PHANEROZOIC PALEOENVIRONMENT AND PALEOLITHOFACIES MAPS ...yadda.icm.edu.pl/.../c/Golonka_kenozoik.pdf · Phanerozoic paleoenvironment and paleolithofacies maps. Cenozoic 509 Fig

PHANEROZOIC PALEOENVIRONMENTAND PALEOLITHOFACIES MAPS.

CENOZOIC

Mapy paleoœrodowiska i paleolitofacji fanerozoiku.Kenozoik

Jan GOLONKA

Akademia Górniczo-Hutnicza, Wydzia³ Geologii, Geofizyki i Ochrony Œrodowiska;al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Kraków;

e-mail: [email protected]

Abstracts: The paper presents the detailed plate tectonic, paleogeographic, paleoenvironment andplaeolithofacies maps for seven Cenozoic time intervals. Thirty five maps, generated using PLATESand PALEOMAP programs, contain information about plate tectonics, paleoenvironment, and paleo-lithofacies during Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene, time slices. The spatial re-construction of basin architectures during their origin, expansion, closure and inversion as well as thedynamic of intrabasinal ridges were obtained by palinspastic modeling. This modeling utilizedpaleomagnetic data and stratigraphic-facies analysis of basins and ridges. Information contained withinglobal and regional papers were selected and posted on the maps. The detailed paleoenvironment andplaeolithofacies zones were distinguished within the basins. The paleogeographic maps illustrate thegeodynamic evolution of Earth from Late Cretaceous to Neogene, spreading and origin of newoceans, oceans closing, collisions, continents accretion and origin of new supercontinents.

Keywords: Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, plate tectonics, paleogeography

Treœæ: Artyku³ przedstawia szczegó³owe mapy paleogeograficzne dla siedmiu przedzia³ów czasowychw obrêbie kenozoiku. Trzydzieœci piêæ map, skonstruowanych przy u¿yciu programów PLATESi PALEOMAP, zawiera informacje dotycz¹ce tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i paleolitofacjiw czasie paleocenu, eocenu, oligocenu, miocenu i pliocenu. Przestrzenn¹ rekonstrukcjê architekturybasenów w okresie ich powstawania, ekspansji, zamykania i inwersji oraz analizê dynamiki grzbie-tów œródbasenowych uzyskano, wykonuj¹c modelowanie palinspastyczne, przy uwzglêdnieniu badañpaleomagnetycznych oraz analizy stratygraficzno-facjalnej basenów i rozdzielaj¹cych je grzbietów.Informacje zawarte w szeregu globalnych i regionalnych prac zosta³y wyselekcjonowane i naniesionena mapy. W obrêbie basenów wydzielono poszczególne strefy paleoœrodowiskowe i paleolitofacjalne.Mapy paleogeograficzne ilustruj¹ geodynamiczn¹ ewolucjê Ziemi od póŸnej kredy po neogen, rozrost(spreding) i tworzenie siê oceanów, zamykanie siê oceanów, kolizje, ³¹czenie siê kontynentów i two-rzenie siê nowych superkontynentów.

S³owa kluczowe: paleocen, eocen, oligocen, miocen, pliocen, tektonika p³yt litosfery, paleogeografia

507 GEOLOGIA � 2009 � Tom 35 � Zeszyt 4 � 507–587

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this paper is the presentation of Cenozoic paleographic maps of the world,containing paleoenvironment and paleolithofacies details. In the previous papers (Golonka2007b, c, d), the author presented global paleogeographic maps for Late Paleozoic and Me-sozoic. Now, the author attempts to cover the entire Phanerozoic in four papers. This paperis dealing with Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene time slices. The mapswere constructed using a plate tectonic model, which describes the relative motions be-tween approximately 300 plates and terranes. The detailed reconstruction methodology wasdescribed previously in Golonka et al. (2003a). The rotation file was presented in Golonka(2007b) paper, online version, the appendix. The facies were assembled according to rulesestablished during the production of Phanerozoic reefs map (Kiessling et al. 1999, 2003)and also presented by Golonka et al. (2006) and Golonka (2007b, c, d).

MAP DISCUSSION

Late Cretaceous-Early Paleocene

The lithofacies and paleoenvironment data for Late Cretaceous-Early Paleocene maps(Figs 1–5) cover rather a large time span 81–58 Ma (Golonka & Kiessling, 2002) from thelower Campanian unconformity to the lower Thanetian unconformity. The Cretaceous--Paleogene boundary is contained within this supersequence, which began with a high sea--level, which slowly lowered, then dropped dramatically at the Danian-Thanetian boundary,while the global significance of the supposed regression at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundaryis a subject of controversy (Kiessling & Claeys 2000, Golonka & Kiessling 2002). For ex-ample, the detailed study of the Carpathian realm revealed formations and megasequencescovering Maastrichtian and Early Paleocene without visible Cretaceous-Paleogene bound-ary (Golonka & Picha 2006, Golonka & Waœkowska-Oliwa 2007, Rasser et al. 2008).

The uplifted African Atlantic margin created internal drainage and narrow continentalmargins. The lower Thanetian unconformity is related to the inversion in Europe and con-vergence in Tethys (Golonka & Kiessling 2002). The Late Cretaceous-Early Paleocenetime slice has been mapped on the 76 Ma plate tectonic reconstruction. It is equivalent tothe Upper Zuni IV slice (Golonka 2000, 2002) upper part of Zuni III sensu Sloss (1988)and UZA-4 to TA1 of Haq et al. (1988).

During the latest Cretaceous, the spreading of the Central and Southern Atlantic con-tinued (Figs 1, 2), with a significant increase in the size of the equatorial Atlantic(Nürnberg & Müller 1991, Ford & Golonka 2003, Golonka 2007d). The Atlantic passivemargins were partially uplifted (Wernicke & Tilke 1989). Relatively narrow continentalmargins were established along Central Atlantic and equatorial Atlantic. Clastics prevailedalong the equatorial Atlantic margins, locally, on the South American site with carbonatesand with organic-rich rocks (Ronov et al. 1989, Ford & Golonka 2003, Kiessling et al.2003, Summa et al. 2003) (Fig. 2 on the interleaf)). The similar patterns area also visiblewithin passive margins along Africa (Bensalem 2002).

508 J. Golonka

Fig. 2. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of Central Atlantic and adjacent areas during Late Cretaceous-Early Paleocene times.

Explanations to figures 2– 5, 7–10, 12–15, 17–20, 22–25, 27–30, 32–35. Qualifiers: B – bauxites/laterites, C – coals, E – evaporites, F – flysh, Fe – iron,

G – glauconite, M – marls, O – oolites, P – phosphates, R – red beds, Si – silica, T – tillites, V – volcanics

Fig. 2. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i litofacji Atlantyku centralnego oraz obszarów s¹siednich w póŸnej kredzie-wczesnym paleocenie.

Objaœnienia do figur 2– 5, 7–10, 12–15, 17–20, 22–25, 27–30, 32–35. Oznaczenia literowe: B – boksyty/lateryty, C – wêgle, E – ewaporyty, F – flisz, Fe

– ¿elazo, G – glaukonit, M – margle, O – oolity, P – fosfaty, R – utwory czerwone, Si – krzemionka, T – tillity, V – utwory wulkaniczne

Phanerozoic paleoenvironment and paleolithofacies maps. Cenozoic 509

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The Niger delta supplied large quantities of clastics (Ford & Golonka, 2003, Denget al. 2008, Olowokere 2008). Carbonates developed on the margins of Central Atlantic inAfrica and in North America in South Carolina, Florida, Bahamas and Yucatan (Ronovet al. 1989, Ford & Golonka 2003, Kiessling et al. 2003, Wilson 2008). Deep-water car-bonates developed within the Gulf of Mexico. Chalks were present in the North Americaseaway north of Gulf of Mexico (Sloss et al. 1960, Ford & Golonka 2003).

The Caribbean arc was moving eastward toward the Antilles island arc causing sub-duction of the Proto-Caribbean crust (Ross & Scotese 1988, Golonka 2000, 2002, Golonkaet al. 2006, Iturralde-Vinent 2006, García-Gasco 2008). This arc collided with the Bahamaplatform during the latest Cretaceous (Golonka 2007d). This collision caused the capture ofthe Caribbean plate, which was formed from the trapped part of the Farallon plate of thePacific (Lawver & Gahagan 1993, Golonka 2007d). Subduction along the Panama Arc wasalso initiated (Scotese 1991). Cuba was in front of the Caribbean arc followed by Hispaniola.Large seaway existed between South America and North America (Figs 1, 2). The Amiache--Chaucha terrane was accreted to South America (Pindell & Tabutt 1995, Cediel et al.2005). The western North American Cordillera continued to compress during the latest Cre-taceous until the Eocene. This compression resulted in thrusting and margin-parallel,transcurrent faulting (Oldow et al. 1990). Large transform fault existed south of Yucatan,cutting across Mexican terranes (Golonka 2000, 2002, Ford & Golonka 2003, Keppie &Morán-Zenteno 2005, Ortega-Gutíerrez et al. 2007). Clastic sedimentation prevailed in theCaribbean area and along the western margins of North America with a significant share ofvolcanics and volcanoclastics. Carbonates developed locally on Cuba (Fig. 2).

Arabian plate was moving together with Africa northwards closing between its mar-gin, Sanandaj-Sirjan and Lut plates (Robertson & Searle 1990, Ricou 1996, Golonka 2000,2002, Giraud et al. 2005, Golonka et al. 2006, Pasyanos & Nyblade 2007, Allen &Armstrong 2008, Fakhari et al. 2008, Heydari 2008) (Figs 1, 3). The plate convergence wasassociated with obduction of ophiolites on the Arabian margin. The exotic rocks of theOman ophiolitic nappes reflect different stages of the evolution of the Tethyan Ocean andits branches from the Permian to the Cretaceous (Pillevuit et al. 1997). Carbonate platformsexisted on Arabia, adjacent part of Somalia and on the Lut plate (Ronov et al. 1989,Dercourt et al. 1993, Guiraud & Bellion 1996, Kiessling et al. 2003, Golonka 2004,Guiraud et al. 2006, Wilson 2008, Scheibner & Speijer 2008).

The Indian plate was located between latitude 30 degrees South and equator (Royer &Sandwell, 1989, Lawver et al. 1992, Golonka 2000, 2002, Kumar et al. 2007, Ali &Aitchison 2008) (Figs 1, 3). Its northward movement followed opening of the MascareneBasin and separation with Madagascar (Scotese 1991, Golonka 2000, 2002), wide open In-dian Ocean and narrowed significantly the Neotethys in this region. The emplacement oflarge volumes of flood basalts on India (Fig. 3) was associated with the movement of thisplate over the Réunion hot spot (Baksi 1987, Coffin & Eldholm 1994, Golonka &Bocharova 2002, Mahoney et al. 2002, Kumar et al. 2007, Keller et al. 2008, Sen et al.2008). Rifts caused by the mantle activity originated within the Indian plate. Carbonatesand mixed carbonates-clastics prevailed on the plate’s margins and on this part of GreaterIndia now involved in the Himalayan structure (Kiessling et al. 2003, Acharyya 2007,Green et al. 2008). At the same time clastics, mainly accretionary prism flysch deposits

510 J. Golonka

were abundant along the northern margin of Neotethys (Liu & Einsele 1994, Wan et al.2002, Zhang et al. 2002, Golonka et al. 2006). Uplift condition continued within SouthChina, Indochina and Indonesia plates with continental deposits, red beds evaporites andvolcanics (Golonka et al. 2006) (Fig. 3). North and west-dipping subduction rimmed Indo-nesia, while south-dipping subduction developed along the southern margin of the proto--South China Sea in South-East Asia north of Borneo (Fig. 3) (Lee & Lawver 1994,Golonka et al. 2006). Volcanics were abundant in South China. According to Chung et al.(1997), the Paleogene volcanic activities resulted from the lithospheric extension in SouthChina that migrated southwards and eventually led to the opening of the South China Seaduring later time.

Most of Western Europe was covered by a shallow sea (Fig. 4). Chalk was still wide-spread in western, central and southeastern Europe during the latest Cretaceous (Ziegler1982, 1988, 1990). Large areas of Central Europe were uplifted due to Subhercynian andLaramide tectonic activities (Ziegler 1988, 1990, 1992, Baldschuhn et al. 1991, Mazuret al. 2005, Krzywiec 2006). This uplift was related to the orogenic activities in the Alpine--Carpathian realm. During Late Cretaceous times compression embraced the Inner Carpathiansand several nappes with northward polarity developed. Subduction consumed the majorpart of the Pieniny Klippen Belt Ocean. Cherty limestones gave way to marls and flysch de-posits. The Valais Ocean in the Alps finally closed (Froitzheim et al. 1996, Stampfli 1996,Golonka 2004). According to Froitzheim et al. (1996), the collision between theAustroalpine units and the Briançonnais terrane in the Alps started in the Early Paleocene.


