do you mean to say, you scoundrel, that an Englishman is capable of

selling his country to the enemy for gold?

The Clerk: Not as a general thing I would not say it, but there's men here

would sell their own mothers for two coppers if they got the chance.

Augustus:... It's an ill bird that fouls its own nest. (G.B. Shaw).

Interjectional phraseological units can carry out the compensatory function

which is realized in the description of strong sincere emotional experience,

affect,when speech of the subject is complicated and an interjectional

phraseological unit is the only content of the whole remark.

Oh dear – my God:

Jimmy: They did not say much. But I think she's dying.

Cliff: Oh, dear (J. Osborne).

The text-building (or the context-building) function is characteristic of

phraseological units at their realization. For the first time the question

concerningtext-building functions of phraseological units was raised by I.I.

Chernysheva. «Under text-building factors of phraseological units we mean

realization oflinguistic properties of the given language signs allowing them,

equally with grammatical and lexical means of language, to create those links in

structure of the text which are elements of the structure and in certain cases also

binding means of fragments of the text».

The repetition of one-structural comparisons creates parallel constructions

within the limits of a phrase context.

'Not was but a poor man himself,' said Peggotty, 'but as good as gold and as

true as steel' (Ch. Dickens).

In texts of various types phraseological units carry out various functions –

descriptive, characterizing, terminological and others.

All functions considered above are usual. Occasional functions based on

theusual ones are characteristic of phraseological units in the context when

occasionalchanges take place: the function of additional sense, the weakening

function or thefunction of specification of meaning, etc. Functions often cross in

statements.

The interaction of functions is characteristic of idioms and

idiophraseomatisms:

Like a shot:

• quickly, promptly, at full speed;

• instantly, at once;

• very willingly, with pleasure.

The following fuctions are evident here:

• the intensity function;

• the expressively-figurative function;

• the function of speech compression.

Functions of phraseological units form two principal kinds of binary

oppositions, i.e. regular pair oppositions:

1) stylistically neutral functions – stylistically marked functions;

2) usual functions – occasional functions

The presence of these oppositions can be explained by the asymmetry in the

sphere of functioning of phraseological units and is one of the important elements

of the phraseological system.[14,p.45]

The enumeration of functions of phraseological units given above does not

represent their classification. This challenge is waiting for its solution.

Michael McCarthy and Felicity O’Dell use the term ‘idiom’ in their book

‘English Idioms in Use’ and write that idioms are fixed expressions which have a

meaning that is not immediately obvious from looking at the individual words.

Hockett claims that it is a phrase whose meaning is non-compositional, that

is the meaning of the whole cannot be fully deduced from the meanings of the

parts.

The English scholar U. Weinreich asserts that idiom is a phraseological unit

involving at least two polysemous constituents and there is a reciprocal contextual

section of subsenses.

J. Strassler’s definition of an idiom is as follows: “An idiom is a

concatenation of more than one lexeme whose meaning is not derived from the

meanings of its constituents and which does not consist of a verb plus adverbial

particle or preposition.”

Though there are differences in opinions, all linguists agree that

phraseological units or idioms are probably “the most picturesque, colourful and

expressive part of the language vocabulary, which reflect nation’s customs,

traditions and prejudices, recollections of its past history, scraps of folk songs and

fairy tales. But it is necessary to distinguish them from other words and phrases

existing in the language”.

R.S.Ginzburg also accepts the term “phraseological units” and the definition

given by her is the following: “Phraseological units are [..] non-motivated word-

groups that cannot be freely made up in speech but are reproduced as ready-made

units.”

In her turn N.N.Amosova defines phraseological units as units of fixed

context, that is a context characterized by a specific and unchanging sequence of

definite lexical components and a peculiar semantic relationship existing between

them.

Our definition and analysis of the idiom is based on the study of idioms in

relation to all other types of phrases that will be included in the dictionary.

The idiom in our model is defined as a combination of two or more words

which as a whole function as a metaphorical expression. It should be noticed that it

is the whole phrase and not just a part of it that has been metaphorized.[25,p.141]

The idiom is interpreted according to the function it has in discourse,

irrespective of what the single words mean when they are interpreted one by one.

Thus in the idiom cast pearls before swine it is not the metaphors pearls and swine

that give the phrase the status of being an idiom, but the fact that they are included

in a whole phrase which in normal contexts is used in such a way that it is evident

that the single words should not be understood in their literal sense but transferred

to a metaphorical level.

The group of phrases in which the idiom is included also consists of similes

and proverbial phrases. Similes are comparisons like vara som ettröttskynkeför ngn

"be like a red rag to a person". Proverbial phrases are conventional utterances in

the form of sentences like man ska ta seden dit man kommer "when in Rome you

must do as the Romans do".

These categories are parts of what we call an idiom cluster, where the idioms

are at the center and the proverbial phrases and similes are at the outer edges

(Clausen 1993). Similes and idioms often interact: vara [som] ett rott skynke for

ngn "be [like] a red rag to a person". Proverbial phrases and idioms also interact:

[man ska] ta seden dit man kommer.

In analyzing the idioms we give special attention to literal counterparts. We

have noted five types of idioms, four of which have phraseological, non-idiomatic

equivalents. Earlier studies of idioms often discuss non-idiomatic equivalents in

order to describe idiomaticity: the less semantically motivated they think an idiom

is in relation to its literal counterpart, the higher the degree of idiomaticity. The

authors of Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English are clear about the fact

that one of their two categories of idioms called 'figurative idioms' have

equivalents among the restricted collocations (e.g. catch fire).

The first type of idiom (a) has a non-idiomatic equivalent from which a

complement is transferred from the status of examples to the status of fixed

phrases. In the metaphorization focus is shifted and a verb is often weakened or

even omitted. The idiomatic expression vara [som] ett slag i ansiktet "be [like] a

slap in the face" with the metaphorical meaning 'be an insult' has the non-idiomatic

equivalent ge nagon ett slag "give a person a slap" (e.g. han gav honom ett slag i

ansiktet "he gave him a slap in the face"). [30,p.369]

The second type of idiom (b) has a non-idiomatic equivalent with an

optional complement which is transferred and has become obligatory in the

metaphorization. The idiomatic expression fâ small pä fingrarna "get a rap on the

knuckles" with the metaphorical meaning 'be reprimanded' has a non-idiomatic

equivalent fâ small [pâ fingrarna] "get a rap [on the knuckles]"

(e.g.pojkenficksmallpàfingrarna iskolan "the boy was rapped on the knuckles at

school").

The third type of idiom (c) has a non-idiomatic equivalent which has the

same form, but one part which is variable has become non-variable in the

metaphorized expression. The idiomatic expression slâ nâven i bordet "hit the table

with one's fist" with the metaphorical meaning 'firmly object to something' has the

non-idiomatic equivalent slâ näven i bordet/katedern "hit the table/desk with one's

fist". The fourth type of idiom (d) has a non-idiomatic equivalent with exactly the

same form but with different meaning. The idiomatic expression spela teater "play

theatre" with the metaphorical meaning 'put on an act' has the non-idiomatic

equivalent spela teater with the meaning 'act'.

If we analyze the non-idiomatic expressions we find that they belong to

different categories in our model: the equivalents of type (a), type (b) and type (c)

are unrestricted collocations, the equivalents of type (d) belong to restricted

collocations.

1.2 Classification of phraseological units

There are three classification principles of phraseological units. The most

popular is the synchronic (semantic) classification of phraseological units by V.V.

Vinogradov. He developed some points first advanced by the Swiss linguist

Charles Bally and gave a strong impetus to a purely lexicological treatment of the

material. It means that phraseological units were defined as lexical complexes with

specific semantic features and classified accordingly. His classification is based

upon the motivation of the unit that is the relationship between the meaning of the

whole and the meanings of its component parts. The degree of motivation is

correlated with the rigidity, indivisibility and semantic unity of the expression that

is with the possibility of changing the form or the order of components and of

substituting the whole by a single word though not in all the cases.[24, p.89]

A.J.Smirnitsky classifies phraseological units according to their stylistic

features:

• phraseological units (stylistically neutral, with faded metaphorical

motivation, be in love, fall in love);

• idioms (they are based on metaphor, they are emotionally and stylistically

coloured, cool as a cucumber).

I.Arnold classifies phraseological units according to the type of the

component parts and the functioning of the whole. She states that “structured like

phrases they function like words”.

There are seven types of phraseological units in I.Arnold’s structural

classification:

• nominal phrases, high life

• verbal phrases, put one’s head in a noose

• adverbial phrases, by hook or by crook

• adjectival phrases, as wet as a drowned rat

5) prepositional phrases, in accordance with

6) conjunctional phrases, as long as

7) interjectional phrases, well, I never did!

Another classification in which there are two principles applied is

established by N.Amosova. She distinguishes two types of phraseological units:

• phrasemes (units of fixed context in which one of the components has

specialized meaning dependent on the second component, e.g., small talk,

fair sex);

• idioms (idioms are semantically and grammatically inseparable units,

e.g., play with fire).

Taking into account the comparative analysis of different classifications of

phraseological units which the author has observed, she has to admit that the

following classification worked out by A.V.Kunin can be considered the most

detailed one. He has critically examined most of the existing classifications and

elaborated his own classification of phraseological units which is based on more

thorough analysis of these phenomena of language. In his classification A.V.Kunin

keeps a close watch to the elements of phraseology which have not been

emphasized by other researchers, as well as takes into consideration also the

development of the English language. Since A.V.Kunin’s classification of

phraseological units is grounded on wide theoretical and practical material

concerning different languages, the author of the present article assumes that this

classification could be applied also to the phraseological systems of other

languages.

According to Vinogradov’s classification all phraseological units are divided

into phraseological fusions, phraseological unities and phraseological

combinations.

Phraseological fusion is a semantically indivisible phraseological unit which

meaning is never influenced by the meanings of its components [2; 44].

It means that phraseological fusions represent the highest stage of blending

together. The meaning of components is completely absorbed by the meaning of

the whole, by its expressiveness and emotional properties.

Once in a blue moon – very seldom;

To cry for the moon – to demand unreal;

Under the rose – quietly.

Sometimes phraseological fusions are called idioms under which linguists

understand a complete loss of the inner form. To explain the meaning of idioms is

a complicated etymological problem (tit to tat means “to revenge”, but no one can

explain the meaning of the words tit and tat).

Phraseological unity is a semantically indivisible phraseological unit the

whole meaning of which is motivated by the meanings of its components [2; p.45].

In general, phraseological unities are the phrases where the meaning of the

whole unity is not the sum of the meanings of its components but is based upon

them and may be understood from the components. The meaning of the significant

word is not too remote from its ordinary meanings. This meaning is formed as a

result of generalized figurative meaning of a free word-combination. It is the result

of figurative metaphoric reconsideration of a word-combination.

• To come to one’s sense –to change one’s mind;

• To come home – to hit the mark;

• To fall into a rage – to get angry.

Phraseological unities are characterized by the semantic duality. One can’t

define for sure the semantic meaning of separately taken phraseological unities

isolated from the context, because these word-combinations may be used as free in

the direct meaning and as phraseological in the figurative meaning.

Phraseological combination (collocation) is a construction or an expression

in which every word has absolutely clear independent meaning while one of the

components has a bound meaning [2;p. 40].

It means that phraseological combinations contain one component used in its

direct meaning while the other is used figuratively.

• To make an attempt – to try;

• To make haste – to hurry;

• To offer an apology – to beg pardon.

Some linguists who stick to the general understanding of phraseology and

refer to it communicational units (sentences) and winged words, define the fourth

type of phraseological units.

Phraseological expression is a stable by form and usage semantically

divisible construction, which components are words with free meanings [2;p. 39].

• East or West, home is best;

• Marriages are made in heaven;

• Still waters run deep.

Phraseological expressions are proverbs, sayings and aphorisms of famous

politicians, writers, scientists and artists. They are concise sentences, expressing

some truth as ascertained by experience of wisdom and familiar to all. They are

often metaphoric in character and include elements of implicit information well

understood without being formally present in the discourse.

Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky worked out structural classification of phraseological

units, comparing them with words. He points out one-top units which he compares

with derived words because derived words have only one root morpheme. He also

points out two-top units which he compares with compound words because in

compound words we usually have two root morphemes.

The variety of phenomena comprised by phraseology makes classification

attempts difficult. External marks for recognizing a certain category of

phraseologisms are related to the form of the group, the fixed order of elements,

the reduced possibilities of separating them, the impossibility to replace one

element or another, whereas internal marks are related to the fact that the entire

ensemble embodies an act of unitary thinking, equivalent to a single word, the

existence of certain syntactic-semantic phenomena characteristic of the group (the

presence of certain lexical, semantic or syntactic archaisms, ellipsis or

redundancy).

The types of phraseological units, which have received most attention in

linguistic literature, have been phrases and idioms.