Fig. 3. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of southeastern Asia, eastern Neotethysand adjacent areas during Late Cretaceous-Early Paleocene times

Fig. 3. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska, i litofacji Azji po³udniowo-wschodniej, wschodniejTetydy oraz obszarów s¹siednich w póŸnej kredzie-wczesnym paleocenie

As an effect of these movements the Inner Carpathians and Alps jointed with the Adriaplate and the Alcapa terrane was created welding together of the Eastern Alps, InnerCarpathian, Tisa as well as smaller terranes, like the Bükk, Transdanubian or Getic(Golonka 2004). Several ridges have been uplifted as an effect of the orogenic process(Golonka et al. 2005a). The direction of these ridges was parallel to the uplifted zones inthe European Platform (Fig. 4). From uplifted areas, situated within the Outer Carpathianrealm as well as along its northern margin, enormous amount of clastic material was trans-ported by various turbidity currents. This material filled the Outer Carpathian basins. Eachbasin had the specific type of clastic deposits, and sedimentation commenced in differenttime. Primary shortening events in the Balkans occurred in Bulgaria (Sinclair et al. 1997).The Vardar Ocean was closed during the Paleocene time (ªengör & Natalin 1996). Furthereastwards the collision between Kirsehir, Sakariya and the Pontides (Yilmaz et al. 1997,Golonka 2004) closed the northern branch of Neotethys. The oceanic basins betweenTaurus and Kirsehir remained open. The northward movement of the Shatski terrane beganclosing of the proto-Black Sea (Kazmin 1997). The Lesser Caucasus approached theTranscaucasus and Talysh areas. At the end of the Cretaceous or in the Paleogene time, theLesser Caucasus and perhaps Sanandaj-Sirjan and Makran plates were sutured to theTranscaucasus-Talysh-Southern Caspian-Lut system (Knipper & Sokolov 1974, Adamia1991, Golonka 2004). According to Brunet et al. (2003), the subduction zone below theLesser Caucasus was finished at the end of the Cretaceous, after the obduction of ophiolitesin the Coniacian in the Sevan-Akera zone (Knipper et al. 2001).

512 J. Golonka

Fig. 4. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of Europe and adjacent areas duringLate Cretaceous-Early Paleocene times

Fig. 4. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i litofacji Europy oraz obszarów s¹siednich w póŸnejkredzie-wczesnym paleocenie

In the northern Tethys area, the Maastrichtian was a period of widespread develop-ment of carbonate platform. Carbonate flysch was deposited in the basinal areas. At the endof the time slice, a drastic collapse of carbonate platforms occurred (Philip et al. 1996,Kiessling et al. 2003, Scheibner & Speijer 2008) due to increased tectonic activity, whichresulted in regression or drowning. Compressional episodes occurred along the Afri-can-Arabian plate margin. These events included thrusting in the Moroccan High Atlas,folding of the Syrian arc, compression in the Sinai area (Moustafa & Khalil 1990, Guiraud& Bellion 1996, Frizon de Lamotte et al. 1998,) and inversion of the Central African RiftSystem (Golonka 2002).

The mantle plume attributed to the present-day Iceland hot spot was located betweenBaffin Island and Greenland (Lawver & Müller 1994, Golonka & Bocharova 2000, Ford &Golonka 2003). The mantle plume activity caused spreading of the Labrador Sea and riftingin the Baffin Bay (Gill et al. 1992, 1995, Holm et al. 1992, Larsen et al. 1992). Spreadingin the Makarov Basin was perhaps also related to the opening of the Labrador Sea. TheEurekan orogeny, primarily a response to sea-floor spreading in the Labrador Sea andBaffin Bay, and rotation of Greenland affected the area between this plate and CanadianArctic, mainly Ellesmere Island and the adjacent areas, developing a compressive foldbelt(Okulitch et al. 1998, Golonka 2000, von Gosen & Piepjohn 2003, Ford & Golonka 2003).A compressive foldbelt was developed in the westernmost Spitsbergen and North Green-land. Svalbard area and most of Barents Sea were uplifted (Fig. 4) (R�nnevik et al. 1982,Vorren et al. 1990, 1991, Skagen 1993, Bogatski et al. 1996, Ford & Golonka 2003,Golonka et al. 2003b, Cavanagh et al. 2006, Shipilov et al. 2006, Faleide et al. 2008).Compressional tectonics and volcanism is associated with the uplift. The Barents Sea wascovered by continental clastics, including lacustrine fine-grained deposits. The fine-grainedclastics prevailed on the margins of Labrador Sea, Makarov Basin and area of the futurenorthern Atlantic. Rift developed between Greenland and northwestern Europe. Deep-waterfine-grained clastics dominated sedimentation in the V�ring and M�re basins, offshoreNorway (Doré 1991, Lundin & Doré 2002, Ford & Golonka 2003, Golonka et al. 2003b,Agterberg et al. 2007, N�ttvedt et al. 2008). Continental clastics, locally with coal weredeposited in the West Siberian, Viluy and Chukotka basins, while marginal marine andshallow-marine, mainly fine-grained clastics existed in the Kara Sea area (Green et al.1984, Bogdanov et al. 1998, Golonka et al. 2003b).

Dispersal of the continents and development of the passive margins and rift basinscontinued in the former Gondwana area (Lawver et al. 1985, Golonka 2000, 2002, Lawver& Gahagan 2003, Macdonald et al. 2003, Ghidella et al. 2007) (Figs 1, 5). Clastic sedimen-tation prevailed along partially uplifted margins of Africa, Antarctica and South America.Continental clastics filled basins of Africa (Bumby & Guiraud 2005). Development of theinterior sag basins in South America, Africa, and Asia was associated with the renovationof ancestral failed rifts (Golonka 2000, 2002, Golonka et al. 2006). Large volcanic plateausformed within the Indian Ocean due to mantle plumes activities (Coffin & Eldholm 1994,Charvis & Operto 1999, Dalziel et al. 2000, Golonka & Bocharova 2000, Coffin et al. 2002).Carbonate and mixed carbonate clastics were present in the area between Africa and Mada-gascar and on the Falkland (Malvinas) area (Ronov et al. 1989, Richardson & Underhill2002, Ford & Golonka 2003, Kiessling et al. 2003, Wilson 2008, Scheibner & Speijer 2008).


Late Paleocene-Middle Eocene

The Central, Equatorial and South Atlantic increased their widths, with westwardmovement of North and South America (Ladd 1977, Nürnberg & Müller 1991, Golonka2000, 2002, Ford & Golonka 2003) (Figs 6, 7). Relatively narrow continental margins wereestablished along Central Atlantic and part of the South Atlantic. Fine-grained clasticsdominated sedimentation in the North American, Atlantic margin between Florida and Lab-rador Sea. The large Florida-Bahama carbonate platform, which was formed during Meso-zoic times, continued throughout Paleogene (Ronov et al. 1989, Richardson & Underhill2002, Ford & Golonka 2003, Kiessling et al. 2003). Carbonate sedimentation was exten-sive along low latitude, Western African margins and in some areas along the northeasterncoast of South America. They were represented by transgressive carbonates consisting ofcoral reefs and related grainstones as well as by shelfal marls. The large Niger delta and fanwas well developed during this time (Sahagian 1993, Ford & Golonka 2003, Bumby &Guiraud 2005, Deng et al. 2008, Olowokere 2008). The South Atlantic margins were typi-cally narrow (except Argentina), and were dominated by fine-grained, shaly clastics withlocal development of deltas. Organic-rich sediments were deposited on the Trinidad, EastVenezuela and Brazilian continental margins (Figueiredo & Milani 2000, Ford & Golonka2003, Summa et al. 2003, Escalona & Mann 2006).

514 J. Golonka

Fig. 5. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of South Atlantic, southwestern IndianOcean and adjacent areas during Late Cretaceous-Early Paleocene times

Fig. 5. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i litofacji po³udniowego Atlantyku, po³udniowo--zachodniego Oceanu Indyjskiego oraz obszarów s¹siednich w póŸnej kredzie-wczesnym paleocenie


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South America moved westwards, encroaching on the Caribbean plate, creating volca-nic arc and foredeep along the northwestern shelf (Pindell & Tabbutt 1995). Further devel-opment of the Panamanian arc took place along the western Caribbean plate margin (Burke1988, Ross & Scotese 1988, Pindell & Barrett 1990, Golonka 2000, 2002, Golonka et al.2006, Iturralde-Vinent 2006, Pindell et al. 2006, García-Gasco 2008). Further relative east-ward movement of the Caribbean plate continued, with significant transpressive deforma-tion along the northern and southern strike-slip boundaries (Guiraud & Bellion 1996,Acosta et al. 2007). Cuba had docked with North America. Yucatan was covered with shal-low-marine carbonate platforms, while deep Gulf of Mexico was filled with deep-waterclastics, fine-grained, locally with turbiditic fans (Ronov et al. 1989, Galloway & Williams1991, Brewster-Wingard et al. 1997, Xue 1997, Watkins 1999, Galloway et al. 2000, Budd2002, Ford & Golonka 2003, Kiessling et al. 2003, Rosenfeld 2005, Wilson 2008). Fore-land basins along the Western Cordillera of North America (Sloss et al. 1960, Flynn 1986,Dickinson et al. 1988, DeCelles 2004, Carroll et al. 2006) were drained of marine seawaysand become sites of fluvial/deltaic and lacustrine deposition (Fig. 7).

Central parts of the back-retro-arc basins in the Andes were inverted and uplifted.Clastic continental molasse-type of sedimentation with red beds, locally with volcanics andcoals developed in the foredeep basins east of Andes (Pindell et al. 1991, Lamb et al. 1997,Olivero & Martinioni 2001, Golonka 2002, Ford & Golonka 2003, Hervouët et al. 2005,Duerto et al. 2006, Jordan et al. 2007). Continental clastics were also deposited within theAmazonian basins (Fig. 7).

516 J. Golonka

Fig. 7. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of Central Atlantic and adjacent areasduring Late Paleocene-Middle Eocene times

Fig. 7. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i litofacji Atlantyku centralnego oraz obszaróws¹siednich w póŸnym paleocenie-œrodkowym eocenie

The maps (Figs 6, 8) present the traditional (see Golonka et al. 1994, 2006, Golonka2000, 2002, Kiessling et al. 2003) point of view about the onset of the collision of Indiawith Asia occurred near the Paleocene-Eocene boundary (Gaetani & Garzanti 1991, Long-ley 1997). The Indian Ocean was formed, as a result of the northward movement of India(Royer & Sandwell 1989, Lawver et al. 1992, Golonka 2000, 2002). According to Searle(1996), this collision may have been diachronous, occurring earlier in northern Pakistan(60 Ma) then in Ladakh-southern Tibet. Recently, different points of view also exists andare presented for example by Ali and Aitchison (2008), who postulate collision time around35 Ma. Northern part of India, including this part of Greater India now involved in the Hi-malayan structure, is covered by carbonates and mixed carbonates-clastics, while fine--grained clastic prevailed on the plate’s southern passive margins with locally developeddeltas (Fig. 8) (Kiessling et al. 2003, Acharyya 2007, Green et al. 2008). Carbonates,clastics, locally with volcanics occurred along the southern margin of Asia (Liu & Einsele1994, Wan et al. 2002, Zhang et al. 2002, Golonka et al. 2006). Uplift condition continuedwithin South China Indochina and Indonesia plates with continental deposits, red bedsevaporites and volcanics (Golonka et al. 2006) (Fig. 8).

Pull-apart basins and strike-slip faulting occurred in China (Golonka et al. 2006).Indochina perhaps initiated the movement southeastwards, with respect to South Chinaalong the left-lateral Red River Fault (Tapponnier et al. 1986, Lee & Lawver 1994, Golon-ka 2000, 2002, Golonka et al. 2006), the main stage of this movement occurred; however,


Fig. 8. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of southeastern Asia, eastern Neotethysand adjacent areas during Late Paleocene-Middle Eocene times

Fig. 8. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska, i litofacji Azji po³udniowo-wschodniej, wschodniejTetydy oraz obszarów s¹siednich w póŸnym paleocenie-œrodkowym eocenie

at the later time the Red River Fault Zone in Yunnan, China and North Vietnam, up to20 km wide, is one of the main strike-slip fault zones in SE Asia that separates the SouthChina and Indochina blocks. In North Vietnam, the Red River Fault Zone is subdividedinto three principal branches, up to 300 km long, orientated roughly NW-SE and named,from the NE to SW, the Lo River, Chay River, and Red River faults. These are mostlydextral and dextral-normal faults that show the southeastwards-increasing component ofnormal slip (Trinh 1995, Cuong & Zuchiewicz 2001). Between the Lo and Chay Riverfaults recently growing anticlines, orientated WNW-ESE and W-E, have been found(Lacassin et al. 1993, 1994, Golonka et al. 2006).

Subduction of the Proto-South China Sea continued (Lee & Lawver 1994). Southwarddirected subduction resulted in crustal accretion along the northern margin of the Kali-mantan and along the South Palawan Arc. A major strike-slip fault developed between theIndochina-Sumatra-plate and Borneo-Java (Longley 1997). The paleo-Ryukyu arc movedeastwards with the growth of the East China Sea Basin. The Philippine terranes (Seno &Maruyama 1984) appear for the first time on the Tejas I slice map. According to Longley(1997), during Eocene time, the motion of the Philippine plate changed, and a major trans-form fault developed into a subduction zone. According to Hall (1998, 2002), the Java--Sulavesi subduction system continued into the West Pacific beneath the eastern Philip-pines and Halmahera arc.

Back-arc extension in southeastern Asia led to rifting and seafloor spreading in theCelebes Sea Basin and the Makassar Basin, east of Borneo (Weissel 1980, Lee & Lawver1994, Longley 1997). Rifting and stretching also occurred along the South Chinese plat-form. Back-arc extension and rapid subsidence continued in the East Chinese Sea Basin.Marine basins developed in the Philippines and in the proto-South China Sea (Seno &Maruyama 1984).

Carbonate platforms were present in the center of Arabia (Fig. 8), while fine-grainedclastic prevailed in Arabian margin as well as in adjacent part of Somalia and on the Lutplate (Ronov et al. 1989, Dercourt et al. 1993, Guiraud & Bellion 1996, Kiessling et al. 2003,Golonka 2004, Guiraud et al. 2006, Scheibner & Speijer 2008, Wilson 2008). NorthernAfrican platforms exhibit rimmed margins that supply carbonate sediment to the adjacentbasinal flysch wedges (Fig. 9).

The process of the closing of Neotethys by the Alpine orogeny continued. TheApulian plate was continuously moving northwards together with the Eastern Alpine(Austroalpine) and Inner Carpathian blocks. The Ligurian Ocean in the Alps was closedand subducted, and the closure of the Valais Ocean began (Froitzheim et al. 1996). Thrust-ing in the Eastern Alps was initiated in the Austroalpine upper plate, at about 55 Ma(Decker & Peresson, 1996). The closing of the Pieniny Klippen Belt basin in theCarpathians was also concluded (Golonka et al. 2000, Golonka & Picha 2006). Flysch, ac-cumulated in the Alpine and Carpathian accretionary prisms and foreland basins in front ofthe moving northward plates. Carbonate platforms still existed on the Apulian (Adria) plate(Fig. 9) (Dercourt et al. 1993, Kiessling et al. 2003, Golonka 2004). The opening of newPaleogene basins proceeded at the expense of the Mesozoic oceanic basins. Some authors(e.g. Okay et al. 1996, Robinson et al. 1996) have suggested that the opening of the EastBlack Sea basin was connected with the simultaneous closure of the Great Caucasus basin.

518 J. Golonka

The timing of the events is somewhat speculative (Golonka 2004). Perhaps the Jurassic--Cretaceous oceanic crust of the Greater Caucasus Basin was subducted under the overrid-ing Scythian plate between the latest Cretaceous and the Late Eocene along with the open-ing of East Black Sea Basin (Fig. 9). The East Black Sea basin continued eastward to theAjaro-Trialet and the Talysh basin (Adamia et al. 1974, Shcherba 1994, Banks et al. 1997,Kazmin 1997, Golonka 2004). In the Talysh basin in southern Azerbaijan, a thick volcano-clastic series with basalts, trachy-basalts, trachy-andesites and andesites followed by flyschwith olistostromes. Altogether, Paleogene sediments reach a thickness 10 km (Gasanov1992, 1996, Ali-Zade et al. 1996, Brunet et al. 2003). Vincent et al. (2005) connect Talyshextension with major extension and ocean spreading within the adjacent South Caspian Ba-sin. Also Kazmin (1991, 1997) proposes the Eocene, while Berberian & Berberian (1981),Boulin (1991) and Abrams & Narimanov (1997), propose the Paleogene as the timing ofthe opening of the South Caspian Basin. Carbonates were deposited in Central Asia area(Ronov et al. 1989, Kiessling et al. 2003, Golonka 2004).

Most of the area of Western and Central Europe uplifted (Ziegler 1988, 1990, 1992,Baldschuhn et al. 1991, Mazur et al. 2005, Krzywiec 2006). North Sea and adjacent of con-tinental Western Europe were covered by shallow sea with fine-grained sedimentation.(Fig. 9). Rhine Graben with continental clastics and volcanics originated at this time(Schäfer et al. 2005, van Balen et al. 2005, Schwarz & Henk 2005).


Fig. 9. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of Europe and adjacent areas duringLate Paleocene-Middle Eocene time

Fig. 9. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i litofacji Europy oraz obszarów s¹siednich w póŸnympaleocenie-œrodkowym eocenie

This onset of crustal separation in the initial phase of drifting and by the inception ofseafloor spreading in the North Atlantic area was accompanied by extensive volcanismwith seaward dipping basalts along the plate boundaries (Eldholm et al. 1990, Planke et al.1991, Holm et al. 1992, Skogseid et al. 1992, Golonka 2000, 2002, Ford & Golonka 2003,Golonka et al. 2003b). A strong volcanic event resulted in nearly 1000 m of plateau basaltsin the onshore East Greenland area. At the same time, dolerite sills and thin dikes wereemplaced within the post-Devonian section throughout the region. Fine-grained clasticsdominated sedimentation in the area between Europe and Greenland. At the same time,oceanic spreading was still active west of Greenland (Figs 6, 9). The opening of the ArcticOcean (Eurasian Basin) was initiated, in the Late Paleocene (Kristoffersen 1990). It ex-tended into the Laptev Sea are and onshore Siberia in the Moma rift area (Bogdanov et al.1998, Franke et al. 2000). Svalbard and most of Barents Sea area were uplifted (R�nneviket al. 1982, Eldholm et al. 1990, Vorren et al. 1990, 1991, Doré 1991, Johansen et al. 1993,Bogatski et al. 1996, Golonka et al. 2003b). The continental clastic sedimentation in theBarents and Timan-Pechora area included lacustrine deposits and coals (Fig. 9). Fine--grained clastic sedimentation dominated the West Siberian seaways (Vinogradov 1968,Ronov et al. 1989, Surkov et al. 1997, Golonka et al. 2003b, Akhmet’ev et al. 2004).

South Atlantic increased its widths, with westward movement of South America.Mixed clastics, sometimes with volcanics and organic-rich rocks were deposited on theAfrican and South American margins (Fig. 10) (Ford & Golonka 2003).

520 J. Golonka

Fig. 10. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of South Atlantic, southwestern IndianOcean and adjacent areas during Late Paleocene-Middle Eocene times

Fig. 10. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i litofacji po³udniowego Atlantyku, po³udniowo--zachodniego Oceanu Indyjskiego oraz obszarów s¹siednich w póŸnym paleocenie-œrodkowym eocenie

Sedimentation of continental clastics continued in the African basins (Bumby &Guiraud 2005). Fine-grained clastics and mixed carbonate clastics prevailed in the Falklandarea (Ronov et al. 1989, Richardson & Underhill 2002, Ford & Golonka 2003, Kiesslinget al. 2003, Scheibner & Speijer 2008, Wilson 2008). Seafloor spreading continued be-tween Australia and Antarctica. The formation of the Indian Ocean was almost completed.Relatively deep-water clays and muds were deposited on the formerly placed seamountsand plateaus within the Indian Ocean around Madagascar, and slopes of Antarctica(Fig. 10) (Golonka 2000, 2002, Roberts et al. 2003, Das et al. 2007, Key et al. 2008).

Late Eocene

According to Pindell & Tabbutt (1995), the westward movement of South Americaacross the mantle accelerated. This triggered the Incaic phase of the Andean tectonics, witha drastic uplifting of the mountain chain. Further, relative, eastward movement of the Ca-ribbean plate continued, with significant transpressive deformation along the northern andsouthern strike-slip boundaries (Guiraud & Bellion 1996). Hispaniola moved along thestrike-slip fault south of Cuba, eastwards, developing transpressive orogen (Fig. 10).East-west rifting began in the Cayman Trough. Fragments of Caribbeans were accreted tothe northern part of South America with deformation and block rotation margin (Burke1988, Ross & Scotes 1988, Pindell & Barrett 1990, Ave Lallemant 1997, Golonka 2000,2002, Audemard & Audemard 2002, Golonka et al. 2006, Iturralde-Vinent 2006, Pindell etal. 2006, García-Gasco 2008). Sedimentation of continental clastics with red beds, contin-ued in the large area east of Andes and within the Amazonian basins (Pindell et al. 1991,Lamb et al. 1997, Olivero & Martinioni 2001, Golonka 2002, Ford & Golonka 2003,Hervouët et al. 2005, Duerto et al. 2006, Jordan et al. 2007). Marine clastics were presentin Venezuela (Ford & Golonka 2003, Summa et al. 2003). Large carbonate platforms con-tinued on Yucatan and on Bahama platform, while deep Gulf of Mexico was filled withdeep-water clastics rimmed on the northern margin with marginal marine strata with coals(Ronov et al. 1989, Galloway & Williams 1991, Brewster-Wingard et al. 1997, Xue 1997,Watkins 1999, Galloway et al. 2000, Budd 2002, Ford & Golonka 2003, Kiessling et al.2003, Rosenfeld 2005, Wilson 2008).

Inversion of the High Atlas Mountains in Morocco marked a new, convergent bound-ary between stable Africa and the Moroccan and Oran mesetas (Ricou 1996). A major com-pressive event took place at the Middle-Late Eocene transition (Guiraud & Bellion 1996).

The northern African platforms exhibit rimmed margins that supply carbonate sedi-ment to adjacent basinal flysch wedges. Interiors of Northern Africa were filled with conti-nental clastics (Fig. 12) (Bumby & Guiraud 2005).

The collision of India and Eurasia continued (Figs 11, 13). Metamorphism and crustalthickening reached a peak about 40 Ma in northern Pakistan, propagating later southward(Searle 1996). Oceanic subduction ceased beneath the Indian-Eurasian collision zone(Longley 1997). India’s interior was uplifted, locally with continental clastics and volca-nics. Numerous delta and sea-fans developed along the plate margins.


522 J. Golonka

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Fig. 12. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of Central Atlantic and adjacent areasduring Late Eocene times

Fig. 12. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i litofacji Atlantyku centralnego oraz obszaróws¹siednich w póŸnym eocenie

Fig. 13. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of southeastern Asia, Indian Ocean andadjacent areas during Late Eocene times

Fig. 13. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i litofacji Azji po³udniowo-wschodniej, OceanuIndyjskiego oraz obszarów s¹siednich w póŸnym eocenie

The India plate acted as an inventor on Asia causing southeastward and southward ex-trusion of Indochina and South China plates (Golonka et al. 2006). The movements of ex-truded plates initiated major strike slip faults in Southeast Asia. The Red River Fault Zoneactivity was approaching its main phase. According to Jolivet et al. (2001), the Red RiverFault Zone is rooted in an horizontal shear zone at the brittle/ductile transition separatingthe upper and middle crust from the lower crust, and the sinistral strike-slip motion wasfirst transpressional (?40–25 Ma), and then transtensional, leading to fast exhumation from24 to 17 Ma. According to Wang et al. (2000), transpressional tectonics in the Red RiverFault Zone may have started as early as ~ 42 Ma. Their geochronological dates reveal twodistinctive magmatic episodes in eastern Tibet and Indochina: one between 42 and 24 Maand another since 16 Ma. The older volcanic rocks and minor intrusions are distributedalong the entire length of the Red River Fault Zone and its northern extension. Accordingto Lan et al. (2000) around 40 Ma the extension resulting from the India-Asia collisioncaused a mantle input to mix with recycled sediments generating granitic rocks. Accordingto Wang et al. (2000), the rocks of earlier igneous activity (42–24 Ma) include syenite,trachite, shoshonitic lamprophyre and basaltic trachyandesite. The strike-slip movement isrelated to the origin of pull-apart basins with continental clastic deposition (Fig. 13).

The old ridge began to be subducted beneath the Sunda Arc (Indonesia). Rifting in theCelebes Sea continued (Lee & Lawver 1994). East China Sea reached its maximum size(Golonka et al. 2006). Subduction of the proto-South China Sea continued (Lee & Lawver1994). According to Hall (1998, 2002), the opening of the West Philippine-Celebes SeaBasin required the subduction of the proto-South China Sea beneath Luzon and Sulu arc.The Australasian margin collided with New Guinea arc resulting in emplacement of NewCaledonia ophiolite and beginning of subduction beneath Papua-New Guinea.

Shallow-water carbonates developed on the Arabian plate (Fig. 13), providing goodreservoirs for hydrocarbon exploration (Whittle & Alsharhan 1994, Whittle et al. 1996,Alsharhan & Nairn 1997, Dull 2005, El-Saiy & Jordan 2007). Widespread distribution ofcarbonates occurred in the central and eastern parts of North Africa (Ziegler 1988, Dercourtet al. 1993, Philip et al. 1996, Macgregor & Moody 1998, Bolle et al. 1999, Bolle 2000,Bensalen 2002, Kiessling et al. 2003, Guiraud et al. 2005, Shiref & Salaj 2007, Scheibner& Speijer 2008). Carbonate platforms continued to exist on the Apulian/Adrian plate, but, inthe remaining part of the northern Tethys were replaced by a clastic sedimentation (Fig. 14).