The definitions proposed for the term phrase generally have the same

structure, highlighting traits such as stability, syntactic and semantic unity:

“expression constituée par l’union de plusieurs mots formant une unité syntaxique

et lexicologique”, “the group of words more or less that are joined together, that

has a unitary meaning and grammatically behaves as a single part of speech”, “a

grouping of two or more words, unitary in meaning that relates to the context as a

single element, no matter whether these relations are achieved by one of its

constitutive elements or whether the group, as a whole, establishes connections as

a single term”.

Concerning the second fundamental type of phraseologic unit, the idiom,

despite the frequent use of the term in the well-established literature of

phraseology, its features have been revealed particularly by relation to the stylistic-

functional behaviour of phrases. Sometimes, there is not even a clear distinction

between these two terms, their parallel use with the same meaning being the

common practice.[24, p.89]

The majority of studies dedicated to defining and describing idioms take into

consideration the functional-structural and expressive criteria, although there is no

common viewpoint concerning this issue. In terms of functionality, idioms have

been defined by Ioana Boroianu as “fixed word groupings that cover a whole

sentence, which have, therefore, a subject (expressed or general, widely-

understood) predicated with contingent complements”. One category of idioms

which raises analysis and definition difficulties is represented by idiomatic phrases

(also called idiotisms or, even idiomatisms). The main characteristic of this

category is that it has a figurative meaning which belongs to the entire

phraseologic group, which is impossible to translate literally into another language.

Having as a fundamental criterion the establishment of the stylistic value of

idiotisms based on the relations among their intellectual values, objective

communication and expressiveness degree, Al. Andriescu proposes - in Valoarea

stilisticã a expresiilor idiomatice - a classification of these “according to their

power to sensitize communicant ideas”. The author speaks about “idiotisms that

have lost part of their initial emotional value by losing the ability to act as images”

(the stylistic value is given by the presence of the terms in the passive background

or by syntactic phenomena such as ellipsis), “idiotisms that have been created in

certain historical circumstances” and that “no longer nurture their ability of

concretisation by relating to the realities that created them but are based on some

new associations, with no link to the initial realities” and “idotisms that ever since

they were created - and nowadays, too - have been serving the needs of emotions

as images”. This classification has the disadvantage that it uses the degree of

expressiveness as a criterion which involves a high level of subjectivity. Other

types of phraseologisms are the periphrases, structures located, according to Ioana

Boroianu, “on the edge between free word associations and phraseologic units”

• a face de mâncare (prepare a meal),

• a avea poftă (have a craving for),

• a-i fi foame (be hungry),

• a-i fi poftă de (crave for);

defined and integrated by Th. Hristea in the object of study of phraseology,

after having identified certain features characteristic of phraseologisms: frequency,

expressivity, repeatability, age, meaning unity. The same category also comprises

synapses, units that are made up of a determined and a determinant carrying the

meaning of one single word, common combinations, representing the names of

certain institutions, titles of literary, scientific, cinematographic works, etc,

emphatic phrases, “fixed collocations where one of the terms adds a superlative

meaning to the other” [beat turtă (dead drunk);], stereotypical similes, “emphatic

phrases” where the comparison is maintained [ieftin ca braga (as cheap as dirt);],

international formulas and clichés, structures of a conventional and international

nature, occurring in various languages of culture and civilisation [mărul discordiei

(the apple of discord), oul lui Columb (Columbus’ egg);]. The inventory of terms

related to phraseology and the research of the meanings of various terms bespeak

the difficulties that the delimitation of the sphere of this linguistic discipline

implies. Such efforts prove the complexity of the problems raised by theorizing

phraseologisms, a complexity that is irreducible to unique and definitive solutions.

[22,p.201]

Among one-top units he points out three structural types:

a) units of the type “to give up” (verb + postposition type);

• To back up – to support;

• To drop out – to miss, to omit.

b) units of the type “to be tired”. Some of these units remind the Passive

Voice in their structure but they have different prepositions with them, while in the

Passive Voice we can have only prepositions «by» or «with»:

• To be tired of;

• To be surprised at.

There are also units in this type which remind free word-groups of the type

“to be young”:

• To be akin to;

• To be aware of.

The difference between them is that the adjective “young” can be used as an

attribute and as a predicative in a sentence, while the nominal component in such

units can act only as a predicative. In these units the verb is the grammar centre

and the second component is the semantic centre:

c) prepositional-nominal phraseological units:

• On the doorstep - quite near;

• On the nose – exactly.

These units are equivalents of unchangeable words: prepositions,

conjunctions, adverbs, that is why they have no grammar centre, their semantic

centre is the nominal part.

Among two-top units A.I. Smirnitsky points out the following structural

types:

a) attributive-nominal such as:

• A month of Sundays

• A millstone round one’s neck.

Units of this type are noun equivalents and can be partly or perfectly

idiomatic (if the expression is idiomatic, then we must consider its components in

the aggregate, not separately). In partly idiomatic units (phrasisms) sometimes the

first component is idiomatic: high road; in other cases the second component is

idiomatic: first night.

In many cases both components are idiomatic: red tape, blind alley, bed of

nail, shot in the arm and many others.

b) verb-nominal phraseological units:

• To read between the lines;

• To sweep under the carpet.

The grammar centre of such units is the verb, the semantic centre in many

cases is the nominal component: to fall in love. In some units the verb is both the

grammar and the semantic centre: not to know the ropes. These units can be

perfectly idiomatic as well: to burn one’s boats, to vote with one’s feet, to take to

the cleaners’ etc.

c) phraseological repetitions, such as:

• Now or never;

• Part and parcel (integral part).

Such units can be built on antonyms: ups and downs, back and forth; often

they are formed by means of alliteration: cakes and ale, as busy as a bee.

Components in repetitions are joined by means of conjunctions. These units are

equivalents of adverbs or adjectives and have no grammar centre. They can also be

partly or perfectly idiomatic: cool as a cucumber (partly), bread and butter

(perfectly).

Phraseological units the same as compound words can have more than two

tops (stems in compound words):

To be a shadow of one’s own self,

At one’s own sweet will.

Phraseological units can be classified as parts of speech. This classification

was suggested by I.V. Arnold. Here we have the following groups:

a) nominal phrases or noun phraseologisms denoting an object, a person or

a living being:

Bullet train;

The root of the trouble.

b) verbal phrases or verb phraseologisms denoting an action, a state or a

feeling:

To sing like a lark;

To put one’s best foot forward.

c) adjectival phrases or adjective phraseologisms denoting a quality:

As good as gold;

Red as a cherry.

d) adverbial phrases or adverb phraseological units, such as:

From head to foot;

Like a dog with two tails.

e) prepositional phrases or preposition phraseological units:

In the course of;

On the stroke of.

f) conjunctional phrases or conjunction phraseological units:

As long as;

On the other hand.

g) interjectional phrases or interjection phraseological units:

Catch me!;

Well, I never!

In I.V.Arnold’s classification there are also sentence equivalents, proverbs,

sayings and quotations: “The sky is the limit”, “What makes him tick”, “I am

easy”. Proverbs are usually metaphorical: “Too many cooks spoil the broth”, while

sayings are as a rule non-metaphorical: “Where there is a will there is a way”

• Phraseology as the branch of Linguistics. The problem of terminology

The role phraseology has played in linguistic theory is quite varied. On the

one hand, it is varied because theoretical frameworks or approaches in linguistics

differ widely in terms of the importance attached to phraseologisms. [21, p.9]

It is probably fair to say that phraseology has played a rather limited role

during most of the development of the various versions of generative grammar.

Given a conception of the linguistic system which crucially involves only a

grammar, i.e. a set of algorithmic rules that combines linguistic elements only with

respect to their structural characteristics and irrespective of their meaning; and −a

lexicon, i.e., a repository of all non-compositional irregularities that must be rote-

learned; it comes as no surprise that, of the above six parameters, the only one

which plays a role for generative linguistics is the last one, semantic unity and non-

compositionality. In this conception, an expression such as to bite the dust is

recognized as an idiom, a non-compositional semantic unit in the sense of the

above quote of Fraser, and thus stored with its syntactic characteristics as a

separate item in the lexicon. Note also that this conception of the linguistic system

is somewhat at odds with my above definition of phraseologisms because my

above definition does not treat grammatical and lexical elements as different in

kind.

This generative conception of phraseologisms comes with a few problems.

On the one hand, it is much more difficult to draw a strict dividing line between

what is idiomatic and what is not than one may initially think; for the difficulty of

obtaining unanimous judgments as well as Cowie and Mackin and Gibbs for

discussion. On the other hand, research has shown that phraseologism/idioms vary

considerably in terms of the syntactic operations they allow, and since not all of

these can be explained away by straightforward performance factors, one would

have to postulate that the lexicon contains for each putative unit a list of what

operations are licensed, an option that is particularly unattractiv for an approach

that otherwise eschews redundant representation.[33]

Phraseology is a separate branch of Linguistics which deals with a

phraseological subsystem of language, with all types of set-expressions. The basic

unit of phraseology is a phraseological unit. According to A. V. Koonin «a

phraseological unit is a stable word-group characterized by a completely or

partially transferred meaning».

Phraseology studies the following types of set-expressions: phraseological

units (proper); phraseomatic units; border-line cases belonging to the mixed class.

There exist other approaches to the problem of phraseology: the semantic

approach developed by academician Vinogradov; the functional approach; the

contextual approach worked out by N. N. Amosova and etc.

A phraseological unit is a word-group which presents a functionally,

semantically and structurally inseparable unit. Phraseological units or idioms are

contrasted to free phrases.

By phraseology, we mean the branch of linguistics dealing with stable word-

combinations characterized by certain transference of meaning.

Despite differences of opinion, most authors agree upon some points

concerning the distinctive features of phraseological units, such as:

• Integrity (or transference) of meaning means that none of the idiom

components is separately associated with any referents of objective

reality, and the meaning of the whole unit cannot be deduced from the

meanings of its components;

• Stability (lexical and grammatical) means that no lexical substitution

is possible in an idiom in comparison with free or variable word-

combinations (with an exception of some cases when the author

makes such substitutions intentionally). The experiments conducted in

the 1990s showed that, the meaning of an idiom is not exactly

identical to its literal paraphrase given in the dictionary entry. That is

why we may speak about lexical flexibility of many units if they are

used in a creative manner. Lexical stability is usually accompanied by

grammatical stability, which prohibits any grammatical changes;

• Separability means that the structure of an idiom is indivisible; certain

modifications are possible within cer-tain boundaries. Here we meet

with the so-called lexical and grammatical variants. To illustrate this

point we will give some examples: "as hungry as a wolf (as a hunter)",

"as safe as a house (houses)" in English.

• Expressivity and emotiveness means that idioms are also

characterized by stylistic colouring. In other words, they evoke

emotions or add expressiveness.[18,p.32]

Anita Naciscione’s book can be read linearly as an up-todate study and

account of the theory and practice of phraseological units in the English language,

but it can also be read tangentially. From this second point of view the book can be

regarded as being built around several dichotomies, which are sometimes opposed,

sometimes complementary, and which are also sometimes intermingled because of

the nature of the topic itself:

1. Core use vs. instantial (stylistic) use. Core use is the most common form

and meaning of a given phraseological unit according to its base form, which is

(relatively) stable in a given natural language. By contrast, instantial stylistic use is

a particular instance of a unique stylistic application characterized by a significant

change in its form and meaning.

2. Synchrony vs. diachrony. Phraseological units usually have a synchronic

meaning, but they can also be studied diachronically, tracing the different

meanings of these units in the past. To know about these different meanings and

the process of change that has brought about the present meaning of the

phraseological unit is crucial when we want to understand older texts, particularly

when phraseological units are only alluded to or only partially quoted.

3. Theory vs. practice. Since phraseological units are usually alluded to or

used according to their instantial use and not according to their core form,

theoretical studies can fail if they are not built on case studies of actual and

practical uses, mainly in literary texts.

4. Literary use vs. common use. As has been pointed out already, research

into the uses of phraseological units in literary texts is essential. Only then can they

be contrasted with their utilization in common language.

5. English vs. other languages. Phraseological units change diachronically

and instantaneously within a single language, but they also change when they are

transferred between languages. Knowing about these changes and about the

different forms that phraseological units can take is especially important when

trying to translate between languages.

6. Literal meaning(s) vs. figurative meaning(s). Phraseological units are

typical cases of sentences having both a literal and a figurative meaning, where the

figurative meaning is its salient and first order meaning. Nevertheless, since the

original literal meaning motivates the common figurative meaning(s) and speakers

might be aware of this original literal meaning, instantial uses and changes can

achieve certain cognitive effects, word plays, and allusions.

It is only in more recent developments of this framwork that the importance

of phraseologisms has come to be recognized more openly. For example,

Culicover insightfully discusses a variety of patterns that one would usually

classify as phraseologisms and points out that they pose serious challenges to a

modular organization of language in terms of an algorithmic grammar and a

lexicon because these phraseologisms appear to cut across this supposedly well-

established boundary. A similar tack is taken in some recent work by Jackendoff.

To name but one example, Jackendoff is concerned with a phraseological

expression – the 'time' away construction exemplified by We're twistin' the night

away, which, given its properties with respect to the above parameters, would

doubtless nature of the elements: words and phrases in a transitive phrasal verb

frame;

• distance of elements: the intransitive verb, the direct object, and

away occur right next to each other;

• flexibility of the elements: just like regular transitive phrasal

verbs, the intransitive verb, the direct object, and the particle can occur in

the order or in the order; passivization and tough movement are possible, but

rare;

• semantics: the pattern of transitive phrasal verbs with time

expressions as direct object and away functions as a semantic unit, which is

evidenced by the fact that this pattern forces a particular interpretation of the

clause such that referent of the subject is understood to act volitionally; the

verb must denote an activity, not a state, and the ly be recognized as a

phraseologism by most phraseologists: referent of the subject uses up the

whole time denoted by the time expression.[17,p.48]

I am not aware that the following has been recognized or even

acknowledged all too openly by transformational-generative grammarians, but it is

interesting to note that the notion of phraseologism, which has been rather on the

fringe in transformational-generative grammar in particular and in most of

theoretical linguistics in general, is so crucial to the revision of the most dominant

linguistic paradigm of the 20th century and, thus, of the way the linguistic system

proper is viewed. More specifically, it is, among other things of course, the

recognition of phraseologisms as theoretically relevant entities in their own right

that begins

• to undermine the modular organization of the linguistic system

into a grammar and a lexicon and

• to make linguists aware of the way in which the analysis of

phraseologisms in performance data reveals many subtle interdependencies

on different levels of linguistic analysis.

Cognitive linguistics as such is not so much one particular theory, but rather

a set of related approaches that share several fundamental assumptions that set it

apart from other competing frameworks.

Differences in figurative use largely depend on language traditions, attitudes

and theoretical assumptions. One indicator is the recognition of metaphor as a

legitimate tool of expressing abstract thought. Cognitive linguists believe that

recognition of figurative use is of paramount importance for the understanding of

metaphor in thought, language and culture.[19, p.104]

In many countries, linguists usually have no problems with recognising

metaphor in literary discourse, especially poetry and folk songs. However,

difficulties arise with recognition of metaphor in scientific discourse, specialist

terminology and its translation. Failure to recognise metaphor reveals the

theoretical reasons that lie behind it.

A symbolic unit in turn is a pairing of a form and a meaning/function, a

conventionalized association of a phonological pole and a semantic/conceptual

pole. The more often a speaker/hearer encounters a particular symbolic unit, the

more entrenched this symbolic unit becomes in his linguistic system and the more

automatically the unit is accessed. Thus, unit status correlates positively with a

speaker/hearer not analyzing the internal structure of a unit. Crucially for our

present purposes, the notion of symbolic unit is not restricted to morphemes or

words, but comprises the kind of more abstract grammatical patterns such as, for

example, transitive constructions, reference-point constructions, idioms, etc. Using

the above defining parameters of a phraseologism, a symbolic unit can be defined

as follows:

• nature of the elements: no restrictions as long as a form is

paired with a meaning/function;

• number of elements: no restrictions;

• frequency of occurrence: a symbolic unit must have occurred

frequently enough for it to be entrenched in a speaker/hearer's linguistic

system;

• distance of elements: no restrictions as long as the

speaker/hearer categorizes the parts as making up one symbolic unit;

• flexibility of the elements: no restrictions as long as the

speaker/hearer can form one or more generalizations.

• semantics: by definition, the symbolic unit must have a

semantic pole or meaning/function, but non-compositionality is not required.

This definition is of course not only Langacker's; other scholars such as

Bybee, also subscribe to this kind of definition. As is obvious, this definition of a

symbolic unit is nearly perfectly compatible with that of a phraseologism

embraced above: it is only somewhat broader, including as it does simple

words/morphemes and also lexically unspecified patterns. However, given this

definition, phraseologisms do not enjoy a special status within Cognitive

Grammar: they are just one kind of symbolic units, requiring the same descriptive

apparatus as the more specific categories of morphemes or words or the more

general categories of argument structure constructions or clause patterns. In terms

of what they consider the central units of analysis, Cognitive Grammar and

phraseology research are, thus, nearly maximally compatible.[1,p.74]

As will become equally obvious shortly, we find about the same degree of

compatibility between Construction Grammar and phraseological research. Given

the theoretical affinity of Cognitive Grammar and Construction Grammar and the

parallel evolution of the two theories, this should not come as a big surprise, and

the main difference between how Cognitive Grammar and Construction Grammar

define their objects of study as compared to phraseological research is largely

terminological. The central linguistic unit of Construction Grammar – the analogon

to symbolic units in Cognitive Grammar – is the construction. A construction in

the sense of Goldberg's (1995) Construction Grammar is defined as

The only major difference of this definition to those of a symbolic unit

above and phraseologisms above is that a construction as defined here requires

non-compositionality or, in Goldberg's terminology, non-predictability while this

was not required of symbolic units and phraseologisms.8 This difference certainly

has implications concerning the nature of the linguistic system postulated but is

certainly not a major qualitative difference. Put differently, symbolic unit is a most

general notion, construction as defined above is slightly more specific by requiring

one non-predictable aspect, and phraseologism as defined here is also more

specific by not requiring non-predictability, but at least one lexically specified

element. It remains obvious, though, that again the degree of compatibility

between phraseological research and construction grammarians is striking. [12,

p.266]

Finally, there is another aspect of both Cognitive Grammar and Construction

Grammar that is worth pointing out here and will become more relevant shortly,

viz. the importance both theories attach to actual frequencies of usage or

occurrence. As mentioned above, Langacker's Cognitive Grammar is explicitly

usage-based in the sense that exposure to, and use of, symbolic units, i.e.

performance is assumed to shape the linguistic system of speakers and hearers and

sufficient frequency of occurrence is a necessary condition for entrenchment and,

in turn, unit status of a linguistic expression. In this respect, Goldberg's approach

does not differ from Langacker's approach, and while non-compositionality was an

additional necessary condition for constructionhood in Goldberg's, sufficient

frequency was of course also a necessary condition for construction status. Thus,

many construction grammarians have made heavy use of studying the frequency

distribution and behavior of constructions in authentic language data in theoretical

literature, but also in other domains such as first language acquisition, language

change etc.

By way of an interim summary, contrary to the transformational-generative

paradigm, both Cognitive Grammar and Construction Grammar are highly

compatible with phraseological research. True, terminologies differ and definitions

are not completely identical, but it is easy to see that phraseologisms do not just

enjoy a marginal status in both theories but are rather at the core of what both

theories consider to be their fundamental entities. From this, it of course also

follows in turn that phraseological research has a lot to offer to these theories in

terms of descriptive work as well as exploration of the ontological status of

phraseological elements. In the opposite direction, phraseological research can

benefit from the elaborate theoretical apparatus and the cognitively plausible

background provided by Cognitive Grammar and Construction Grammar.

The following section will be concerned with the approach that is probably

most intimately connected to phraseological research, viz. corpus linguistics, and

we shall see that there is again a high degree of both theoretical and practical

overlap, testifying even more to the relevance of phraseological research.

While the two previous sections were concerned with different linguistic

theories (from the opposite ends of virtually all conceivable dimensions), the

present section will be concerned with the relation of phraseologisms in a

methodological paradigm, that of corpus linguistics.[15, p.22]

While much of 20th century linguistics has been characterized by a strong

methodological predominance of acceptability/grammaticality judgments, corpus

linguistics as a method has constantly increased in importance in most fields of

linguistics, and to my mind at least it is nowadays perhaps the single most

frequently used method employed in the study of phraseology. This predominance

of corpus-linguistic methods within phraseological research is of course not

accidental. Corpora as such can only provide frequency information – frequencies

of occurrence and frequencies of co-occurrence.9 From this, it is a rather small

conceptual leap to the above definition of phraseologisms as a co-occurrence

phenomenon. As a matter of fact, some of the most central notions in corpus

linguistics can be straightforwardly compared to phraseologisms on the basis of the

six criteria discussed above. The terms word clusters / n-grams and collocations,

for example, refer to frequent co-occurrences of this kind:

• nature of the elements: words;

• number of elements: n (usually, that means 'two or more');

• frequency of occurrence: sufficiently frequent to be recognized

as an combined element;

• distance of elements: for clusters/n-grams, the distance is

usually 0 (i.e., the elements are immediately adjacent); for collocations, the

distance between the elements involved can vary, but usually exhibits one or

a few preferred distances;

• flexibility of the elements: for clusters/n-grams, there is usually

no flexibility; for collocations, one usually allows for some flexibility: the

collocation of strong and tea would be instantiated both by strong tea or the

tea is strong;

• semantics: n-grams are usually retrieved for natural language

processing purposes where the issue of non-compositional semantics is only

sometimes relevant; for collocations, researchers differ as to whether they

require some non-predictable behavior (strong tea is acceptable but powerful

tea is not) or not. Similarly, the notion colligation is nowadays usually not

used as it was originally defined by Firth – as the co-occurrence of

grammatical patterns – but also as a particular kind of phraseologism,

namely one in which one or more words habitually co-occur with a

grammatical pattern (cf. the example of to hem's preference for passives

mentioned at the beginning of this paper). From these brief remarks

concerning the nature and the number of elements involved, it also follows

that much work in corpus linguistics cuts across the boundary of syntax and

lexis upheld in formal approaches to language, and that there is a

considerable overlap of the assumptions held by cognitive linguists,

phraseologists, and, as we now see, also corpus linguists.

Another central notion in contemporary corpus linguistics, the pattern,

involves additional parameters of the above set, viz. the parameter of non-

compositionality/non-predictability. This is the definition of a pattern according to

Hunston and Francis : The patterns of a word can be defined as all the words and

structures which are regularly associated with the word and contribute to its

meaning. A pattern can be identified if a combination of words occurs relatively

frequently, if it is dependent on a particular word choice, and if there is a clear

meaning associated with it.[10,p.102]

An expression that would therefore not count as a pattern according to this

definition is the adjective available followed by spatial prepositions such as at or

from simply because the information provided by the phraseological unit headed

by these prepositions is straightforwardly and compositionally providing the place

where something is available and the phraseological units are fairly freely movable

within the clause. we would imagine that many, if not most, phraseologists would

also not consider CDs are available at the store an instance of a phraseologism.

Also, since this definition of a pattern does not only address most of the above six

defining parameters, it is also virtually the same as that of a phraseologism from

above as well as that of symbolic units in Cognitive Grammar and constructions in

Construction Grammar. All this testifies strongly to the fact that phraseology is one

of the key concepts both in theoretical linguistics and in the method of corpus

linguistics even if different terminology may sometimes render this fact more

opaque than desirable.

In fact, the range of correspondences is even larger. For example, we have

seen above that the notion of a unit in Cognitive Grammar involves a degree of

automaticity in accessing a structure as well as a lack of the need to analyze the

internal structure of a unit. Exactly these notions figure in the formulation of one of

the most prominent principles in contemporary corpus linguistics, Sinclair's so-

called idiom principle.

In transformational-generative linguistics, the identification of

phraseologisms has been rather eclectic. Given a linguistic system involving only

perfectly productive rules and a lexicon as the grab bag of exceptions and the

objective of developing a language-independent / universal grammar, there has

never been a systematic identification of the inventory of phraseologisms in a

language within transformational-generative grammar. And from this perspective,

why should there be? Phraseologisms are by most accounts not productive, and

thus only to be relegated to the exceptional part to begin with, and phraseologisms

are by their very nature not universal and, thus, of little relevance to the core

objective of the whole generative enterprise. The lack of a comprehensive

identification procedure therefore does not come as a big surprise, and it is

probably fair to say that the identification of phraseologisms has been largely

based on recognizing that a particular semantic unit's behavior – be that unit a

single- or multi-word unit – defies a characterization in terms of the hard-and-fast

rules of the grammar that are thought to be necessary on syntactic grounds alone.

The most comprehensive identification procedures of phraseologisms are

doubtlessly found in corpus linguistics, which is to be expected given that corpus

linguistics is a methodology mostly concerned with lexical (co-)occurences.

Several levels of sophistication are discernible. As in cognitive linguistics and

Construction Grammar, the most basic approaches are, it seems, also the most

widely used ones. First, much work in this area, e.g., by Stubbs and his colleagues,

involves the generation of frequency lists of n-grams, i.e. uninterrupted sequences

of word forms; the upper limit of n is usually five.[28,p.225]

While the above methods are no doubt the most widespread ones, there are

also some methodological shortcomings that are associated with these. One of the

most severe shortcomings is the oftentimes limited degree of quantitative

sophistication exhibited by many of the studies utilizing the above methods. For

example, Stubbs and Stubbs and Barth largely ignore the immensely interesting

work that has been done concerning the automatic or semi-automatic identification

of multi-word units (cf. below for a variety of relevant references). Similarly,

Hunston and Francis's above formulation that a combination of words needs to be

"relatively frequent" to qualify as a pattern is so vague as to be practically vacuous.