During the Eocene time, Lesser Caucasus, Sanandaj-Sirjan and Makran plates weresutured to the Transcaucasus-Talesh-Southern Caspian-Lut system (Adamia 1991, Golonka2004, 2007a). The subduction zone was locked and jumped to the Scythian-Turan margin.The western segment of this subduction was located along the northern margin of the East-ern Black Sea, on the Greater Caucasus area and south off the Apsheron Peninsula andridge. The major transform fault system in the Western Turkmenistan basin area separatedthe eastern and western segments of subduction. This fault system is buried deeply belowWest Turkmen Basin Neogene sediments. The eastern segment was located along the SouthKopet Dagh margin approximately 200–300 km south of the Apsheron ridge.

The subduction jump produced the trench pulling force, which influenced all platesbetween Black Sea and Sistan Ocean in Afghanistan. The timing of movement initiationand movement velocity is different for different plates. This difference caused the origin of

524 J. Golonka

several major strike slip faults of SW-NE orientation, which cut both continental crust andJurassic-Cretaceous oceanic crust (Jackson 1992, Kopp 1997, Golonka 2007a). The mostimportant are Araks fault, which separates the Lesser Caucasus block and Transcaucasusblock from the Talesh plate, and the Lahijan fault within Alborz Mountains. The extensionof the Lahijan fault, which separated the South Caspian Microcontinent (SCM) fromSouth-West Caspian Basin, is buried deeply below the South Caspian Neogene sediments.The northward movement of the South Caspian Microcontinent resulted in rifting betweenthe SCM and Alborz plates. The Jurassic-Cretaceous oceanic crust of the Eastern Black Sea– Greater Caucasus Basin was subducted under the overriding Scythian plate. The northwardmovement of the Shatski Rise block caused opening of the Eastern Black Sea (Robinson et al.1996, Banks et al. 1997). The northward movement of the Transcaucasus block caused thecollision and formation of the Greater Caucasus orogenic belt (Adamia 1991). A marine envi-ronment spread throughout the Scythian-Turan platform and adjacent areas during-Eocenetime, which was characterized by mixed deposition of clastic and carbonate rocks (Fig. 14).

The Paleocene inversion in the Carpathians was followed by a new episode of subsi-dence, which accelerated during the Lutetian and Priabonian (Oszczypko et al. 2003,Golonka & Picha 2006). The accretionary prism was building gradually, causing the north-ward migration of depocenters. Thin-bedded flysch deposits passed into a thick complex ofturbidites and fluxoturbidites. Foreland basin development proceeded in southern Europe,coinciding with a general uplift of the European continent. The closure of the Pindos Oceanbegan (Robertson et al. 1991). Compression continued in the Balkan area in Bulgaria (Tariet al. 1997).


Fig. 14. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of Europe and adjacent areas duringLate Eocene times

Fig. 14. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i litofacji Europy oraz obszarów s¹siednich w póŸnymeocenie

Seafloor spreading finally shifted from western to eastern Greenland and the NorthAtlantic (Figs 11, 14). The opening of the North Atlantic was linked to mantle plume, asso-ciated with the Iceland hot spot as postulated by White & McKenzie (1989). According toWhite (1992), shortly after the Iceland plume was reactivated, the extension betweenGreenland and the north-western European margin continued until its development intoa full oceanic spreading centre. The voluminous volcanic complexes, containing wedges ofseaward-dipping reflectors, were deposited in the vicinity of the continental-oceanic transi-tion (Planke et al. 1991, Skogseid et al. 1992, Coffin & Eldholm 1994). Clastics, mainlyfine-grained, locally with volcanics were deposited along North Atlantic and (Ziegler 1988,1990, Joy 1992, Bull & Masson 1996, Ford & Golonka 2003, Golonka et al. 2003b, Laberget al. 2005, Agterberg et al. 2007, Rasmussen et al. 2008). Svalbard was uplifted, but shal-low water environment prevailed on large part of Barents Sea (R�nnevik et al. 1982,Vorren et al. 1990, 1991, Johansen et al. 1993, Skagen 1993, Bogatski et al. 1996,Musatov & Pogrebitskij 2000, Golonka et al. 2003b, Shipilov et al. 2006, Rasmussen et al.2008). The continental clastic sedimentation prevailed Timan-Pechora area and adjacentpart of South Barents Sea included lacustrine deposits and coals (Fig. 14). Fine-grainedclastic sedimentation dominated the West Siberian seaways (Vinogradov 1968, Ronov et al.1989, Volkova & Kul’kova 1996, Kulkova & Volkova 1997, Surkov et al. 1997, Golonkaet al. 2003b, Akhmet’ev et al. 2004). Continental clastic, fluvial and lacustrine; with coals,were deposited it the other, smaller Siberian basins Vinogradov 1968, Ronov et al. 1989,Zonenshain et al. 1990, Parfenov 1991, Martinson 1998, Paech et al. 2000, Parfenov et al.2001). Lignite was especially present in the Moma basin.

526 J. Golonka

Fig. 15. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of South Atlantic, southwestern IndianOcean and adjacent areas during Late Eocene times

Fig. 15. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i litofacji po³udniowego Atlantyku, po³udniowo--zachodniego Oceanu Indyjskiego oraz obszarów s¹siednich w póŸnym eocenie

The South Atlantic increased its width during Eocene times (Figs 11, 15). Mixedclastics, sometimes with volcanics and organic-rich rocks were deposited on the Atlanticmargins in Africa and South America (Fig. 15) (Ford & Golonka 2003). Delta of theOrange River supplied coarse clastics (Bluck et al. 2007). Sedimentation of continentalclastics continued in the African basins (Bumby & Guiraud 2005). Fine-grained clasticsand mixed carbonate clastics prevailed in the Falkland area (Ronov et al. 1989, Richardson& Underhill 2002, Ford & Golonka 2003, Kiessling et al. 2003, Scheibner & Speijer 2008,Wilson 2008). Seafloor spreading continued between Australia and Antarctica. Relativelydeep-water clays and muds were deposited on the formerly placed seamount and plateauswithin the Indian Ocean around Madagascar, and slopes of Antarctica (Fig. 15) (Golonka2000, 2002, Roberts et al. 2003, Das et al. 2007, Key et al. 2008). Shallow-marine and car-bonate clastic sedimentation occurred along the Mozambique Channel Indian Ocean mar-gins and offshore South Africa (Förster 1975, Salman & Abdula 1995, Ford & Golonka2003, Kiessling et al. 2004, Key et al. 2008).

Oligocene

Atlantic Ocean continued its spreading during Oligocene times (Fig. 16). The develop-ment of the eastern Caribbean island arc occurred (Fig. 17), while the Panamanian arcnearly collided with South America (Burke 1988, Ross & Scotese 1988, Pindell & Barrett1990, Ave Lallemant 1997, Golonka 2000, 2002, Audemard & Audemard 2002, Golonkaet al. 2006, Iturralde-Vinent 2006, Pindell et al. 2006, García-Gasco 2008). According toCoates et al. (2004), precollisional arc-related rocks of Panama consisted of 4000 m of pillowbasalts and volcanoclastics, and biogenic calcareous and siliceous deepwater sediments.Left-lateral strike-slip motion was active between the North America and Caribbean platesand deformation took place under a transpressive tectonic regime. A collisional unit devel-oped on Hispaniola, which was located south of Cuba (Pérez-Estaún et al. 2007). Andeanfolding and thrusting continued (Lamb et al. 1997).

Continental clastics, locally with coals and organic-rich source rocks, were depositedover a large area east of Andes and within the Amazonian basins (Pindell et al. 1991, Lambet al. 1997, Olivero & Martinioni 2001, Golonka 2002, Ford & Golonka 2003, Hervouëtet al. 2005, Duerto et al. 2006, Jordan et al. 2007). Marine clastics with source rocks weredeposited in Venezuela (Ford & Golonka 2003, Summa et al. 2003). Carbonate platforms,sometimes with reefs partially covered Greater Antilles Islands (Ford & Golonka 2003,Kiessling et al. 2003, Baron-Szabo 2005, Johnson & Pérez 2006). According to Mutti et al.(2005), carbonate “megabank” extended from the Honduras/Nicaraguan mainland to themodern island of Jamaica. Large carbonate platforms continued on Yucatan and on Bahamaplatform, as in previous time slice while deep Gulf of Mexico was still filled with deep-wa-ter clastics rimmed on the northern margin with marginal marine strata with coals (Ronovet al. 1989, Galloway & Williams 1991, Brewster-Wingard et al. 1997, Xue 1997, Watkins1999, Galloway et al. 2000, Budd 2002, Ford & Golonka 2003, Kiessling et al. 2004,Rosenfeld 2005, Wilson 2008).


528 J. Golonka

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According to Frizon de Lamotte et al. (2009 in press), the general inversion and oro-genesis of the Atlas System occurred during two distinct episodes, Middle-Late Eocene--Oligocene and Late Miocene-Pliocene, respectively, whereas during the intervening period,the Africa-Europe convergence was mainly accommodated in the Rif-Tell system. Accord-ing to Summerhayes et al. (1981), the Oligocene earth movements gave rise more or less tothe present shelf-slope configuration. Coarse clastics, fine-grained clastics and locally car-bonates were deposited on the Northern African margins, while interiors of Northern Africawere filled with continental clastics, mainly sands and gravel mounds (Fig. 17) (Said 1983,Coward & Ries 2003, Ford & Golonka 2003, Bumby & Guiraud 2005, Swezey 2009).

The collision of India and Eurasia continued (Figs 16, 18). Metamorphism and crustalthickening reached their peak in the Zanskar area (Searle 1996, Golonka et al. 2006). Thedevelopment of the molasse basins continued in the Himalayan belt foreland (Burbanket al. 1996). Marine clastics, locally carbonates as well as marginal and terrestrial clasticssometimes with coals were deposited there. Like during the previous time slice India’s inte-rior was uplifted, locally with continental clastics and volcanics. Numerous delta andsea-fans developed along the plate margins. Collision and suturing of India to Asia causedextensive strike-slip faulting in Asia (Kopp 1997). According to Hall (1998, 2002), the IndianOcean subduction continued at the Sunda-Java trenches, and also beneath the arc extendingfrom Sulawesi though the east Philippine to Halmaheru. Active volcanism and subductiontook place in the Philippine island arc. The closing of the proto-South China Sea continued


Fig. 17. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of Central Atlantic and adjacent areasduring Oligocene times

Fig. 17. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i litofacji Atlantyku centralnego oraz obszaróws¹siednich w oligocenie

(Lee & Lawver 1994). Inversion and folding in East China and the first phase of formationof the Taiwan-Sinzi Folded zone was caused by a collision between the paleo-Ryukyu Arcand the northern part of the Philippine Sea plate (Kong 1998, Kong et al. 2000). TheLuconian terrane collided with NW Borneo (Longley 1997).

Sedimentation of shallow-water carbonates continued on the Arabian plate (Figs 18, 19)(Whittle & Alsharhan 1994, Whittle et al. 1996, Alsharhan & Nairn 1997, Dull 2005,El-Saiy & Jordan 2007). The Sanandaj-Sirjan plate began to thrust over the Arabian Plat-form forming the Zagros Mountains (Berberian & Berberian 1981, Dercourt et al. 1993,Golonka 2004, Fakhari et al. 2008, Heydari 2008). The main cause of thrusting in theZagros Mountains (Figs 18, 19), according to ªengör & Natalin (1996), was the counter-clockwise rotation of the Arabian plate. Collision of the Lut block with the Turan platformin Central Asia caused the Kopet Dagh foldbelt to form (Kopp 1997).

The subduction zone beneath the Scythian-Turan margin of Eurasia (Sobornov 1994)produced a trench-pull force which caused northward movement of the plates between theBlack Sea and Afghanistan (Fig. 19), closure of the Greater Caucasus, Sebzevar and SistanOceans and reorganization of the South Caspian Sea (Golonka 2004, 2007a). The SistanOcean was closed in eastern Iran, between Helmand and Lut plates (Sengör & Natalin1996). Collisions continued in the area between Africa and Eurasia. The conclusion of thecompression of the Balkanides, in Bulgaria, occurred during the Oligocene time (Sinclairet al. 1997). The Pindos Ocean was finally closed (Robertson et al. 1991). The collision of

530 J. Golonka

Fig. 18. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of southeastern Asia, Indian Oceanand adjacent areas during Oligocene times

Fig. 18. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i litofacji Azji po³udniowo-wschodniej,Oceanu Indyjskiego oraz obszarów s¹siednich w oligocenie

Apulia as well as the Alpine-Carpathian terranes with the European plate continued(Decker & Peresson 1996, Frasheri et al. 1996). The metamorphism of the undercrustedPenninic nappes in the Alps reached peak thermal conditions at about 30 Ma (Kurz et al.1996). The Calabrian terranes in the Western Mediterranean began to progress eastward(van Dijk & Okkes 1991).

During the Eocene-Oligocene times, the Paratethys Sea developed in Europe and cen-tral Asia, ahead of the progressing northwards orogenic belts (Dercourt et al. 1993, Popovet al. 1993). The main part of Neotethys was closed. The Neotethys remnants, foreland ba-sin of the Alpine orogens, and reorganized Greater Caucasus-Caspian basin with the adja-cent parts of the Scythian-Turan platform formed the Paratethys Sea. Large area was cov-ered by shallow sea with prevailing mixed coarse and fine clastic deposition (Fig. 19). TheParatethys was isolated from the world ocean. This isolation and persistent low pressuresystem during Oligocene-Early Miocene time (Golonka 2003, 2007a) generated favorablecondition for deposition and preservation of the organic-rich shales. The Maykop formationcontaining several layers of organic-rich shales was deposited in north of Greater Caucasus,in the Terek-Caspian Basin, Kura Basin, and perhaps in the parts of South Caspian Basin(Popov et al. 1993, Abrams & Narimanov 1997, Inan et al. 1997, Devlin et al. 1999,Devlin 2000, Brunet et al. 2003, Golonka 2007a, Stolyarov & Ivleva 2007, Hudson et al.2008). The South Caspian Microcontinent was probably emerged during the Oligocene--Early Miocene and received a minimum amount of sediments, so we can expect the absenceof the Maykop formation in this area.


Fig. 19. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of Europe and adjacent areas duringOligocene times

Fig. 19. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i litofacji Europy oraz obszarów s¹siednich w oligocenie

Continental clastics, locally with coal, were deposited in the West Siberian, Viluy andChukotka basins, while marginal marine environment existed in the Kara Sea area (Fig. 19)(Green et al. 1984, Ronov et al. 1989, Volkova & Kul’kova 1996, Kulkova & Volkova,1997, Bogdanov et al. 1998, Akhmet’ev et al. 2001, Golonka et al. 2003b, Kuz’mina &Volkova 2008).

The geodynamic evolution of the basins in the Alpine-Carpathian belt led to a transi-tion from flysch to molasse type of sedimentation (Fig. 19). Rifting events were initializedduring the Oligocene time in the several countries in Europe between France and Ukraine(Rutkowski 1986, Ziegler 1988, 1990, 1992, ¯ytko et al. 1989, Wilson & Downes 1991,Bois 1993, Wilson 1994) and were associated with the alkaline volcanism. According toBois (1993), extension occurred in part of the European plate, with the rifting of the Rhine,Limagne and Bresse Trough, contemporaneous of the climax of Alpine compression. Partof this rift system included the Gulf of Lions, associated with the mantle plume, expressedby volcanics in the Massif Central and Provence and on Corsica and Sardinia (Wilson &Downes 1991). Rifting in this area was followed by oceanic seafloor spreading and driftingof the Corsican and Sardinian plates (Bois 1993, Ricou 1996). The North Sea subsidence,renewed during the Tertiary (Joy 1992), could have been related to Central European rift-ing. This area was covered with fine-grained clastics (Berstad & Dypvik 1982, Ziegler1988, 1990, 1992, Jordt et al. 1995, 2000, Eidvin & Rundberg 2007, Japsen et al. 2008,Rasmussen et al. 2008, Marcussen et al. 2009).

Seafloor spreading continued in the North Atlantic, with further opening of the Eur-asian Basin in the Arctic (Kristoffersen 1990, Zonenshain et al. 1990). This basin was sepa-rated from the Canadian basin by the Lomonosov Ridge.

Svalbard moved away from Greenland (Livsic 1992, Manby & Lyberis 1996) alongright-lateral strike slip transforming the previously sheared margin into a passive margin.The West Svalbard orogenic belts are considered by Lyberis & Manby (1999a) as strike--slip or transpressive orogen resulting from the continental collision and lateral escape.En-echelon folds, flower structures, and local extensional features were interpreted as evi-dence for transpressive deformation. The compressional aspects of the orogenic belt havealso been emphasized (Golonka 2000, 2002). The Central Spitsbergen Basin area devel-oped as a foreland at this time.

Mature seafloor spreading in the Southern Hemisphere led to northward movement ofthe continents. Rapid spreading continued between Australia and Antarctica (Lawver &Gahagan 1993). Formation of the Scotia Sea plate reached the Drake Passage, whichallowed the circum-Antarctic seaway to develop (Lawver et al. 1992, Macdonald et al.2003). Mixed clastics were deposited on the South American and Antarctic Margins withaddition of carbonates in the Falkland area (Fig. 20) (Ronov et al. 1989, Richardson &Underhill 2002, Ford & Golonka 2003, Kiessling et al. 2003, Scheibner & Speijer 2008,Wilson 2008). Fine-grained and mixed clastic dominated along African Margins, while se-dimentation of continental clastics continued within the African basins (Bumby & Guiraud2005). Carbonate occurrences took place on Madagascar (Golonka 2000, 2002). Seafloorspreading continued between Australia and Antarctica.

532 J. Golonka

A major cooling trend took place, with highly variable continental climates, associatedwith latitudinal and orographic effects. An ice sheet formed on the southern hemisphere(Fig. 20) (Golonka 2000, 2002, Pfuhl & McCave 2005, Golonka et al. 2006, Ivany et al.2006, Pekar et al. 2006, Barker et al. 2007, DeConto et al. 2008, Francis et al. 2008,Siegert et al. 2008). According to Abreu & Baum (1997), the isotope curve indicates thatthe ice sheet on Antarctica experienced phases of growth during the Late Eocene to EarlyOligocene, followed by a decrease in volume in the Late Oligocene. The onset of Antarc-tica glaciation was related to the opening of seaway around Antarctica (Lawver et al. 1992,Golonka 2000, 2002, Golonka et al. 2006).

Early Miocene

This was a time of mature seafloor spreading globally, with local rifting events as wellas of continental collisions in the Alpine-Himalayan belt (Fig. 21). Central Atlantic Oceancontinued its spreading. Subduction and orogenesis continued along the entire Cordillera ofNorth and South America (Figs 21, 22). The rate of motion of South America, relative tothe mantle, slowed during the Early Miocene times (Pindell & Tabbutt 1995). The Antillesarc continued its eastward movement. The Panamanian Isthmus was established with stillopen seaways. Strike-slip fault was active between Cuba and Hispaniola plates causingtranspressive deformations (Burke 1988, Ross & Scotese 1988, Pindell & Barrett 1990,Ave Lallemant 1997, Golonka 2000, 2002, Audemard & Audemard 2002, Golonka et al.2006, Iturralde-Vinent 2006, Pindell et al. 2006, García-Gasco 2008). Another strike-slipfault was located between Caribbean and South American plates.


Fig. 20. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of South Atlantic, southwestern IndianOcean and adjacent areas during Oligocene times

Fig. 20. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i litofacji po³udniowego Atlantyku, po³udniowo--zachodniego Oceanu Indyjskiego oraz obszarów s¹siednich w oligocenie

534 J. Golonka

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Both transpressive and transtensive deformations with rifts were present in this area.Fine-grained clastics dominated the entire Caribbean area. Volcanoes were active alongLesser Antilles (Donnelly 1973, Brown et al. 1977, Wadge 1984). The Amazonian realm aswell as the area adjacent to the Andean thrustbelt in South America was covered by conti-nental clastics with coals and with marine incursions in its eastern part (Fig. 22) (Pindellet al. 1991, Lamb et al. 1997, Olivero & Martinioni 2001, Golonka 2002, Ford & Golonka2003, Hervouët et al. 2005, Jordan et al. 2007). Fine-grained clastics, locally with turbi-dites and carbonates, were deposited along South American eastern margin. Accretionaryprism developed along the western margins of South America and Central America. Conti-nental, deltaic and shallow-marine clastics, large carbonate platforms continued on Yucatanand on Bahama platform, as during previous time slices, and fine-grained clastics filleddeeper part of the Gulf (Ronov et al. 1989, Galloway & Williams 1991, Brewster-Wingardet al. 1997, Xue 1997, Watkins 1999, Galloway et al. 2000, Budd 2002, Ford & Golonka2003, Kiessling et al. 2004, Rosenfeld 2005, Wilson 2008).

The Atlas System in North Africa was uplifted and inverted supplying continentalclastic to the surrounding areas (Fig. 22). The Alboran Sea extensional basin developed inthe western Mediterranean behind the arc located between Iberia and Northern Africa(Morley 1993, Watts et al. 1993, Vissers et al. 1995). Fine-grained clastics and carbonateswere deposited on the Northern African margins while interiors of Northern Africa likeduring the previous time slices were filled with continental clastics, mainly sands andgravel mounds (Said 1983, Coward & Ries 2003, Ford & Golonka 2003, Bumby &Guiraud 2005, Swezey 2009).


Fig. 22. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of Central Atlantic and adjacent areasduring Early Miocene times

Fig. 22. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i litofacji Atlantyku centralnego oraz obszaróws¹siednich we wczesnym miocenie

The collision of India and Eurasia continued. Metamorphism and crustal thickeningreached a peak pre-20 Ma in eastern Kashmir (Searle 1996). The exhumation was wide-spread in the Himalayas (Yin & Harrison 2000, White et al. 2002, Steck 2003, Thiede et al.2005, Kirstein et al. 2006, Caddick et al. 2007, Rutter et al. 2007). The development of themolasse basins continued in the Himalayan belt foreland (Burbank et al. 1996). Deltaicclastic sequences represented by fluviatile coastal plain, lagoonal and tidal flat complex,barrier island and offshore marine shelf were identified in several places along the easternmargin of India (Babu 2006). The large Ganges delta and fan was already developed duringthis time filled with deposits derived from the Himalayas (Najman et al. 2008.)

Rifting and formation of seaways with fine-grained clastic sedimentation continued inthe Red Sea and in the Gulf of Aden while continental rifting continued in Ethiopia (LePichon & Francheteau 1978, White & McKenzie 1989, Huchon et al. 1991, Menzies et al.1992, Vrielynck et al. 1997, Tesfaye et al. 2003, Hughes & Johnson 2005). The East AfricaRift System was in early stages of development (Girdler 1991, Golonka 2000, 2002, 2004,Golonka et al. 2006). Uplift and volcanics emplacement in the southern part of Arabianplate was related to these rifting events (Fig. 23). Carbonates were deposited on the north-eastern and eastern margins of Arabia (Whittle & Alsharhan 1994, Whittle et al. 1996,Alsharhan & Nairn 1997, Kiessling et al. 2003, Dull 2005, El-Saiy & Jordan 2007).

536 J. Golonka

Fig. 23. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of southeastern Asia, Indian Ocean andadjacent areas during Early Miocene times

Fig. 23. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i litofacji Azji po³udniowo-wschodniej, OceanuIndyjskiego oraz obszarów s¹siednich we wczesnym miocenie

The Indo-Chinese pull-apart basins continued to develop. Subsidence was rejuvenatedin the East China Sea (Kong 1998). The opening of the South China Sea continued, witha change in the direction from north-south to NW-SE (Lee & Lawver 1994). Sea-floorspreading began in the Japanese Sea. This back-arc spreading in the Sea of Japan wasaccompanied by rotation and movement of the Japanese plates (Ingle 1992, Tamaki et al.1992, Jolivet et al. 1994, Kong 1998). Closing of the proto-South China Sea continued(Lee & Lawver 1994). The Australian plate continued a rapid northward movement, untilthe onset of the collision of its northern New Guinea margin with the Melanesian arcslowed down this motion (Longley 1997). Large carbonate platform developed on thenorthern Australian shelf (Davies et al. 1989, Cook 1990, Li & Powell 2001, Kiessling et al.2003, Moss et al. 2004, Wilson 2008).

In the Red River Fault Zone, which marks the boundary between the South China andIndochina blocks, main activity occurred in two phases: during sinistral ductile shear activein 27–16 Ma, followed by exhumation and uplift from a depth of 20–25 km, and as dextral,predominantly brittle shear active in Plio-Quaternary times (cf. Allen et al. 1984, Tappo-nnier et al. 1990, Lacassin et al. 1993, Leloup et al. 1995, Cuong & Zuchiewicz 2001 andreferences therein, Golonka et al. 2006). Wang et al. (1998) maintain that the sinistralshearing took place between 27 and 17 Ma. However, recent fission-track studies indicatethat the main period of ductile deformation in the RRFZ was finished by 25 Ma or 26 Ma(¯elaŸniewicz et al. 2005, Golonka et al. 2006, Anczkiewicz et al. 2007), and new struc-tural and geochronological data appear to document the polyphase ductile shear active be-tween Early Cretaceous through Miocene times, which included dextral, sinistral, dextraltranspression, and sinistral transtension regimes (¯elaŸniewicz et al. 2005). The Late Mio-cene change of the sense of motion is commonly related to the history of collision betweenIndia and Eurasia (Tapponnier et al. 1986, 1990, Schaerer et al. 1994, Harrison et al. 1995,Golonka et al. 2006). The amount of sinistral offset along the Red River Fault Zone hasbeen estimated at 330±60 km (Lacassin et al. 1993) to 500–700 km (Tapponnier et al.1990, Leloup et al. 1995). This left-lateral transtension along The Red River Fault Zonecaused rapid subsidence of the Song Hong Basin (Nielsen et al. 1999). The depositional en-vironments in this basin varied widely during Late Oligocene-Early Miocene times, fromfluvial, estuarine, and deltaic to offshore marine with the deposition of sandstones andmudstones. According to Hall et al. (2008), great thicknesses of Cenozoic sediments arepresent in Borneo and circum-Borneo basins. Carbonates were deposited on the Luconiaplatform (Zampetti et al. 2004, Bracco Gartner et al. 2005, Vahrenkamp et al. 2005).