Relatedly, Hunston discusses the frequencies of after a moment, after a few

moments, and after a few moments of, and then asks that "how many examples of

a three-, four, or five-word sequence are necessary for it to be considered a

phrase?" All this is all the more regrettable because there is a huge body of

research illustrating sophisticated tools for the identification of phraseologisms.

For example, there is a vast array of studies researching how and which

collocational statistics improve on the predominant approach of just reporting

observed frequencies; cf. Church et al. for an early study as well as work by, for

example, Evert and colleagues and Gries and Stefanowitsch's work on

collostructional analysis, a family of methods concerned with measuring and

interpreting the statistical association of words to constructions/patterns as well as

Gries, Hampe, and Schönefeld for experimental confirmation. In addition, Mason

and Cantos and Sanchez discuss a variety of issues concerning the overall validity

of collocational studies.

Finally, most of the above studies are based on a particular search span or

presupposed a particular length of the collocation investigated. However, the

definition of phraseologisms from requires decisions concerning the length of

phraseologisms and the different levels of granularity at which co-occurrences can

be observed. In addition, recall that a top-down, or a priori, approach may not

always be the most useful strategy in the sense that sometimes it may be more

revealing to let the data – rather than the preconceptions of any particular

researcher – decide what the potentially most revealing pattern is. There is a large

body of immensely interesting work in this area: For example, Kita et al.'s cost

criterion serves to identify in a bottom-up manner the size of interesting

uninterrupted multi-word units, which are prime candidates for phraseologisms.

For example, Mason's notion of lexical gravity helps to identify the range of

collocates – the span – of a word that exhibits interesting distributional patterns

and has unfortunately never received the recognition it deserves. Also, the methods

proposed in Dias, Pereira Lopez, and Guilloré, Nagao and Mori, Ikehara et al., to

name but a few additional works, contain interesting concepts and methodological

tools concerning the (semi-)automatic identification of phraseologisms that most

corpus-linguistic, let alone cognitive-linguistic, work has not even begun to

recognize or utilize to their fullest potential. We would hope that the ideas

developed in these and similar studies find their way into phraseological research

soon and that this chapter as well as the chapter specifically addressing this area,

'Computational approaches (automatic extraction of phraseological units)', will

help promote these approaches.[6,p.29]

In phraseological unities the meaning of the whole can be guessed from the

meanings of its components, but it is transferred (metaphorical or metonymical),

e.g. to play the first fiddle (to be a leader in something), old salt (experienced

sailor) etc. The meaning of the whole word combination is not the sum of the

meanings of its components, but it is based on them and the meaning of the whole

can be inferred from the image that underlies the whole expression, e.g. to get on

one's nerves, to cut somebody short, to show one's teeth, to be at daggers drawn.

Phraseological unities are often synonyms of words, e.g. to make a clean

breast of=to confess; to get on one's nerves=to irritate.

Phraseological unities are equivalents of words as

1) only one of components of a phraseological unity has structural forms'

e.g. to play (played, is playing, etc.) the first fiddle (but not played the first

fiddles); to turn ( turned, will turn, etc.) a new leaf ( but not to turn newer leaf or

new leaves);

2) the whole unity and not its components are parts of the sentence in

syntactical analysis, e.g. in the sentence He took the bull by the horns (attacked a

problem boldly) there are only two parts: he - the subject, and took the bull by the

horns - the predicate.

In phraseological fusions the degree of motivation is very low, we cannot

guess the meaning of the whole from the meanings of its components, they are

highly idiomatic and cannot be translated word for word into other languages, e.g..

to pull one's leg (to deceive); at sixes and sevens (in confusion); a mare's nest ( a

discovery which turns out to be false or worthless); to show the white feather (to

show cowardice); to ride the high horse (to put on airs).

Phraseological fusions are the most idiomatic of all the kinds of

phraseological units.

Phraseological fusions are equivalents of words: fusions as well as unities

form a syntactical whole in analysis.

And one more point: free word combinations can never be polysemantic,

while there are polysemantic phraseological units, e.g.

To be on the go

1. to be busy and active

to be leaving

to be tipsy

to be near one's end

have done with

1. Make an end of

give up

reach the end of

Two types of synonymy are typical of phraseological units:

Synonymy of phraseological units that do not contain any synonymous

words and are based on different images, e.g.

To leave no stone unturned = to move heaven and earth

To haul down colours = to ground arms

In free word combinations synonym is based on the synonymy of particular

words (an old man = elderly man).

Phraseological units have word synonyms: To make up one's mind = to

decide

To haul down colours = to surrender

Phraseological unites are partially non-motivated as their meaning can

usually be perceived through the metaphoric meaning of the whole phraseological

unit. For example, to show one's teeth, to wash one's dirty linen in public if

interpreted as semantically motivated through the combined lexical meaning of the

component words would naturally lead one to understand these in their literal

meaning. The metaphoric meaning of the whole unit, however, readily suggests

'take a threatening tone' or 'show an intention to injure' for show one's teeth and

'discuss or make public one's quarrels' for wash one's dirty linen in public.

Phraseological unities are as a rule marked by a comparatively high degree of

stability of the lexical components.

Phraseological collocations are motivated but they are made up of words

possessing specific lexical valency which accounts for a certain degree of stability

in such word-groups. In phraseological collocations variability of member-words is

strictly limited. For instance, bear a grudge may be changed into bear malice, but

not into bear a fancy or liking. We can say take a liking (fancy) but not take hatred

(disgust). These habitual collocations tend to become kind of clichйs See 'Word-

Groups and Phraseological Units'. Here the terms phraseological collocations and

habitual collocations are used synonymously, where the meaning of member-

words has to some extent be dominated by the meaning of the whole group. Due to

these phraseological collocations are felt as possessing a certain degree of semantic

inseparability.

Chapter II. TRANSLATION OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS FROM

ENGLISH INTO ROMANIAN

2.1 Methods and Techniques in Translating Phraseological Units from

English into Romanian

In the theory and practice of translation, idioms are considered a special

chapter, as linguists and translators are often concerned about finding conceptual

and formal correspondences from one language to another. Translators must be

aware of the fundamental problems of phraseological units, of their semantic and

stylistic peculiarities.

Now we shall speak about some adequate ways of translation of

idioms with colour elements in their semantic structure.

That is we can say that the phraseological units are translated either by

the already existed equivalents or by means of some other methods, giving

non-phraseological translation because of lacking of the analogous equivalents

in the TL.

The first group can be represented by the idioms that fully coincide in

both languages, have one and the same meaning, one and the same stylistic

shades and inner form. For example:

Black as coal / ink / night / pitch etc.- negru ca smoala,cerneala,noaptea, etc.,

Black ingratitude – nerecunoştinţă (neagră)

Red as blood – roşu ca single;

Red Cross – crucea roşie;

Like a red rag to a bull – a face pe cineva să fie foarte emoţionat/excitat sau

violent; a înfuria pe cineva; a face să vadă roşu în faţa ochilor de furie;

Blue blood – persoană ce provine dintr-o familie nobilă, aristocratică;

Yellow press – presa de scandal;

Look at smth through rose – coloured glasses – a vedea lucrurile într-un mod

mai optimistic;

Green with envy - a fi extrem de enervat;

White war – război economic

All the above mentioned examples have their phraseological equivalents in

most languages, that is they are equal to the original phraseological units.

The number of such coincidences is very limited.

The second group includes idioms with partial equivalents. It means that they

have similar meaning but are different in the inner character of imaginary

form. Such equivalents are called relative phraseological units. They can differ

from the original phrase by some components, usually synonymous, then by

little deviation in syntactic or morphological structure, collocability etc. But

their relativeness is covered by the context.

To be in a black book – a fi în defavoare, dezaprobat la modul cel mai

serios/ categoric,pe lista neagră;

Yellow belly – laş, fricos,

Golden opportunity - caz minunat, posibilitate excelentă

Kill the goose that laid / lays golden eggs – a omorî găina care afec ouă de aur, a

încerca să obţii un avantaj mai mare distrugînd astfel sursa acestuia;

Grey cells / matter – materie sură (creierul uman)

White lie – o minciună spusă în slujba unui scop nobil, a unei scuze bune;

Put down in black and white – a scrie negru pe alb

It is necessary to remember that using this method of translation one

should consider emotional and expressive colouring of the phraseological

unit. The difficulty is that such expressions are real or forgotten metaphors

unconsciously assimilated by the native speakers.

The third group, the most numerous, includes idioms having no

equivalents in the language of translation. To transfer their meanings into

any other language one should use non-phraseological ways of translation.

Non-phraseological translation transfers the meaning of the idiom by

lexical and not by the phraseological means. Such translation can not be

considered of full value. There are often some losses: imaginary,

expressiveness, connotation, figurativeness, shades of meanings etc. That is

why the translator very seldom use this method of translating.

When it is impossible to transfer the semantic-stylistic and expressive-

emotional colouring of the phrase we use another method which is connected the

usage of loan words, if possible. This method is preferable when it is possible

to convey the meaning of the original phrase by its word-to-word translation

in order for the reader to understand the phraseological meaning of the

whole expression and not only its constituent parts.

Most loans can be considered to be phraseological, for example, the

English phrase the hill the grass is always greener on the other side of

the hill was used as a word-to-word translation in the newspaper “Loc

European” in the article “What is Good in Toronto?”:

„14,5 % izraelieni, ce au plecat în Toronto, trăiesc sub nivelul sărăciei. ce i-

a permis directorului general al ministerului de integrare, Mirle Gali, să observe,

că “iarba la vecini e întotdeauna mai verde”.

Sometimes translators not only give the loan translation but also some

historical commentary. Such translation is called double or parallel.

For example, white elephant . The expression is not formal, and means

a very costly possession that is worthless to its owner and only a cause of

trouble, - lucru costisitor de întreţinut,care te costă enorm/ cît ochii din cap.

«The car we bought last year is a white elephant; it uses a lot of petrol

and breaks down again and again»

“The recent Budget has offered hundreds of millions of pounds to share

up private enterprise and to finance such white elephants as Concorde and

the Channel Tunnel” [New Statesman, 22 Nov 74].

The expression 'white elephant' referred to a practice of the kings of

Siam when they wished to get rid of the followers who had displeased them.

The king would give the follower a white elephant. The elephant was so costly

to keep that its owner would be ruined.

In conclusion, we can say, as we saw from the above-mentioned examples,

that the translation of the idioms is not context-free. Only in the cases when the

same construction is used literally, it may be translated word by word.

The idioms present troublesome expressions that cannot be translated word –

for - word, that’s why they must be given in a special dictionary as ready-made

expressions with their translation; otherwise they bring to typical language

mistakes to misunderstandings due to their apparent similarity in structure.

In this study, we noticed that idioms can rarely be rendered literally and that

translating them means discovering the proper equivalent which is able to express

the semantic and stylistic particularities of idioms from the source language. We

presented several types of equivalences which illustrate that idioms are not only a

part of a linguistic system, but also an important and expressive component within

a cultural framework. From all these categories of equivalence, we insisted upon

the linguistic concept of the complete, partial and zero equivalence, by bringing

numerous examples from English and Romanian phraseological dictionaries,

articles and books. We concluded that in the interlinguistic transfer of idioms from

English to Romanian and vice versa, one may find various equivalent patterns, in

spite of the special syntactic and semantic characteristics of phraseological units.

[9,p.30]

Phraseology is an intermediary field, being close, in the reference literature,

both to vocabulary studies, since it studies fixed word combinations, characterized

by a unitary meaning, as well as to syntax, since phraseologic phenomena are

defined by syntactic relations of various kinds, which are realized on a syntagmatic

axis. Given the expressive nature of phraseologic phenomena, these have also been

associated to stylistics. Taking into consideration the possibility of differentiating

styles and functional variants of a language by analysing phraseologic units, it has

been particularly drawn closer to functional stylistics.

In what concerns the syntagmatic, the discursive dimension and especially

the cultural-cognitive, phraseology has recently recorded a very productive period,

since specialists in the field have been ardently researching this topic in line with

the interdisciplinary approach. This study can be positioned along the lines of the

interdisciplinary approach as well, in an attempt to comprehend the phenomenon

of antonymy at phraseological level.

In Romania, phraseology as an “independent branch of linguistics” has

started to develop in the 80s. There are many Romanian linguists and researchers

who are worth mentioning for their valuable contributions to this complex domain,

such are: B.P. Hasdeu, Al. Philippide, I.-A. Candrea, I. Iordan, Florica Dimitrescu,

Th. Hristea, St. Dumistrãcel, Gh. Colþun, L. Groza etc. In the beginning, the study

of phraseology focused predominantly on the structural semantic analysis and the

contrastive approach. More recent direction are the integral approach, in the

Coserian tradition, which relies on the understanding of the functions of

phraseological units in “repeated discourse”, as well as the culturological

approach, in an attempt to decode the culture-specific of idioms

Starting from the 90s, E.N. Miller has drawn attention upon the need to

investigate the phenomenon of antonymy at phraseological level and consequently

upon the necessity of a dictionary of phraseological antonyms.

But beyond the closeness to different linguistic disciplines, phraseology

tends to be regarded as an autonomous discipline, with its own object and methods

of investigation.

In the cases when an equivalent cannot be found in the target language, there

are several strategies that can be applied. A first one is the literal translation of the

phraseological unit. It has also been called pseudo equivalence.

However, this solution is not accepted by most linguists, especially in the

case of the translation of phraseological units, where the global meaning is not

made up by the sum of the meanings of its component parts. It is considered a

mistake, since it does not remain true to the spirit of the original and deprives the

phraseological unit of its semantic, stylistic, phonetic specificity.

One of the most common patterns of instantial use is phraseological pun

which involves the juxtaposition of the figurative meaning of the PU and the literal

meaning of a component or components. As Pus are figurative cohesive

combinations of words they lend themselves to punning very well, for each

figurative component invariably has a literary meaning at the same time, affording

a dual perception:

to pull someone's leg

But I laughed and said, "Don't worry, Professor, I am not pulüng her

ladyship's leg . I wouldn't do such a thing. I have too much respect for that

charming limb.

Phraseological puns are frequently sustained beyond the level of the sentence.

Punning creates an abrupt semantic shift as the PU is also simultaneously

perceived as a non-figurative combination of words which reveáis the secret of

image creation. Another example:

the white feather

David had asked about the apparent paradox of the oíd man's pacifism in

1916 and his serving as medical orderly with the International Brigade during the

Spanish Civil War.

'White feather, dear boy. Quite literal, you know. Had a collection of the

damn' things. Didn't care, all a joke. Russell, he converted me...' [38 .p.66 ]

It is important to learn to read with awareness and process a literary text,

which will not be complete without the interpretation of instantial stylistic use.

Another widespread stylistic pattern involving Pus in discourse is extended

phraseological metaphor.

Sometimes the meaning may be roughly similar to that of the source

language, but most times it deviates completely from it, presenting different or

even antagonistic situations, since, in some cases, it is based on the so called ‘false

friends’ analogy. It could only be acceptable in the cases when the phraseological

units have transparent meanings, which can be easily grasped, but this is not a very

frequent case.[20,p.14]

E.g.:‘Money has no smell’, translated as ‘Banii n-au miros’

The translation by paraphrase is considered a more adequate strategy than

the literal translation. It has also been referred to as zero equivalence. It

corresponds to what Vinay and Darbelnet call ‘transposition’, which is “the

process of replacing one word class with another without changing the meaning of

the message”. In the case of a phraseological unit, it is substituted by a string of

words, with no idiomatic character, which expresses the global sense conveyed by

the original unit. In this case, the meaning is rendered, although the formal aspect,

including the stylistic effect produced by the phraseological unit, is lost. It is also a

good solution when the use of phraseological units in the target language text does

not seem appropriate because of differences in stylistic preferences of the source

and target languages.

The term phraseology designates the discipline as well as its object, the set

or totality of phraseologic units in a given language. According to the origin of

phraseologisms, a line has been drawn between two areas of investigation, namely,

linguistic phraseology understood as “a community’s means of expression” and

literary phraseology including “aphorisms, witticism, word combinations with an

accidental character, belonging to certain writers, outstanding people”.

As an autonomous discipline, the object of research of phraseology consists

in phraseologic units from a given language (or a group of languages).[14, p.45]

For the translation of phraseological units which contain culture-bound

elements there are several strategies that can be used, especially when the

expression is paraphrased. Rodica Dimitriu considers that cultural plurality “has

given rise to specific translation strategies through which cultural difference is

highlighted.” Two such strategies are ‘transcription’ (cultural borrowing or

assimilation), or what Newmark calls ‘transference’, and ‘calque’ (literal

translation). The purpose of these strategies is to retain some local colour, but

while the second one does not completely block comprehension, in the first one the

message will in most cases be at best vague, if not entirely opaque. For this reason

Newmark mentions that it is a good practice to employ two or more translation

strategies at the same time, in order to avoid possible misunderstandings. For

example, ‘transference’ is usually accompanied by ‘naturalisation’. There are other

strategies that can be used for different purposes: ‘neutralisation’, in which case the

cultural flavour is lost, but the meaning becomes clear. It can be in the form of

either translation by a more general item (a superordinate) or by a more neutral,

less expressive item.

E.g.: ‘a jack of all trades’ (a person who can do many different kinds of

work, but perhaps does not do them very well) – ‘om bun la toate’ (neutralisation)

Or the translator might opt for ‘cultural substitution’, by replacing the

culture-specific item with a target language one which does not have the same

meaning, but is likely to have a similar impact on the target reader.

E.g.: ‘Work like a beaver’ – ‘A munci ca o furnicã’

Another strategy is the translation by omission, when a phraseological unit

may sometimes be omitted altogether in the target text. This strategy can be used

either because it has no adequate equivalent, it cannot be easily paraphrased or for

stylistic reasons.

This strategy is usually accompanied by compensation, which is seen as “the

technique of making up for the translation loss of important source text features by

approximating their effects in the target text through means other than those used

in the source text”. In this case, the omission of a phraseological unit at some point

in a target text can be compensated by the introduction of another unit in a

different part of the text, thus maintaining the idiomatic character of the text. This

type of compensation is referred to as compensation in place

The concept of phraseologic unit (unité phraséologique) has been first used

by Charles Bally, in Précis de stylistique, wherefrom it was taken by V. V.

Vinogradov and other Soviet linguists, who translated it by frazeologhiceskaia

edinitsa, which led to the term frazeologhizm, with the same meaning, and then

subsequently borrowed by different languages belonging to the European culture.

In present-day Romanian linguistics, the concepts of phraseologic unit and

phraseologism are seriously challenged, on different levels, by the structures stable

syntactic groups, phraseologic groups, constant word combinations, fixed word

combinations, fixed syntagms, syntagmatic units. For that matter, Casia Zaharia

has drawn out an extensive list of phraseologic terms used in Romanian and

German linguistics and also wrote, at the same time and in a paper on comparative

phraseology with a significant theoretical foundation, a biography of the most

important ones.[31,p.343]

To clearly delineate the area of phraseology as a linguistic discipline, we

may regard it as starting where vocabulary meets syntax, once the boundaries of

the word - conceived as a semantic and functional unit contained in-between

spaces - have been crossed.

Therefore, the delineation of the field of phraseology requires, on the one

hand, the separation of lexicology by illustrating the differences between the

phraseologic unit and the compound word and, on the other hand, the separation

from syntax by differentiation from syntagm or the phrase of an accidental,

unrepeatable, unstable nature.

Fulvia Ciobanu and Finuþa Hasan attempt to outline stable syntactic groups

of words, starting from the premise that a compound represents one single word

and the syntactic group, several words. Taking into account the three

characteristics of a word, morphological unit, syntactic unit and syntactic

behaviour, the authors aim at defining the category of compound words.

Morphologically speaking, the elements which distinguish compound words from

fixed syntactic groups are the presence of inflection, the indefinite article, the

existence of a single main accent. Semantically speaking, the relations between the

terms of the compound are, most of the times, understandable. In terms of syntactic

behaviour, the compound word which displays morphological unity, behaves like a

simple word, not allowing the insertion of a determinant, and compound words

with no morphological unity can be separated by possessive or demonstrative

adjectives.

The difference between phraseological units and free word combinations is

derived precisely from the syntactic stability of the former which, having been

established through usage, are felt as distinct units due to the very fusion (to a

larger or smaller extent) of the constitutive elements.[4, p.78]

It is rather difficult to define the phraseological unit and phraseology, in

general, due to their complex nature. Certain aspects regarding the phraseological

unit should be clarified, however; the phrases “phraseological unit”,

“phraseological constructions”, “collocations”, “fixed structures” and the words

“phraseologism” and ”phraseme” used in different papers in the field are

considered in the present research as generic terms and somewhat synonymic,

referring to all phraseologisms or any phraseological construction. However, it is

understood that these terms are not fully synonymic, but drawing clear distinctions

among these concepts is avoided since my goal is to identify the antonymic

relationship between all kinds of multi-word units. Regarding the “idiomatic

expressions” or “idioms” we adopt R.A. Budagov’s point of view, who claims that

these type of multi-word units cannot be translated literally, but they have to be

understood as fixed word structures, “indestructible” due to the complete loss of

individual lexical meanings of their components and the accumulation of a unitary,

global meaning, a phraseological/idiomatic meaning, which could only result at the

level of the construction as a whole. In the following examples, we have added in

brackets the translation of the idiomatic meaning of the Romanian phraseological

units, an equivalent phraseological unit in English often being complicated to find,

as they are culturally-specific:

La Paştele cailor ("never”), de florile cucului ("useless”), la dracu-n

praznic ("far away”), a-i sări muştarul ("to get angry”), a-şi lua inima în dinţi ("to

dare”), a umbla cu capul în traistă ("to be careless”), a-şi lua lumea-n cap ("to

leave"), a fi tămâie ("unwise”), a mânca cu ochii ("to crave”), a înveli tăciunele

("to leave, to elude”), din topor ("rude”), coadă de topor ("spy, snitch”), cu

traista-n băţ ("poor”), Soarbe-zeamă ("foolish, weak man"), Zgârie-brânză

("miser”). [37, p.109]

Studies related to the phenomenon of antonymy in phraseology have been

carried out by Russian specialists such as: A.I. Molotkov, A.I. Aliokhina, A.M.

Emirova, N.F. Alefirenko, E.R. Mardieva et al. In Romanian linguistics,

phraseological antonymy has come under consideration much later, starting with

Gh. Colţun, Gh. Bârlea, L. Groza, thus the theoretical background of this research

refers predominantly to the above-mentioned works. Concerning the existence of

phraseological antonymy there have been contradictory views, since some

researchers claim that it is not a typical phenomenon or it is a very rare one. This

view can be argued against, since phraseological units lie at the intersection of

lexis, grammar and syntax; they may behave like lexemes, therefore they have

antonyms, synonyms, polysemes and even homonyms. Yet, phrasemes are not

equivalent of lexemes. The word is a notion with multiple denotational and

connotational meanings, while the phraseological unit often implies only one

meaning from this semantic plethora. In addition, the phraseological meaning is

rather related to the connotational, figurative meaning, than to the referential,

denotational one. Metaphorization, metonymization and abstraction generally, take

a leading role in the process of semantic expansion, engaging cognitive processes

which provide a linguistic-cognitive conceptualization and categorization. As a

result, the speaker, easily, often spontaneously, identifies and uses in discourse

certain syntagmatic constituents; for example water as a syntagmatic constituent

for the following multi-word units (in Romanian “apă“):

“apă limpede”, “apă tulbure”, “apă de băut”, “apă potabilă”, “apă

plată”, “apă minerală”, “apă vie”, “apă moartă”, “apă de ploaie”, “a căra apă

cu ciurul”, “a-i lăsa gura apă”, “a intra la apă”, “a nu avea nici după ce bea

apă”, “a se simţi ca peştele în apă” etc. [in English: drinking water, fresh water,

salt water, still water, mineral water, running water, spring water, tap water, toilet

water, take to sth. like a duck to water, like a fish out of water, muddy the waters,

blood is thicker than water etc.].

To illustrate, consider the following example “Puterea opoziţiei şi opoziţia

Puterii“ from the Romanian media discourse. Also pertaining to the play on words

we can mention the so-called “occasional phraseology”, relying on antonymic

substitution, through the substitution of some phraseological units with elements,

that allow this type of change, the result often being quite spectacular: “lumina din

capătul tunelului → întunericul din capătul tunelului” [light at the end of the tunnel

→ darkness at the end of the tunnel]. For example, the phraseological unit gol

puşcă (gun naked) substituted by îmbrăcat pistolv (pistol dressed) can lead to

creating a phraseological synonymy based on antonymic pairs: gol vs. îmbrăcat

(naked vs. dressed), puşcă vs. pistol.[27,p.464]

We consider the active nature of phraseological units as a very important

characteristic; the main function of phraseological units at the level of discourse

being to structure it; thus we believe that some phraseological units are discourse

structuring units. To illustrate we will present a series of utterances, which belong

to either the journalistic discourse (mostly television channels), or the literary

discourse.

“Câştigătorul Eurovision România vine să comenteze la cald rezultatul

obţinut şi să analizeze la rece şansele la finala Eurovision 2013” (March 9th,

2013, TVR 1 Channel); “un berbecuţ cu minimul de mijloace şi cu maximul de

savoare” (March 30th, 2013, Kanal D Channel); “laptele conform să fi intrat în

contaminare cu laptele neconform” (March 18th, 2013, TVR 1 Channel); “fiul

risipitor – va spune eminentul savant – se întoarce ca fiu adunător”; “pentru cei

de afară e o cifră obişnuită, ca oricare alta. Nici mai bună, nici mai rea.”; “nici

vii, cu sânge pulsând în vene, nici stafii”; “intră-n grabă, ies-n grabă”;“ei fac rău

involuntar, încercând să facă bine”;“femeia care i-a fost alături la bine şi la rău”.