A carbonate platform still persisted in the former Tethyan region in North Africa, theTaurus-Zagros area and in small areas in Turkey and Greece (Figs 23, 24) (Dercourt et al.1993, Philip et al. 1996, Kiessling et al. 2003, Scheibner & Speijer 2008, Wilson 2008).

Collisions continued in the area between Africa and Eurasia. Thrusting occurred in theRiff area in Africa and the Betic area in the southern Spain, due to the collision of theAlboran Sea arc (Morley 1993, Vissers et al. 1995). The movement of Corsica and Sardiniacaused the plates to push eastwards in the future, resulting in deformation of the Al-pine-Carpathian system (Golonka et al. 2000). This deformation reached as far as to Roma-nia and continued throughout the Neogene. The Calabrian terranes in the Western Mediter-ranean continued to progress eastwards (Dewey et al. 1989, van Dijk & Okkes 1991).


The thrust-and-foldbelt of the Apennines began to develop (Pialli & Alvarez 1997).The Apulia and the Alpine-Carpathian terranes were moving northwards, colliding with theEuropean plate, until 17 Ma (Decker & Peresson 1996). Oblique collision between theNorth European plate and the overriding Western Carpathian terranes led to the develop-ment of the outer accretionary wedge, the built up many flysch nappes and the formation ofa foredeep (Golonka et al. 2000). This process was completed in the Vienna basin area andthen progressed northeastwards (Oszczypko 1997, 1998). The Eastern Mediterranean Sea(Fig. 24) began to be subducted beneath the newly formed Eurasian margin (Vrielynck etal. 1997). The subduction active zone was located north of the Ionian and Levantine basin.Crustal extension of the internal zone of the Alps started in the Early Miocene, during thecontinued thrusting (Decker & Peresson 1996). The Early to Middle Miocene extensionand back-arc type rifting resulted in the formation of the intramountain Pannonian basin(Fig. 24) in Central Europe (Royden 1988, Decker & Peresson 1996, Tari et al. 1997,Golonka et al. 2000, Golonka 2004, 2006). According to Hámor et al. (2001), 24–18 MaPannonian Basin entered its early synrift phase. A new period of extension began in thePontides-Sakariya continent in Turkey (Yilmaz et al. 1997, Golonka 2004). The collisionof India and Eurasia influenced the Central Asia Area through the development offar-reaching strike-slip faults. Several blocks were deformed and thrust over the Turan plat-form in the Pamir, Afghan-Tadjik and Gissar areas. The Miocene phase of thrusting andfolding of the Kopet-Dagh Mountains in Central Asia, with a strong strike-slip componentwas a result of the final stage of collision of the Lut plate with Eurasia. The Greater Cauca-

538 J. Golonka

Fig. 24. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of Europe and adjacent areas duringEarly Miocene times

Fig. 24. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i litofacji Europy oraz obszarów s¹siednich wewczesnym miocenie

sus Ocean was closed as a result of the collision of the Lesser Caucasus and Transcaucasusblocks with the Scythian platform, and the Caucasus Mountains began to form (Zonenshainet al. 1990, Kazmin 1991, Kopp 1997, Golonka 2004, 2007). The Paratethys continued itsexistence in Eastern Europe and Central Asia with mixed coarse and fine clastic depositionand with the Maykop source-rocks (Dercourt et al. 1993, Popov et al. 1993, 2006, Abrams& Narimanov 1997, Inan et al. 1997, Devlin et al. 1999, Rögl 1999, Devlin 2000, Golonkaet al. 2000, 2006, Il’ina 2000, Brunet et al. 2003, Nevesskaya et al. 2003, Oszczypko 2006,Golonka 2007a, Piller et al. 2007, Stolyarov & Ivleva 2007, Hudson et al. 2008). In frontof the Carpathian nappes, remnant flysch basin turned into molasse basin (Golonka et al.2000, 2006). Limnic environment with fine-grained clastic and with first Miocene lignitesdeveloped in the Central European lowlands (Ziegler 1982, 1988, 1890, Piwocki 1998,Reichenbacher 2000, Szynkiewicz 2000, Eissmann 2002, Ford & Golonka 2003, Rasser etal. 2008). Rifting continued in Western Europe (Ziegler 1988, 1990, 1992, Wilson &Downes 1991, Bois 1993, Wilson 1994, Schäfer et al. 2005). Fine-grained clastics andsands continued in the orth Sea, but coarse-grained braided fluvial systems developed southof Scandinavia due to the uplift (Berstad & Dypvik 1982, Ziegler 1988, 1990, 1992, Jordtet al. 1995, 2000, Eidvin & Rundberg 2007, Japsen et al. 2008, Rasmussen et al. 2008,Marcussen et al. 2009). The Atlantic margin in Norway was uplifted during the Neogenetime (Jensen & Schmidt 1993). Intracontinental deformation in Eurasia led to the uplift andformation of the modern Ural Mountains (Puchkov 1997). Continental clastics were depos-ited in West Siberian, Kara Sea and Pechora basin (Fig. 24) (Meyerhoff 1983, Green et al.1984, Ronov et al. 1989, Volkova & Kul’kova 1996, Kulkova & Volkova 1997, Tull1997, Bogdanov et al. 1998, Musatov & Pogrebitskij 2000, Akhmet’ev et al. 2001,Golonka et al. 2003b, Kuz’mina & Volkova 2008). Marginal marine clastics and local up-lifts occurred within the Barents Sea area (R�nnevik et al. 1982, Vorren et al. 1990, 1991,Skagen 1993, Johansen et al. 1993, Musatov & Pogrebitskij 2000, Shipilov et al. 2006,Rasmussen et al. 2008).

Spreading in the North Atlantic and Arctic Eurasian Basin continued, and Icelandformed as a volcanic platform astride the North Atlantic spreading ridge (Lawver & Müller1994, Golonka 2000, 2002, Golonka & Bocharova 2000, Ford & Golonka 2003, Golonkaet al. 2003b). Connection between the Atlantic and Eurasian Basin was well establishedduring Early Miocene times (Fig. 24). Clastics, mainly fine-grained, locally with volcanicswere deposited along North Atlantic and Eurasian margins (Ziegler 1988, 1990, Joy 1992,Bull & Masson 1996, Ford & Golonka 2003, Golonka et al. 2003b, Laberg et al. 2005,Agterberg et al. 2007, Rasmussen et al. 2008).

Spreading between Africa, South America and Antarctica as well as between Australiaand Antarctica and Africa continued (Lawver et al. 1985, Nürnberg & Müller 1991,Lawver & Gahagan 1993, Golonka 2000, 2002, Golonka & Ford 2003, Macdonald et al.2003). Right lateral strike-slip fault was active between Scotia Sea plate and Antarctica(Lawver et al. 1992, Maldonado et al. 1998, 2005, Golonka 2000, 2002, Barker 2001,Eagles et al. 2005). Mixed clastics were deposited on the South American, African andAntarctic margins (Fig. 25) with addition of carbonates in the South African area (Dingle &Hendry 1984, 1989, Clemson et al. 1997, Billups et al. 2002, Richardson & Underhill2002, Ford & Golonka 2003, Kiessling et al. 2003, Maldonado et al. 2005, Wigley &


Compton 2006, Parras et al. 2008). Sedimentation of continental clastics continued withinthe African basins, also large areas of southern South America werecovered with continen-tal clastics containing coals and volcanics in the Andean foreland (Pindell & Tabbutt 1995,Barreda 1996, Limarino et al. 2001, Olivero & Martinioni 2001, Rodriguez & Littke 2001,Ford & Golonka 2003, Dávila et al. 2004, Bumby & Guiraud 2005, Marenssi et al. 2005,Dávila & Astini 2007, Torres Carbonell et al. 2008).

Middle Miocene

Spreading in the Atlantic and Indian oceans continued, with a westward drift of theAmericas and northward drifting of Africa, Eurasia and Australia (Fig. 26). South Americamoved faster than North America while Australia moved faster than Eurasia (Müller et al.1997, Nürnberg & Müller 1991, Royer & Sandwell 1989). The rate of motion of SouthAmerica again increased relative to the mantle (Pindell & Tabutt 1995).

The Andes were rejuvenated with crustal shortening, uplift and an increase of volcanicactivity and with further development of foredeep filled with marine in the northern part,marginal marine and continental clastics, locally with coals (Pindell et al. 1991, Lamb et al.1997, Olivero & Martinioni 2001, Golonka 2002, Ford & Golonka 2003, Hervouët et al.2005, Duerto et al. 2006, Jordan et al. 2007). Continental clastics were also depositedwithin the Amazonian basins (Fig. 27).

540 J. Golonka

Fig. 25. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of South Atlantic, southwestern IndianOcean and adjacent areas during Early Miocene times

Fig. 25. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i litofacji Po³udniowego Atlantyku, po³udniowo--zachodniego Oceanu Indyjskiego oraz obszarów s¹siednich we wczesnym miocenie.


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Subduction zone developed along the southern margin of the Caribbean plate, whileleft-lateral strike-slip fault was still active along its northern margin (Burke 1988, Ross& Scotese 1988, Pindell & Barrett 1990, Hoorn et al. 1995, Ave Lallemant 1997, Golonka2000, 2002, Audemard & Audemard 2002, Summa et al. 2003, Golonka et al. 2006,Iturralde-Vinent 2006, Pindell et al. 2006). Hispaniola moved to the position southwest ofCuba. Carbonates were abundant along the northern and southern Caribbean boundary andlarge carbonate platform existed between Nicaragua and Hispaniola, on Cuba, Yucatan,Florida and Bahamas (Brewster-Wingard et al. 1997, Budd 2002, Ford & Golonka 2003,Kiessling et al. 2003, Baron-Szabo 2005, Mutti et al. 2005, Rosenfeld 2005, Johnson &Pérez 2006, Wilson 2008). Fine-grained clastic were deposited in the Lesser Antillesback-arc basin and in the accretionary prism (Speed et al. 1989, Torrini & Speed 1989,Bouysse & Westercamp 1990, Donovan et al. 2003, Ford & Golonka 2003, Gorney et al.2007). Deep Gulf of Mexico was still filled with deep-water clastics, with deltaic systemsdeveloped along the northern margin (Watkins 1999, Galloway et al. 2000). Deposition offine-grained clastics, locally with turbidites and carbonates continued along South Ameri-can eastern margin and Northern African western margins.

Continental clastics, mainly sands and gravel mounds filled basins within the interiorsof Northern Africa like during the previous time slices (Said 1983, Coward & Ries 2003,Ford & Golonka 2003, Bumby & Guiraud 2005, Swezey 2009). The continued of thrustingoccurred in the Riff area in Africa and in the Betic area in southern Spain as a result of thecollision of the Alboran Sea arc with the Africa and Iberian plates (Morley 1993, Visserset al. 1995).

542 J. Golonka

Fig. 27. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of Central Atlantic and adjacent areasduring Middle Miocene times

Fig. 27. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i litofacji Atlantyku centralnego oraz obszaróws¹siednich w œrodowym miocenie

The collision of India and Eurasia continued, with a strong, northwest motion compo-nent. Thrusting was active in the High Himalayas about 21–18 Ma (Fig. 28). The north-ward movement of India caused the opening of the Andaman Sea (Curray et al. 1982, Lee& Lawver 1994).

The opening of the South China Sea ended (Fig. 28) (Taylor & Hayes 1980, Holloway1982, Lee & Lawver 1994, Hall 1998, 2002). The Sulu Basin in SE Asia opened as a resultof the subduction along the northeastern margin of Kalimantan (Lee & Lawver 1994).Spreading in Marianas, in the Eastern Pacific, began at 15 Ma (Scott & Kroenke 1980). TheSea of Japan went through its second episode of opening (Ingle 1992, Tamaki et al. 1992,Jolivet et al. 1994). In Southeast Asia, the North Palawan microcontinent collided withKalimantan and with the West Philippine Archipelago (Taylor & Hayes 1980, 1983, Hollo-way 1982, Lee & Lawver 1994, Almasco et al. 2000). The collision with the Philippines re-sulted in a change of subduction polarity to a westward one, along the east margin of Phil-ippines, at the Philippine trench (Lee & Lawver 1994). An eastward-dipping subductionzone developed along the Manila Trench. The left-lateral Philippine fault initiated motionbetween the East and West Philippines (Fig. 28). Motion began along the Sumatra FaultSystem at this time, and was responsible for crustal shortening in northwestern Sumatra(Huchon & LePichon 1984, Lee & Lawver 1994). Southwestern Japan rapidly rotated ina clockwise direction (Ingle 1992, Tamaki et al. 1992, Jolivet et al. 1994). The Izu-BoninArc collided with central Japan (Kong 1998, Kong et al. 2000).