In my opinion antonymic relationships in phraseology can occur between

phraseological units, between global phraseological meanings, but also within a

single phraseological unit (of which it can be said that a certain antonymic pattern

was followed in order for it to be build), through the emergence of canonical

antonyms within the phraseological unit or through the presence of syntagmatic

constituents.

2.2 Contrastive analyses of English and Romanian phraseological units

Starting from the cognitive linguistic hypothesis that are conceptual, not

linguistic in nature and that their meanings can be seen as motivated, and not

arbitrary, Tratescu analyses and compares body – part idioms in English and

Romanian in terms of conceptual metaphor, conceptual metonymy and

conventional knowledge.[16,p.16]

A conceptual metaphor consists of two conceptual domains in which one

domain is understood in terms of another, while conceptual metonymy is the

cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle, provides mental

access to another conceptual entity, the target, within the same conceptual domain.

Conventional knowledge is „ information that is widely know and shared between

members of a speech community,an dis thus likely to be more central to the mental

representation of a particular lexical concept”. The author subdivides conventional

knowledge into knowledge relative to position, knowledge relative to the shape,

and knowledge relative to the function of the body-part analyzed.

Idioms containing four main body-part terms are: HEAD, HEAR, EYE, and

HAND. Concerning the motivation of body – part idioms, the linguists rightly

emphasize that they are motivated not by one of the three cognitive mechanism

mentioned above: there are cases when a combination of them underlies them. For

instance, in the idiom the right hand does not know what the left hand is going,

The HAND FOR ACTIVITY conceptual metonymy combines with the HAND

FOR PERSON metonymy and equally with the conceptual metaphor

COOPERATION IS SHAKING HANDS. In general, HEAD, HAND, EYE and

HEART idioms do not display significant differences in the two languages

considered by Tratescu. However, there are instances when English idioms do not

have comparable idiomatic equivalents in Romanian: off the top of one’s head, in

good heart, not to see eye to eye, take a hand in sth, make sth with one’s own fair

hands. The author also identifies and comments on Romanian body – part idioms

lacking English idiomatic equivalents:

o dată cu capul/în ruptul capului „ not for the world”,

să-ţi fie de cap „go and be hanged”,

• şi vărsa focul inimii „to unburden ones heart”,

• a avea inima largă „ to be kind hearted”,

• a închide ochii „ to ignore, to sleep, to die”,

• a deschide ochii „to be born”,

• a privi cu ochi buuni/răi „to look favourably/unfavourably”.

[37, p.45]

Another cognitive linguistic study on idioms discusses the influence of

cultural traditions on Romanian conceptualization of soul Neagu arguest that the

Romanian suflet,”soul”, like the Russian dusha is semantically closer to the

English heart than the English soul, due to its focus on moral values and emotions.

The concept of SOUL, presupposing domains such as body, mind, heart, life,

death, essence, immortality, God, is a cultural construct as it reflects differences in

the ethno – philosophies associated with different languages. A valuable

theoretical framework combining the quest for cognitive approaches and interest in

the semiotics of culture is Dobrovol’skij and Piirainen’s “conventional figurative

language theory”, where conventional figurative language is regarded as “ a

subsystem of the lexicon, as opposed to figurative adhoc expressions produced in

discourse”. Using empirical data from various languages, the two authors suggest

that many significant properties of figurative language can only be explained on

the basic of specific conceptual structures generally referred to as “cultural

knowledge”.[2,p.39]

In Romanian linguistics, some approaches to idioms are concerned with

differences in conceptualizations. These differences show up in the case of the four

basic element idioms, containing terms such as WATER, AIR, EARTH, and FIRE.

For example, not all the basic level objects involved by the category FIRE are

conceptualized alike in Romanian and English. In Romanian, the idea of intensity

of a state or condition is conveyed by a wide range of FIRE idioms, usually

pointing to intense love (îndrăgostit foc “head over heels in love”), anger (a se face

foc şi pară “fly into a rage”), jelousy (gelos foc “externely jealous”), and EARTH

idioms, expressing condition (sărac lipit pămîntului “as poor as a church mouse”),

physical and moral qualities (frumuseţea pămîntului “divinely beautiful”,

bunătatea pămîntului “extremely kind – hearted”) which do not alwazs have

corresponding idioms in English.[3,p.82]

The astounding multiplicity, and the prodigious idiomatic and figurative

richness of the phraseological lexical stock (including the apophthegamtic units of

a language) is not only remarkably attractive for linguists, but also worth every

effort by the researcher. On the other hand, the exploration of the diachronic

dimension of such gems of collective imagination is an undertaking both enriching

and gratifying, but not devoid of arduousness and variegated challenges.

Discovering “lost images” and “word stories” may be a safe and fruitful way to

provide a broader, andmore “human” picture of a nation’s cultural quintessence.

Moreoever, most images evinced by such lexical units tend to become

international, addressing the innermost psyche of man.

The present paper’s main aims are to compare such phraseological units,

basically trying to assess their degree of convergence (as concepts/images/ideas, so

in point of sense, and also in point of expression), the prevalence of either sense or

expression, and the expressive quality mainly resulting from their

figurative/graphical nuances, or from their stylistic overtones (e.g. absurdity, irony,

etc.), the expressive concreteness in either of the two languages considered, the use

of obsolete (possibly, archaic) terms, or of sheer idiomatic terms (which can

sometimes be nonce words). The author did not mean to form an undue

demonstrative association between the concepts that are the very key-words of the

present contribution, viz. idiomatic, phraseological and proverbial/apophthegmatic,

but started from the unassuming remark that some common, widely circulated

phraseologisms are at the same time allusions to, remnants or reminders of, (prior)

well-known proverbial units. That is to say that, in such cases, the dividing line

between the phraseological and idiomatic units, on one hand, and the

proverbial/apophthegmatic units, on the other hand, is rather vague (cf. the manner

in which the issue is treated by most dictionaries).[23, p.248]

The ample domain represented by proverbs, maxims, adages, sayings and

(wise) saws, aphorisms, and even epigrams1 materializes through verbal

expressions that set forth universal wisdom, usually a (general/basic/self-evident)

truth (or practical precept), or some commonplace fact of experience. They are

essentially memorable, short, concise, condensed, and can be found in frequent and

widespread use; more often than not, they use bold imagery, and may summarize

an abundance of ethical, cultural, and even practical aspects; sometimes, briefly

stated rules of conduct, or guiding principles characteristic of a group, etc., are

expressed.

On the other hand, an idiom is “a group of words whose meaning cannot be

predicted from the meanings of the constituent words, as for example (It was

raining) cats and dogs”; “a speech form or an expression of a given language that is

peculiar to itself grammatically or cannot be understood from the individual

meanings of its elements, as in keep tabs on”; idiomatic means “. peculiar to or

characteristic of a given language”. The idiomatic character of the fixed

expressions in a language is often ensured by those words which either have no

definite (or etymologically certain) sense, or have – so to speak – no sense at all .

[7,p.13]

In a previous contribution, we tried to analyze and compare the

expressiveness of such phrases, starting from the assumption that the more

concrete the phrases in question, the more graphical they are. In the process (which

involved perusing such common use bilingual dictionaries as the ones compiled by

the late professor Andrei Bantas, or the collaborative edition now being prepared

for print by the author of the present contribution), we came across and recognized

– in the figurative metaphorical, essentially expressive set of images displayed by

the idiomatic and proverbial phrases in English – concepts and ideas familiar to

most speakers of Romanian. They are obviously “transparent” on a semantic It

seems only natural that many phraseological units should be, at least to a certain

extent, international (through either meaning or phrasing – or both). Some English

items can be considered (lexical or ideological) “variants” of what Romanians

commonly use. Consider such instances as:

• a cincea roata (la caruta) – fifth wheel “a hanger-on; a person

who serves no function”;

• a sterge de pe fata pamântului “to wipe out” –To raze to the

ground;

• a face o scena – to make a scene; (“de indignare etc.”) to put up

a great show (of indignation, etc.); ca sardelele – packed like sardines; cu

orice pret – at all costs, at any price;

• cântecul lebedei – cf. swansong;

• a studia (ceva) la microscop (fig.) – to put (smth.) under the

microscope;

• în toi “in full swing” (în toiul luptei “in the thick of the battle”), etc.

[37, p.71]

The fact that some phraseological units (seen from the angle of both

expression and image) tend to become (increasingly) international is no doubt an

important feature of current phraseology.

By conducting a modest – though essentially didactic-oriented –

comparative analysis of the corpus sampled for English and Romanian, we could

detect a number of points of (literal) convergence and divergence.[26, p.76]

There are units that seem to prove Romanian to be the more expressive

language:

si cu asta basta – and that is that;

îl paste un pericol – a danger threatens him;

a bate toba – to make a great fuss;

a baga (pe cineva) la apa – to get (smb.) into trouble;

a baga în mormânt – to be the death of…;

a fi cu cântec – to have its (hidden) meaning;

a mânca cât patru – to be a heavy eater;

a nu se baga – to stand aloof, to keep off;

a o scrânti, a face una boacana – to put one’s foot in it;

a se baga pe sub pielea cuiva – to ingratiate oneself with smb.;

a se vârî (pe) sub pielea cuiva – to curry favour with smb.;

a sta în capul oaselor – to sit up;

a vorbi între patru ochi – to talk (to smb.) in private;

a-si lua câmpii – to run away;

amorezat/îndragostit lulea (de cineva) – nuts/carried away/crazy about;

cântec de inima albastra – sad song;

de atâta amar de vreme – for such a long time;

de caciula – per head, each, apiece;

de-a berbeleacul – head over heels;

din acelasi aluat – of a kind;

din burta (fig.) – off hand;

în capul oaselor – sitting up;

nu te baga! – mind your own affairs/business!;

pe la cântatori – at cock-crow;

pe toate drumurile/cararile – at every corner;

un bujor de fata – a flower of a girl;

una vorbim si basca ne întelegem – we talk at cross purposes.

[37, p.67]

Then, there are differences in point of expressiveness, with English as the

more expressive of the two languages; let us compare: at loggerheads with… –

certat cu…; between you and me (and the bedpost) – între patru ochi; good

riddance (to a bad bargain) – atâta paguba; she is a fine bit of crumpet/fluff/

skirt/stuff – e o bucatica buna”; smitten – amorezat/îndragostit/pâna peste cap

lulea (de cineva); stale joke – banc vechi; to be/keep mum – a-si tine gura, a tacea

din gura; to cool one’s heels “a face anticamera”; to drop a hint “a face o aluzie”;

to go on a wild bender – cf. a face / trage o bauta (zdravana); to look seedy – cf. a

arata prost. [37, p.56]

Sometimes, expressiveness is aided in English by a specific type of

(somewhat rhetorical) overstatement as in: he’d take a candy from a baby “e un om

fara (nici un pic de) inima”. [37, p.11]

It could be noted that, when the English structure has a higher degree of

referentiality as compared to the Romanian one, the latter is either more figurative-

metaphorical, or more conventional, e.g. to be drawn into – a se angrena în (ceva);

I’d give my shirt to (do smth.) – ce n-as da sa…; to get it hot/in the neck – a mânca

bataie; a se mânia tare/rau – to blow one’s top. [37, p.44]

Some expressive /graphical images in English mainly rely on the above-

mentioned type of referentiality, e.g. to be skating on thin ice – a fi într-o situatie

delicata.[13,p.164]

Conversely, the Romanian structure can have a higher degree of

referentiality as compared to the English one, which is either more figurative-

metaphorical, or more conventional, a bea aldamasul – to wet the bargain; a-si

uda gâtlejul – to wet one’s whistle, to moisten one’s clay; (galben) ca ceara – as

pale as death; n-as pune mâna în foc (pentru el/ca el nu…) – we wouldn’t put it

past (him); a râde mânzeste – to put on a forced/wry smile; to give a hollow laugh.

So, the more conventionalized the structures are, the less expressive they are

overall: Rom. tot o apa/tot un drac – Eng. much of a muchness; a face pe cineva

albie de porci – to call smb. names. Yet, such phrases as the ones below are

altogether comparable: a fi rebegit de frig “to be stiff with cold, to be chilled to the

bone/frozen to the marrow”. [37, p.23]

On the other hand, we happened to come across “etymological surprises”

involving a façade/veneer of absurdity concealing (quite valuable) historical and

cultural information, as in a pig in a poke

“something bought or received without prior sight or knowledge”,

“something that is offered in a manner that conceals its true nature or

value”

[“A pig in a poke is concealed in a sack from the buyer. The noun poke –

meaning a bag or sack – dates from the 14th century in English. In many parts of

Scotland poke means a little paper bag for carrying purchases or a cone-shaped

piece of paper for an ice-cream cone. The Oxford English Dictionary gives similar

forms in other languages: Icelandic poki, Gaelic poc or poca, and French poche.

Pouch and pocket are undoubtedly cognates”]. A similar case is Romanian colac

peste pupaza.