Fig. 28. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of southeastern Asia, Indian Ocean andadjacent areas during Middle Miocene times

Fig. 28. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i litofacji Azji po³udniowo-wschodniej, OceanuIndyjskiego oraz obszarów s¹siednich w œrodowym miocenie

As was mentioned above, the left-lateral movement along the Red River Fault Zoneceased by Mid-Miocene. The change of displacement direction is expressed in the SongHong Basin by the distinct unconformity near the base of Mid-Miocene, which in placesshows deep channel incision and lateral shift of depocenters (Nielsen et al. 1999). Thickprograding deltaic units of sandstones, siltstones, mudstones, and brown coal were depos-ited in Middle-Late Miocene times in the northern part of the basin as well as in the on-shore Hanoi trough (Fig. 28). According to Hutchison (2004), the end of rifting in thesouthern part of South China Sea is expressed by Mid-Miocene unconformity followed bythick post-rift sequences. According to Wang et al. (2000), the cessation of sea-floorspreading in South China, coincide with continuous basaltic eruption since ~16 Ma. Thisigneous activity produced alkali basalts, basanite, trachy basalts and basaltic trachy ande-site. They are widely distributed in Vietnam. Clastics prevailed in forarc basins along theSunda Arc offshore Indonesia (Hutchison 1989, Golonka et al. 2006).

The Gulf of Aden went through the spreading phase (Fig. 28), while rifting continuedin the Red Sea and East Africa Rift System (Le Pichon & Francheteau 1978, White &McKenzie 1989, Girdler 1991, Huchon et al. 1991, Menzies et al. 1992, Vrielynck et al.1997, Golonka 2000, 2002, 2004, Tesfaye et al. 2003, Hughes & Johnson 2005, Golonkaet al. 2006).

Mountains reached its main thrusting stage (Fig. 29) due to collision of Arabia andIranian plates (Berberian & Berberian 1981, Dercourt et al. 1993, Alavi 1994, Golonka2004, Fakhari et al. 2008, Heydari 2008). Foredeep developed in front of the Zagros thrust.

544 J. Golonka

Fig. 29. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of Europe and adjacent areas duringMiddle Miocene times

Fig. 29. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i litofacji Europy oraz obszarów s¹siednich w œrodko-wym miocenie

Southwestern part of Arabia was uplifted while clastic sedimentation prevailed in its north-eastern part with remnant carbonate platform in the center (Whittle & Alsharhan 1994,Whittle et al. 1996, Alsharhan & Nairn 1997, Kiessling et al. 2003, Dull 2005, El-Saiy &Jordan 2007). Volcanics were emplaced in the northwestern part of this plate (Saif & Shah1988, Lustrino & Sharkov 2006, Krienitz et al. 2007).

The collision of India and Eurasia influenced the Central Asia area through the devel-opment of far-reaching strike-slip faults (Fig. 29). Several blocks were deformed and thrustover the Turan platform in the Pamir, Afghan-Tadjik and Gissar areas. The Miocene phaseof thrusting and folding of the Kopet-Dagh Mountains in Central Asia, with a strongstrike-slip component was a result of the final stage of collision of the Lut plate with Eur-asia. The Greater Caucasus Ocean was closed as a result of the collision of the Lesser Cau-casus and Transcaucasus blocks with the Scythian platform, and the Caucasus Mountainsbegan to form (Zonenshain et al. 1990, Kazmin 1991, Kopp 1997, Golonka 2000, 2004,2007a). The Alborz trough in the South Caspian Sea opened, and extension progressed intothe West Turkmen Depression in Central Asia (Golonka 2007a). The southwestern part ofthe South Caspian basin was reopening, while the northwestern part was gradually reducedin size. The South Caspian Microcontinent or Godin uplift (e.g. Nadirov et al. 1997) sepa-rated the southwestern part of the South Caspian basin and the Western Turkmenistan area.

The opening of the Tyrrhenian Sea (Spadini et al. 1995) as well as Valencia Trough(Vegas 1992, Torres et al. 1993, Golonka 2004) was initiated. Extension in the Alpine--Carpathian system continued. Extension also occurred in the Apennines (Carmignani et al.1994, Anelli et al. 1996, Golonka 2004). Strike-slip in the Pannonian basin (Decker &Peresson 1996) contributed to the formation of pull-apart elements of the Pannonian sys-tem. Tertiary magmatism was crossing the Carpathians between Moravia and Upper Silesia,on one side, and the Pannonian Basin, on the other. Mantle doming contributed to crustalstretching (Golonka et al. 2000, Golonka & Bocharova 2000, Golonka 2004, Golonka &Picha 2006). The Calabrian arc and subduction zone collided with Africa and the SouthernSicilian-Maltese platform (Dewey et al. 1989, van Dijk & Okkes 1991, Ricou 1996). Thewing of this collision formed the southern Apennines. Thrusting also continued in thenorthern Apennines. The formation of the West Carpathian thrusts was completed(Golonka et al. 2000, Golonka 2004). The thrust front was still migrating eastwards in theEastern Carpathians. The Paratethys continued its existence in Eastern Europe and CentralAsia with mainly fine clastic and carbonate deposition (Fig. 29) (Dercourt et al. 1993, Rögl1999, Golonka et al. 2000, 2006, Il’ina 2000, Nevesskaya et al. 2003, Oszczypko 2006,Popov et al. 2006, Piller et al. 2007). Brown coals were abundant in the limnic environmentsin the Central European lowlands (Ziegler 1982, 1988, 1890, Piwocki 1998, Reichenbacher2000, Szynkiewicz 2000, Eissmann 2002, Ford & Golonka 2003, Rasser et al. 2008). Riftingcontinued in Western Europe (Ziegler 1988, 1990, 1992, Bois 1993, Wilson & Downes1991, Wilson 1994, Schäfer et al. 2005).

Spreading in the North Atlantic and Arctic Eurasian Basin continued (Figs 26, 29) andIceland formed as a volcanic platform astride the North Atlantic spreading ridge (Lawver &Müller 1994). Strike-slip motion was initiated between Greenland and Svalbard. Fine--grained clastics were deposited along North Atlantic and Eurasian margins (Ziegler 1988,1990, Joy 1992, Bull & Masson 1996, Ford & Golonka 2003, Golonka et al. 2003b, Laberget al. 2005, Agterberg et al. 2007, Rasmussen et al. 2008).


Areas of continental clastic deposition in West Siberian, Kara Sea and Pechora basin(Fig. 28) were enlarged (Meyerhoff 1983, Green et al. 1984, Ronov et al. 1989, Volkova &Kul’kova 1996, Kulkova & Volkova 1997, Tull 1997, Bogdanov et al. 1998, Musatov &Pogrebitskij 2000, Akhmet’ev et al. 2001, Golonka et al. 2003b, Kuz’mina & Volkova2008). Marginal marine and shallow-marine clastic deposition was also present in thesouth-eastern Kara Sea. Miocene marginal marine, shallow marine and continental clasticswith lignites occurred in New Siberian Islands (Kos’ko & Trufanov 2002). Continentalclastic deposition prevailed in the Barents Sea area, shallow marine and marginal environ-ment occurred only in the southern part of the basin (Ronnevik et al. 1982, Vorren et al.1990, 1991, Skagen 1993, Johansen et al. 1993, Musatov & Pogrebitskij 2000, Shipilovet al. 2006, Rasmussen et al. 2008). A seaway with fine-grained sedimentation connectedBarents and Kara seas.

Spreading in the southern Atlantic oceans continued, with a westward drift of SouthAmerica and northward drifting of Africa (Lawver et al. 1985, Nürnberg & Müller 1991,Lawver & Gahagan 1993, Golonka 2000, 2002, Golonka & Ford 2003, Macdonald et al.2003). A right lateral strike-slip fault was still active between Scotia Sea plate andAntarctica during Middle Miocene times (Lawver et al. 1992, Maldonado et al. 1998, 2005,Golonka 2000, 2002, Barker 2001, Eagles et al. 2005). Mixed clastics were deposited onthe South American, African and Antarctic Margins (Fig. 30) with addition of carbonatesoffshore southern Brasil (Dingle & Hendry 1984, 1989, Clemson et al. 1997, Billups et al.2002, Richardson & Underhill 2002, Ford & Golonka 2003, Kiessling et al. 2003,Maldonado et al. 2005, Wigley & Compton 2006, Parras et al. 2008).

546 J. Golonka

Fig. 30. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of South Atlantic, southwestern IndianOcean and adjacent areas during Middle Miocene times

Fig. 30. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i litofacji po³udniowego Atlantyku, po³udniowo--zachodniego Oceanu Indyjskiego oraz obszarów s¹siednich w œrodowym miocenie

The rate of motion of South America again increased relative to the mantle (Pindell &Tubutt 1995). The Andes were rejuvenated with crustal shortening, uplift and an increaseof volcanic activity. The marine inundation of the Argentina coastal basins occurred duringthe Neogene high sea-level and climatic optimum at 17–15 Ma. This optimum was fol-lowed by a cooling period. According to Lewis et al. (2007), the glacial record fromAntarctica provides terrestrial evidence linking middle Miocene global climate cooling toa permanent reorganization of the Antarctic cryosphere and to subsequent growth of the po-lar East Antarctic Ice Sheet.

Sedimentation of continental clastics continued within the African basins and of partof southern South America in the Andean foreland (Pindell & Tabbutt 1995, Barreda 1996,Limarino et al. 2001, Olivero & Martinioni 2001, Rodriguez & Littke 2001, Ford &Golonka 2003, Dávila et al. 2004, Bumby & Guiraud 2005, Marenssi et al. 2005, Dávila &Astini 2007, Torres Carbonell et al. 2008). Deltas of Orange and Limpopo rivers suppliedcoarse clastics (Goudie 2005, Bluck et al. 2007). Clastics, mainly fine-grained with silica,diatomaceous ooze and glauconite were deposited on Falkland Plateau (Muza & Wise1983, Richardson & Underhill 2002, Ford & Golonka 2003, Kiessling et al. 2003).

Late Miocene-Pliocene

This was the time of the assembly of continents (Fig. 31). Large masses of continentsand continental shelves were situated around the North Pole. The mountain building pro-cess continued in the Andes (Pindell & Tabbutt 1995). Late Miocene-Pliocene compressionoccurred also in East Venezuela (Eva et al. 1989). Shortening took place in Central Andes(Lamb et al. 1997). Crustal shortening, nappe emplacement and uplift of Northern Andeswere followed by further development of foredeeps (Fig. 32). These foredeeps were filledmainly with continental coarse-grained clastics (Pindell et al. 1991, Lamb et al. 1997,Olivero & Martinioni 2001, Golonka 2002, Ford & Golonka 2003, Hervouët et al. 2005,Duerto et al. 2006, Jordan et al. 2007). Marine incursions occurred only in Venezuela. Alsointer-Andean basins had developed (Pindell & Tabbutt 1995). Erosion of Andes producedmassive volume of molasse detritus. The Amazonian basin became narrow, with coarsecontinental clastic deposition. Increased orogenic activity enhanced continental drainageNarrow continental margins with deltaic deposits were common along the north-easterncoast of South America. Large volumes of clastic sediments were delivered to deltas andthe deep-sea Amazon and Orinoco fans (Fig. 32). Increased deposition on continentalshelves helped to bury and mature older organic-rich deposits. Carbonates played minorrole in this area.

A strike-slip fault along the northern margin of Caribbean area displayed only minoractivity, while subduction zone was active along the southern margin of the Caribbean plate(Burke 1988, Ross & Scotese 1988, Pindell & Barrett 1990, Hoorn et al. 1995, AveLallemant 1997, Golonka 2000, 2002, Audemard & Audemard 2002, Summa et al. 2003,Golonka et al. 2006, Iturralde-Vinent 2006, Pindell et al. 2006). On the Atlantic side,subduction was active along the southern part of the Lesser Antilles arc (Fig. 32). Deposi-tion of fine-grained clastics continued the Caribbean-Atlantic margins as well as in theLesser Antilles back-arc basin (Speed et al. 1989, Torrini & Speed 1989, Bouysse &Westercamp 1990, Donovan et al. 2003, Ford & Golonka 2003, Gorney et al. 2007).


548 J. Golonka

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Deposition of carbonates continued on still active large platforms on Yucatan, south-ern part of Florida and adjacent Gulf of Mexico, and between Nicaragua and Hispaniola,while most of Cuba was uplifted and emerged (Brewster-Wingard et al. 1997, Budd 2002,Ford & Golonka 2003, Kiessling et al. 2003, Baron-Szabo 2005, Mutti et al. 2005, Rosen-feld 2005, Johnson & Pérez 2006, Wilson 2008).

The sea-way in the Central American isthmus existed during Late Miocene and was fi-nally closed during the Pliocene (e.g. Iturralde-Vinent 2006). According to Coates et al.(2004), no Pliocene deposits are recorded from either the Darien or the Panama Canal Ba-sin, and no sediments younger than 4.8 Ma have been identified in the Atrato Basin ofColombia, suggesting rapid uplift and extensive emergence of the isthmus in the latest Mio-cene. The final closure of the Central American Seaway (e.g. Bartoli et al. 2005) inducedan increased poleward salt and heat transport, strengthening of North Atlantic, intensifica-tion of moisture supply to northern high latitudes. The glaciation in the Northern Hemi-sphere followed the great, irreversible “climate crash” at marine isotope stage 2.74 Ma(Bartoli et al. 2005), which was closely related to closure of Central American seaways.According to Nesbitt and Young (1997), dramatically increased pelagic sedimentation ratesin the Venezuelan Basin since 4 Ma suggest intensification of the Atlantic equatorial cur-rent and strengthening of equatorial Atlantic summer storms (hurricanes), both of whichstrengthened the Gulf Stream current.