Similarly, hidden semantic hints, some of which also belonging to the

cultural (and often ideological) pool, prove greatly informative when it comes to

“dead metaphors” and “lost images”. In most cases, such allusions, hints and

references are cultural, mythological, biblical, etc. Within that specific set, the

biblical (cultural) allusions and references seem to represent the most significant

subset – irrespective of their structural type:

• phraseological units resembling the common phrases/syntagms of the

language, an eye for an eye – Exodus: “Thou shalt give life for life, eye

for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot”, forbidden fruit, Job’s

comforters ( someone who apparently offers consolation to another person

but actually makes the other person feel worse), kill the fatted calf (the

return of the Prodigal Son), thirty pieces of silver ( the money Judas

Iscariot received for betraying Jesus to the authorities), through a glass

darkly (to have an obscure or imperfect vision of reality – Apostle

Paul),valley of the shadow of death (the Twenty-third Psalm (“The Lord is

my shepherd…”) – meaning the perils of life, from which God protects

believers), [37, p.34] ,wolves in sheep’s clothing (the image of false

Prophets, adapted from words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount;

figuratively, it stands for anyone who disguises a ruthless nature through

an outward show of innocence); [29,p.295]

(b) phraseological units whose structure includes the conjunction and, e.g.

alpha and omega – i.e. the beginning and the end – in the New Testament Book of

Revelation; loaves and fishes – cf. Jesus’ miracle, when he was preaching to a

crowd of several thousand who grew hungry and needed to be fed); sometimes, the

conjunction can be missing, e.g. easy come, easy go;

(c) phraseological units that have/can have a sentential structure, e.g.

Consider the lilies of the field – cf. the words of Jesus, encouraging his followers

not to worry about their worldly needs: “Why take ye thought for raiment?

Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow; they toil not, neither do they spin.

And yet we say unto you that even Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like

one of these”; By their fruits ye shall know them – Jesus’ words suggesting that we

are able to distinguish between false and genuine Prophets by the things they do

and say; Cast not pearls before swine/Do not cast your pearls before swine – to

refrain from sharing something of value with those who will not appreciate it; Cast

thy bread upon the waters – cf. the Book of Ecclesiastes; the saying calls on people

to act with the faith that the benefit of their good deeds will not be lost on them;

The last shall be first; [37, p.94]

(d) phraseological units having the structure of complex (or compound)

sentences. That some (biblical) proverbs (and quotations) have become (or else,

have come to be used as) idioms proper can be proved by such instances as: Spare

the rod and spoil the child – which implies, in fact, the biblical quotation He that

spareth his rod hateth his son: he that loveth him chastiseth him betimes/Rom.

Cine cruta toiagul sau îsi uraste copilul, iar cel care îl iubeste îl cearta la vreme

(Pilde, 13:24).[11,p.90]

It seems only natural that many phraseological units should be, at least to a

certain extent, international (through either meaning or phrasing – or both). Some

English items can be considered (lexical or ideological) “variants” of what

Romanians commonly use. Consider such instances as:

a cincea roata (la caruta) – fifth wheel “a hanger-on; a person who serves

no function”;

a sterge de pe fata pamântului “to wipe out” – To raze to the ground;

a face o scena – to make a scene; (“de indignare etc.”) to put up a great show

(of indignation, etc.);

ca sardelele – packed like sardines;

cu orice pret – at all costs, at any price;

cântecul lebedei – swansong; a studia (ceva) la microscop (fig.) – to put

under the microscope;

în toi “in full swing” (e.g. în toiul luptei “in the thick of the battle”), etc. The

fact that some phraseological units (seen from the angle of both expression and

image) tend to become (increasingly) international is no doubt an important feature

of current phraseology. [37, p.92]

By conducting a modest – though essentially didactic-oriented –

comparative analysis of the corpus sampled for English and Romanian, we could

detect a number of points of (literal) convergence and divergence.

There are units that seem to prove Romanian to be the more expressive

language:

si cu asta basta – and that is that;

îl paste un pericol – a danger threatens him;

a bate toba – to make a great fuss;

a baga (pe cineva) la apa – to get (smb.) into trouble;

a baga în mormânt – to be the death of…;

a fi cu cântec – to have its (hidden) meaning;

a mânca cât patru – to be a heavy eater; a nu se baga – to stand aloof, to

keep off;

a o scrânti, a face una boacana – to put one’s foot in it;

a se baga pe sub pielea cuiva – to ingratiate oneself with smb.;

a se vârî (pe) sub pielea cuiva – to curry favour with smb.; a sta în capul

oaselor – to sit up;

a vorbi între patru ochi – to talk (to smb.) in private;

• si baga nasul (unde nu-i fierbe oala) – to poke/stick one’s nose (where

it’s not wanted);

• si lua câmpii – to run away;

amorezat/îndragostit lulea (de cineva) – nuts/carried away/crazy about;

cântec de inima albastra – sad song; de atâta amar de vreme – for such a

long time;

de caciula – per head, each, apiece;

de-a berbeleacul – head over heels; din acelasi aluat – of a kind;

din burta (fig.) – off hand;

în capul oaselor – sitting up; nu te baga! – mind your own affairs/business!;

pe la cântatori – at cock-crow;

pe toate drumurile/cararile – at every corner;

un bujor de fata – a flower of a girl;

una vorbim si basca ne întelegem – we talk at cross purposes.

[37, p.45]

Then, there are differences in point of expressiveness, with English as the

more expressive of the two languages; let us compare:

at loggerheads with… – certat cu…;

between you and me (and the bedpost) – între patru ochi;

good riddance (to a bad bargain) – atâta paguba;

she is a fine bit of crumpet/fluff/ skirt/stuff – e o bucatica buna”; smitten (Inf.)

– amorezat/îndragostit/pâna peste cap lulea (de cineva);

stale joke – banc vechi; to be/keep mum – a-si tine gura, a tacea din gura;

to cool one’s heels “a face anticamera”;

to drop a hint “a face o aluzie”;

to go on a wild bender – a face / trage o bauta (zdravana);

to look seedy – a arata prost.

[37, p.79]

Sometimes, expressiveness is aided in English by a specific type of

(somewhat rhetorical) overstatement as in: he’d take a candy from a baby “e un om

fara (nici un pic de) inima”. [37, p.4]

It could be noted that, when the English structure has a higher degree of

referentiality as compared to the Romanian one, the latter is either more figurative-

metaphorical, or more conventional, e.g.

to be drawn into – a se angrena în (ceva); I’d give my shirt to (do smth.) – ce

n-as da sa…;

to get it hot/in the neck – a mânca bataie;

a se mânia tare/rau – to blow one’s top. Some expressive /graphical images in

English mainly rely on the above-mentioned type of referentiality, e.g.

to be skating on thin ice – a fi într-o situatie delicata. [37, p. 34]

Conversely, the Romanian structure can have a higher degree of referentiality as

compared to the English one, which is either more figurative-metaphorical, or

more conventional, e.g.

a bea aldamasul – to wet the bargain;

a-si uda gâtlejul – to wet one’s whistle, to moisten one’s clay;

(galben) ca ceara – as pale as death;

n-as pune mâna în foc (pentru el/ca el nu…) – I wouldn’t put it past (him);

a râde mânzeste – to put on a forced/wry smile; to give a hollow laugh.

[37, p.39]

So, the more conventionalized the structures are, the less expressive they are

overall: Rom. tot o apa/tot un drac – Eng. much of a muchness; a face pe cineva

albie de porci – to call smb. names. [37, p.78]

Yet, such phrases as the ones below are altogether comparable: a fi rebegit de

frig “to be stiff with cold, to be chilled to the bone/frozen to the marrow”.

Sometimes, the biblical-cultural allusion has a jocular tinge, e.g. Romanian

în costumul lui Adam in one’s birthday suit.

Similarly, the cultural allusion encapsulated by an idiom has, in some cases,

become completely opaque, e.g. mother Carey is plucking her geese (Rom. “Baba

Dochia îsi scutura cojoacele”): see Mother Carey “[Possibly translation and

alteration of Medieval Latin mater cara, Virgin Mary: Latin mater, mother + Latin

cara, dear]”. Even an isolated (expressive) term can display cultural allusion, e.g.

to kowtow “a face temenele” – “[from Chinese k'o t'ou, from k'o to strike, knock +

t'ou head]”.

But the most interesting cases are, we think, those exhibiting different

cultural loads in the two languages analysed (cf. the specific cultural and historical

bias), e.g. a o sterge englezeste cf. to take French leave. Quite similarly, there is

the case of Eng. to stand a Dutch treat and Romanian a plati nemteste [a Dutch

treat means “an outing, a date, an entertainment, meal, etc., where each person

pays for themselves”, and to go Dutch means “(informal) to go on such a date,

where expenses are equally shared”].[8,p.21]

Here are some examples of embedded “historical and cultural anecdotes”

(the Romanian counterpart of the Eng. expression as the saying goes, i.e.

“povestea vorbei”): to let the cat out of the bag “to make known smth. that was a

secret, accidentally and at the wrong time; to disclose a secret” (Rom. “a-l lua

gura pe dinainte; a lasa sa-i scape/dezvalui/divulga un secret; infml. a lasa sa-i

scape porumbelul din gura”): Formerly, countryfolk going to market would

sometimes put a cat in a bag that they pretended held a sucking pig, hoping to

impose this on a greenhorn who would buy it without examination; but, if the

intending buyer opened the bag, the trick was disclosed; (to sit) above the salt;

(antonym (to sit) below the salt); not fml., old-fash“. (To be) in a position of

honour/not (to be) in a position of honour, esp. among guests at a dining table.

From the fact that in the houses of rich and important people salt was formerly

kept in a large container placed in the middle of the long diningtable”; Rom. “a fi

asezat în capul/vs. coada mesei; a ocupa un/a fi într-un post mare; colloq. a fi în

capul treburilor”; to pay through one’s nose (colloq.) “to pay an exorbitant

price/an extortionate amount; to be overcharged”: In the 9th century, the Danes

imposed a poll tax in Ireland, and the penalty for non-payment was the slitting of

the nose; to take time by the forelock (not fml., rather old-fash.): “to act quickly

and without delay, to take advantage of present chances; from the fact that time

was represented by an old man with no hair on his head, except for a forelock over

his forehead; the Greek god of occasion, Chairos, was represented with a full

forelock. (Shakespeare, who uses the image in several plays, calls time, “that bald

sexton”. Rom. “a prinde momentul prielnic/favorabil; a bate fierul cât e cald; a

nu pierde vremea (de pomana)”; to go through fire and water “to suffer risks or

dangers willingly, because one is so determined to do smth. or to serve smb.”;

Rom. “a trece prin încercari grele; a trece prin multe; a trece prin foc si para

(pentru cineva); approx. a trece prin ciur si prin dârmon”: The risk of being

burned or drowned is used as a symbol of what a person is ready to undergo; the

expression may allude to the mediaeval ordeal by fire and water in trials, in Anglo-

Saxon times. We think it would suffice to add such (now semantically opaque)

Romanian expressions as a da sfoara în tara, cal de gloaba, a plati gloaba (pentru

ceva), etc [37, p.15]

• A situation in which a desired solution or outcome is impossible to

attain because of a set of paradoxical/inherently illogical rules, or

set of circumstances/conditions; the rules or conditions that create

such a situation;

• a situation characterized by absurdity, in which any move that

someone

• can make will lead to trouble;

• a contradictory or self-defeating course of action;

• a tricky or disadvantageous condition; a catch”.

There are cases of cultural allusion typical of British/English-speaking

culture, e.g. gentlemen’s agreement/gentleman’s agreement (Romanian “acord

tacit”): “a personal understanding or arrangement based on honour and not legally

binding”; or of Romanian (folk/religious) culture, e.g. e gerul Bobotezei “it’s

freezing hard, it’s bitter cold”. A phrase like Romanian coada de topor . “Trojan

horse” can be read as a cultural allusion associated with the cultural corpus specific

to the Romanian language and literature (Grigore Alexandrescu’s fable Padurea si

toporul).

There is a similar class of learned idiomatic expressions in Romanian, such

as a trai într-un turn de fildes “to live in watertight compartments” – though the

same image is used in English (where it is calqued/translated from French), e.g.

ivory tower “seclusion or remoteness of attitude regarding real problems, everyday

life, etc.”; “a place or an attitude of retreat, especially preoccupation with lofty,

remote, or intellectual considerations rather than practical everyday life.”

Interestingly enough, we could detect a category of “phraseological/

apophthegmatic False Friends” within the above-mentioned class, e.g. to lead by

the nose “to make (someone) do unquestioningly all one wishes; dominate

(someone)” (Rom. a duce de nas “to pull the wool over (someone’s) eyes”); to beat

the drum/drums “to give enthusiastic public support or promotion”, e.g. a politician

who beats the drum for liberalism – vs. Rom. a bate toba (fig.) “to make a great

fuss”. Similarly, there are deceptive items deriving from false etymologies, or

rather etymologies based on misreading, e.g. scapegoat “one that is made to bear

the blame of others; (Bible) a live goat over whose head Aaron confessed all the

sins of the children of Israel on the Day of Atonement”.[5,p.30]

Last but not least, proverbs themselves can be used (and recorded in

dictionaries and glossaries) as phraseological units, or rather apophthegmatic

phraseological units – and no estimates of expressiveness seem to be possible in

that field – i.e. comparison seems to be rather counterproductive, e.g. unity is

strength “unirea face puterea”. Equivalence is a matter of sheer translation, and /

or conventionality, e.g. Walls have ears. Si peretii au urechi. [“We may be

overheard without our knowing it. This saying is a warning to persons with

secrets”]. The devil is not so black as he is painted. Nu-i dracul asa de negru (pe

cât se spune). A tree is known by its fruit. Pomul se cunoaste dupa roade (si omul

dupa fapte). [By their fruits ye shall know them “A teaching of Jesus in the

Sermon on the Mount; it suggests that we are able to distinguish between false and

genuine prophets by the things they do and say”]. Necessity is the mother of

invention. Nevoia te învata. [“A need or problem encourages creative efforts to

meet the need or solve the problem. This saying appears in the dialogue Republic,

by the ancient Greek philosopher Plato”]. Time is a great healer. Timpul le vindeca

pe toate. [or: Time heals all wounds “People eventually get over insults, injuries,

and hatreds”]. Speech is silver, but silence is gold. Tacerea e de aur (si vorba de

argint). To make a mountain out of a molehill. A face din tântar armasar. Too

many cooks spoil the broth. Copilul cu mai multe moase ramâne cu buricul

netaiat. [“When too many people work together on a project, the result is

inferior”]. A new broom sweeps clean. Sita noua cerne bine. [“New leadership

injects energy”]. It is easy to be wise after the event. (approx.) Dupa razboi multi

viteji se-arata. It takes all sorts to make a world. (approx.) Mare e gradina

Domnului.

[37, p.90]

Concluding, we can say that phraseologisms and idioms, and

apophthegmatic units too represent, on the one hand, well-known challenges in the

acquisition of English as a foreign language, and, on the other hand, most valuable

instruments to use in becoming proficient in that language.

CONCLUSION

Languages lead their speakers to construe experience in different ways,

specific to their culture. As a consequence, a great challenge that the translator

faces in the case of phraseological units is to reconcile respect for the cultural

specificity with the desire to render the foreign familiar. The aim is to make them

available to someone unfamiliar with the culture, without destroying the cultural

images on which they are based. In the translation of phraseology, perhaps more

than in any other type, the translator becomes a real mediator between cultures and

languages. And this is beyond a doubt ‘a tough row to hoe’.

The vocabulary of a language is enriched not only by words but also by

phraseological units. Phraseological units are word-groups that cannot be made in

the process of speech; they exist in the language as ready-made units.

Translation has played a role throughout history any time there has been an

intersection of two cultures and languages. And each time one culture has

produced a written text, translators serve as the bridge that allows literate members

of one culture to be exposed to the written material the other has produced.

This paper, focused on the contrastive analysis of English and Romanian

phraseology involving kinship terms, started summarizing the main theoretical

aspects related to phraseology, culture and kinship.

Phraseology becomes the embodiment of person’s national consciousness

and culture, and at the same time serves as the means of communication and the

knowledge of reality.

The analysis of special literature during the last decades shows that the

majority of linguists consider the coincidence of semantic structure, grammatical

(or syntactical) organization and componential (lexeme) structure the main criteria

in defining the types of interlanguage phraseological conformities/disparities with

the undoubted primacy of semantic structure.

The contrastive analysis of the phraseological units that was performed in

the practical chapter of the present research paper revealed the techniques and

methods used in their translation from English into Romanian. We can say that

the phraseological units are translated either by the already existed

equivalents or by means of some other methods, giving non-phraseological

translation because of lacking of the analogous equivalents in the TL. In the

second chapter we have 200 examples of English phraseological units and their

translation into the Romanian language.

31

69

100

Groups

Total equivalencePartial equivalenceNo ecuivalence

The first group represented by the idioms that fully coincide in

both languages, have one and the same meaning, one and the same stylistic

shades and inner form. We found 31 examples have their phraseological

equivalents in most languages, that is they are equal to the original

phraseological units. The number of such coincidences is very limited.

The second group included idioms with partial equivalents. It means

that they have similar meaning but are different in the inner character of

imaginary form. Such equivalents are called relative phraseological units. They

can differ from the original phrase by some components, usually

synonymous, then by little deviation in syntactic or morphological structure,

collocability etc. But their relativeness is covered by the context. We found 69

examples belongigng to this group.

The third group, the most numerous, includes idioms having no

equivalents in the language of translation and we found 100 examples. To

transfer their meanings into any other language one should use non-

phraseological ways of translation.

The following translation techniques used for phraseological units and

idioms were depicted: calque, ‘cultural substitution’ and omission.

29

57

14

Translation techniques

calque ‘cultural substitution’ omission

Non-phraseological translation transfers the meaning of the idiom by

lexical and not by the phraseological means. Such translation can not be

considered of full value. There are often some losses: imaginary,

expressiveness, connotation, figurativeness, shades of meanings etc. That is

why the translator very seldom use this method of translating.

When it is impossible to transfer the semantic-stylistic and expressive-

emotional colouring of the phrase we use another method which is connected the

usage of loan words, if possible. This method is preferable when it is possible

to convey the meaning of the original phrase by its word-to-word translation

in order for the reader to understand the phraseological meaning of the

whole expression and not only its constituent parts.

In Conclusion we can say that distinguishing between free word-groups

and phraseological units its further complicated by the existence of a great number

of marginal cases so called: Semi-fixed or semi-free word-groups, also called non-

phraseological word-groups which share with phraseological units, their structural

stability but lack their semantic unity and figurativeness.

Usually when people speak about translation or even write about it in special

literature they seldom specific about the meaning. Translation means both a

process and a result, and when defining translation we are interested in both

aspects. But at the same time we need the result of translation since alongside with

the source the translated text is one of the two sets of observed events we have at

our disposal if we need to compare the original (source) text and the resulting

(target) one.

However, the formation of the source and target texts is governed by the

rules characteristic of the source and target languages. Hence the system of the two

languages is also included in our sphere of interest. These systems consist of

grammar units and rules, morphological and word-building elements and rules,

stylistic variations, and lexical distribution patterns (lexico-semantic paradigms).

In translation we deal with two languages and to verify the information they

give us about the extralinguistic objects (and concepts) we should consider

extralinguistic situation, and background information.

The structure of the translation should follow that of the original textthere

should be no change in the sequence of narration or in the arrangement of the

segments of the text. It is necessary to remember that using this method of

translation one should consider emotional and expressive colouring of the

phraseological unit. The difficulty is that such expressions are real or

forgotten metaphors unconsciously assimilated by the native speakers.

The aim is maximum parallelism of structure which would make it possible

to relate each segment of the translation to the respective part of the original. It is

presumed that any breach of parallelism is not arbitrary but dictated by the need for

precision in conveying the meaning of the original.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Literary Criticism

1. Aliokhina, A.I. 1968. Frazeologičeskaja antonimija v sovremennom

anglijskom jazyke, rezumatul tezei, Čeljabinsk.

2. Avădanei, C. 2000. Construcţii idiomatice în limbile română şi engleză,

Iaşi: Editura Universităţii Alexandru Ioan Cuza.

3. Bârlea, Gh. 1999. Contraria latina. Contraria romanica (Sistemul

antonimelor în limbalatină şi reflexele sale în limbile romanice),

Bucureşti: All Educational.

4. Borchin, M. 2007. “Conectorii discursivi”. In Comunicare şi argumentare.

Teorie şi aplicaţii, (coord. M. Borchin), Timişoara: Excelsior Art, pp. 78-

79.

5. Bucă, M. 2008. Dicţionar de antonime [Dictionary of Antonyms],

Timişoara: Meteor Press.

6. Bucă, M. 2011. Marele dicţionar de expresii româneşti, (MDER) [The

Great Dictionary of Romanian Expressions], [Bucureşti]: Meteor Press.

7. Bucă, M., Evseev, I. 1976. Probleme de semasiologie, Timişoara: Facla.

8. Budagov, R.A. 2003. Vvedenie v nauku o jazyke: uč. posobie, 3rd edition,

Moskva: Dobrosvet-2000.

9. Coltun, Gheorghe, Spirescu, Monica, Aspecte ale frazeologismelor de

origine biblica, in Language and Literature. European Landmarks of

Identity, Pitesti, Editura Universitatii din Pitesti, 2009, p. 30-34.

10.Coseriu, Eugeniu, Lectii de lingvistica generala, Chisinau, Editura Arc,

2000.

11.Coseriu, Eugeniu, Lingvistica integrala, Bucuresti, Editura Fundatiei

Culturale Române, 1996.

12.Dejica, D. 2010. “Idiomatic expressions”. In “Approaching the

information universe for translation purposes: the atomistic perspective”.

In Romanian Journal of English Studies, (7), pp. 266-278.

13.Dinova, Ja.V. 2011. “Zamena komponentov kak prijom okkazional’noj

modifikacii frazeologièeskih edinic (na materiale anglijskogo i russkogo

jazykov)”. In Vestnik MGOU, Seria “Lingvistika”, No. 3, pp. 164-168.

14.Emirova, A.M. 2008. "Ob antonimièeskih oppozicijah v sfere frazeologii”.

In Izbrannye nauènye raboty, Simferopol’: KPR, pp. 45-47.

15.Mccarthy, M.; Carter, R. (1995), Language as Discourse: Perspectives for

Language Teaching, London and New York, Longman [1994].

16.Mcrae, J. (1990), Words on Words: How to Write a Commentaty on a

Passage of Literary Prose, Napoli, Loffredo [1987]. (1996),

"Representational language learning: from language awareness to text

awareness", Language, Literature and the Learner. Creative Classroom

Practice, Ronald Cárter and John McRae (eds.), London and New York,

Longman, 16-40.

17.Mcrae, J.; Boardman, R. (1989), Reading Between the Lines: Integrated

Language and Literature Activities, Teacher's Book, Cambridge,

Cambridge University Press [1984].

18.Miller, E.N. 1978. Antonimija v leksike i frazeologii (na materiale

nemeckogo i russkogo jazykov), Alma-Ata.

19.Miller, E.N. 1990. Priroda leksièeskoi i frazeologièeskoi antonimii,

Saratov: Izd. Saratovskogo un.

20.Murphy, M.L. 2006. “Antonyms as lexical constructions: or, why

paradigmatic construction is not an oxymoron”. In Construction, SV1 (8),

pp. 1-37.

21.New Webster’s Dictionary and Thesaurus of the English Language. –

USA: Lexico Publications, Inc., 1993. – 1,248 p.;

22.Noua revistã filologicã (NFR), anul II, nr.1-2 (3-4), 2011, p. 9.

23.Practical English Dictionary. – London: Holland Enterprises LTD, 2001.

P. 141;

24.The New Encyclopedia, Inc. Britanica. Micropaedia. Robert P. Grinn,

Chairman. – Chicago, Auckland, Geneva, London, Paris, Rome, Tokyo,

Toronto. – Vol. 3;

25.The Oxford Illustrated English Dictionary. – Oxford University Press,

2001;

26.The Random House Dictionary of the English Language. – New York,

1970;

27.Spears A. Richard. American Idioms Dictionary. – Lincolnwood, Illinois,

USA: National Textbook Company, 1991. – 464 p.

28.Sârbu, R. 1982. “Modele derivative antonimice”. In SCL, an XXXIII, nr.

3, pp. 225-238.

29.Арнольд И.В. Лексикология современного англ. языка: [Учеб. для ин-

тов и фак. иностр. яз.]. – 3-е изд., перераб. и доп. – М.: Высш. шк.,

1986. – 295с.

30.Кочерган М.П. Вступ до мовознавства: Підручник для студентів

філологічних спеціальностей вищих навчальних закладів освіти. – К.:

Видавничий центр «Академія», 2002. – 368с.

31.Кунин А.В. Английская фразеология. ( Теорет. курс. ) М., «Высшая

школа»,1970. – 343с.

Internet resources

32.www.bohemika.com – Phraseological combinations and fusions.

33.www.schwabe.ch – Phraseological Units.

34.www.corpus.bham.ac.uk – the Determination of Phraseological Units.

35.http://www.ranez.ru/article

Literary works

36.Biblia, Patriarhia Română, 1988.

37.Book of Wisdom. The sin of the people, London, 1809.38.Fowles John. The Ebony Tower. Little, Brown, 2013 p. 320

39.Maugham W. Somerset. Creatures of Circumstance. Transaction

Publishers, 2011. p. 375

40.Maugham W. Somerset. The Moon and Sixpence. Arc Manor LLC, 2008

p.180

41.Maugham W. Somerset. The Hero. The Floating Press, 2012 г. p. 288

42.The Holy Bible – Commonly Known as the Authorized (King James)

Version, The Gideons International, 1988.