According to Frizon de Lamotte et al. (2009 in press), the Late Miocene-Pliocenewas time of the inversion tectonics, crustal thickening and moderate uplift of the Atlas


Fig. 32. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of Central Atlantic and adjacent areasduring Late Miocene-Pliocene times

Fig. 32. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i litofacji Atlantyku centralnego oraz obszaróws¹siednich w póŸnym miocenie-pliocenie

Mountains in Africa (Figs 32, 34). This event was related to the general uplift of continentand narrowing of West Africa-Atlantic margins shelves (Golonka 2000, 2002, Ford &Golonka 2003). Carbonate sedimentation was extensive along the Western African margins(Ford & Golonka 2003, Kiessling et al. 2003) According to Wagner (2002), the LatestMiocene-Early Pliocene organic carbon deposition was closely linked to the evolution ofthe African trade winds, continental upwelling in the eastern Equatorial Atlantic, oceanchemistry and eustatic sea level fluctuations.

Many deltas developed along the Indian Ocean (Fig. 33) margins (Agarwal et al. 1996,Qayyum et al. 1997, Uddin & Lundberg 1998, 2004, Behera et al. 2004, Golonka et al. 2006,Bouillon et al. 2007, Robinson et al. 2007, Coleman et al. 2008). Indus and Ganges deltasand fans were supplied by massive input of clastic material from erosion of uplifted Hima-layas (Giosan et al. 2006). Process of mountain building in the Himalayas and Central Asiacontinued. Metamorphism and crustal thickening reached a peak about 11–4 Ma, in NangaParbat in the High Himalayas (Searle 1996). Uplift, exhumation and formation of topo-graphic highs followed. The development of the molasse basins continued in the Himalayanbelt foreland (Burbank et al. 1996). Terrestrial, mainly coarse-grained clastics were depos-ited there. Like during the previous time slice India’s interior was uplifted, locally withcontinental clastics. The opening of the Andaman Sea continued through Late Mioceneand Pliocene times to the present day (Lee & Lawver 1994, Golonka et al. 2006).Subduction along the Manila Trench was caused the collision of the North Luzon Archwith the East Asian continental margin at Taiwan (Suppe 1981, Teng 1990, Lee & Lawver1994, Golonka et al. 2006).

550 J. Golonka

Fig. 33. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of southeastern Asia, Indian Ocean andadjacent areas during Late Miocene-Pliocene times

Fig. 33. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i litofacji Azji po³udniowo-wschodniej, OceanuIndyjskiego oraz obszarów s¹siednich w póŸnym miocenie-pliocenie

The Taiwanese thrustbelt was formed during this second phase of collision, with anestimated 200–300 km of crustal shortening. Northward movement of Australia continuedwith compression in the New Guinea-Melanesian Arc. The Timor area of the Australiancontinent collided with the Sunda Arc (Longley 1991, Golonka et al. 2006).

The Red River Fault Zone in Vietnam and adjacent part of South China went into pre-dominantly brittle shear active phase (cf. Allen et al. 1984 Tapponnier et al. 1990 Lacassinet al. 1993, Leloup et al. 1995, Cuong & Zuchiewicz 2001 and references therein, Golonkaet al. 2006). In the Song Hong Basin, according to Nielsen et al. (1999), the strike-slipactivity caused inversion structures truncated by the Late Miocene unconformity. Renewedand increased subsidence of the basin resulted in thick Latest Miocene to Quaternary sec-tion overlying the unconformity. South of Hainan, the thickness of Pliocene shelfal tobathyal mudstones is up to 5 km (Nielsen et al. 1999). The deposits in the northern part ofthe basin are dominated by offshore marine to shallow-marine mudstones, siltstones, andsandstones, with minor proportions of lagoonal and possibly fluvial deposits (Nielsen et al.1999, Golonka et al. 2006). Deposition of carbonates on the Luconia platform continued(Zampetti et al. 2004, Bracco Gartner et al. 2005, Vahrenkamp et al. 2005). A large car-bonate platform existed on the northern Australian shelf (Davies et al. 1989, Cook 1990, Li& Powell 2001, Kiessling et al. 2003, Moss et al. 2004, Wilson 2008).The spreading in theGulf of Aden became a part of the main spreading of the Indian Ocean (Royer & Sandwell1989). Arabia and Ethiopia were uplifted with emplacement of alkali basaltic volcanics onboth sides of Red Sea (Le Pichon & Francheteau 1978, White & McKenzie 1989, Huchonet al. 1991, Menzies et al. 1992, Vrielynck et al. 1997, Tesfaye et al. 2003, Hughes &Johnson 2005). According to Bosworth et al. (2005), in the Early Pliocene the influx ofmarine waters through Bab al Mandeb increased and Red Sea sedimentation thereafter re-turned to predominantly open marine conditions with deposition of carbonate muds andreef facies (Figs 33, 34). Accretionary prism with large turbiditic fans developed along theactive margin Arabian Sea in South Iran and Pakistan (Platt et al. 1985, Critelli et al. 1990,McCall 2002, Golonka 2004, Golonka et al. 2006). The uplifted Zagros Mountains suppliedhuge amount of continental molasse coarse-clastic deposits to their foredeep (Berberian &Berberian 1981, Dercourt et al. 1993, Alavi 1994, Golonka 2004, Fakhari et al. 2008,Heydari 2008). Fine-grained to pebbly coarse-grained fluvial sandstones of the Late Mio-cene to Pliocene were deposited in eastern Saudi Arabia (Nasir et al. 2007).

Collision of Indian continent and Lut plate with Eurasia caused deformation of theCentral Asia region (Fig. 34). The system of NW-SE transform faults was developed.These faults were a predominant plate tectonic force in the Turan platform, Kopet Dagharea (Trifonov 1978, Kopp 1997, Lyberis & Manby 1999b, Golonka 2004, 2007b), andstrongly influenced the South Caspian region. The deformation connected with the SE-NWstrike slip faults were observed in Great Balkhan Area, Apsheron ridge, South Caspianarea, Alborz Mountains, and Kura Basin. The N-S strike slip movement system was proba-bly still active, but dramatically reduced. The subduction zone south of the Apsheron ridgebecame passive perhaps at the end of the Miocene, because of this SE-NW movement ofthe lithospheric plates. The collision between the South Caspian Microcontinent andScythian-Turan plate was never concluded. It appears, however, that the Apsheronsubduction zone is active again today (Artemjev & Kaban 1994, Priestley et al. 1994,


Golonka 2004, 2007b). The Jurassic-Cretaceous back-arc system oceanic and attenuatedcrust in the Cheleken and South West Caspian basin as well as Tertiary oceanic and attenu-ated crust in the Alborz basin and part of the South West Caspian Basin were lockedbetween adjacent continental plates and orogenic systems.

Maximum subsidence of the South Caspian Basin took place mainly during the Plio-cene, when more then 8,000 m to 10,000 m of sediment known as Productive Series andVariegated Series were deposited. The isolation of the Paratethys-Caspian Sea causedchanges in the water salinity. Generally, the sediments in the South Caspian area, as well asin the adjacent basin on the Scythian-Turan platform, in West Turkmenia and Kura Basinwere deposited in the marginal marine environment. The Paleo-Volga, Paleo-Amu-Dariaand Paleo-Kura rivers delivered majority of sediments.

Continuation of thrusting occurred in the Riff area in Africa as well as the Betic areain southern Spain (Fig. 34) due to the collision of the Alboran Sea arc (Morley 1993). Thisthrusting temporarily cut off the Mediterranean Sea from the Atlantic, in the Gibraltar Straitarea, causing the Messinian salinity crisis (Hsü et al. 1973, Ruggieri & Sprovieri 1976,Müller & Mueller 1991, Rouchy & Saint Martin 1992, Blanc 2006, Rouchy & Caruso2006, Ryan 2008). Deposition of the 3-km-thick evaporite suite of carbonates, marls, sul-fates, halite, potash as well as debris from the basin margin erosion took place in Mediterra-nean Sea during this crisis (Fig. 34). Compressional thrusting continued in the CalabrianArc, with accompanying strike-slip faulting and change of rotation to SE (Dewey et al.1989, van Dijk & Okkes 1991, Golonka 2000, 2002, 2004).

552 J. Golonka

Fig. 34. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of Europe and adjacent areas duringLate Miocene-Pliocene times

Fig. 34. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i litofacji Europy oraz obszarów s¹siednich w póŸnymmiocenie-pliocenie

The Tyrrhenian Sea (Channell & Mareschal 1989, Spadini et al. 1995) as well as theValencia Trough (Vegas 1992, Torres et al. 1993) went through the main phase of opening(Fig. 34). Rifting in the Pantelleria Trough, between Africa and Sicily occurred in the Plio-cene and Quaternary (Golonka 2000, 2002, 2004). A back-arc basin formed in the Aegeanarea behind the subduction zone. The main folding and thrusting phase occurred in north-western Africa, along with the formation of nappes (Burollet 1991). Carpathian thrustingprogressed east and southeastwards, with a strong element of translation (Golonka et al.2000, 2005b). The thrusting was completed during the Pliocene-Quaternary in the VranceaMountains in Romania. The eastward movement of the orogen was related to the movementof Corsica and Sardinia and the subsequent opening of the Ligurian and Tyrrhenian Sea.The extrusion caused by collision of the Apulia plate with Europe could have played a rolein the eastward movement of the orogen (Decker & Peresson 1996, Golonka et al. 2000,2005b, 2006).

Paratethys continued its existence in central, eastern Europe and central Asia withmainly marginal marine environment (Fig. 34) and fine clastic and carbonate deposition(Fig. 29) (Dercourt et al. 1993, Rögl 1999, Golonka et al. 2000, 2006, Il’ina 2000,Nevesskaya et al. 2003, Oszczypko 2006, Popov et al. 2006, Piller et al. 2007). Browncoals were abundant in the Pannonian basin. Continental, fluvial and limnic environmentscontinued in the central European lowlands with fine-grain clastic deposition (Ziegler 1982,1988, 1990, Piwocki 1998, Reichenbacher 2000, Szynkiewicz 2000, Eissmann 2002, Ford& Golonka 2003, Rasser et al. 2008). Rifting continued in Western Europe (Ziegler 1988,1990, 1992, Wilson & Downes 1991, Bois 1993, Wilson 1994, Schäfer et al. 2005).

During Neogene times, major uplift of the Norwegian mainland occurred (Golonka2000, 2002, Japsen & Chalmers 2000, Rohrman et al. 2002, Golonka et al. 2003b, Rasmus-sen et al. 2008). A thick, basinward-thickening wedge of Plio-Pleistocene fine-grainedclastic sedimentation resulted from this uplift (Ziegler 1988, 1990, 1992, Golonka 2000,2002, Eidvin et al. 2000, Laberg et al. 2005, Rasmussen et al. 2008). A thick wedge of thefine-grained sediments can also be expected in the eastern part of the East Greenland shelf(Larsen 1990, Chalmers 2000, Johnson & Gallagher 2000). According to Solheim et al.(1998) glacial deposition has taken place on the East Greenland margin at least since 7 Ma,but apparently only since 2.5 Ma on the Svalbard-Barents Sea margin. Sedimentation offine grained clastics and sands continued in North Sea main basin, while coarse-grainedbraided fluvial deposits still were deposited like in previous time slices south of Scandina-via (Berstad & Dypvik 1982, Ziegler 1988, 1990, 1992, Jordt et al. 1995, 2000, Eidvin &Rundberg 2007, Japsen et al. 2008, Rasmussen et al. 2008, Marcussen et al. 2009).

Large volumes of sediments were deposited in the south-eastern part of the BarentsSea during Pliocene-Pleistocene times (Fig. 34). Marine seaways and area of shallow ma-rine environment with fine-grained clastic deposition in the Kara Sea and southern BarentsSea basin enlarged (Meyerhoff 1983, Green et al. 1984, Ronov et al. 1989, Bogatski et al.1996, Volkova & Kul’kova 1996, Kulkova & Volkova 1997, Tull 1997, Bogdanov et al.1998, Musatov & Pogrebitskij 2000, Akhmet’ev et al. 2001, Golonka et al. 2003b,Kuz’mina & Volkova 2008). Transgression advanced mainly across the Laptev, East Sibe-rian and the Chukchi seas (Fotina 1994). Over 10 km of Cenozoic deposits was recorded ona seismic secton in the Laptev Sea rift, which is an extension of Eurasian Basin (Drachevet al. 1998, Franke et al. 2000).


Spreading between Africa, South America and Antarctica (Fig. 35) continued from theprevious time slices (Lawver et al. 1985, Nürnberg & Müller 1991, Lawver & Gahagan1993, Golonka 2000, 2002, Golonka & Ford 2003, Macdonald et al. 2003). Spreading inthe South Atlantic occurred more rapidly then in the North Atlantic (Müller et al. 1997,Nürnberg & Müller 1991). Scotia arc moved further eastward, reaching east-west spreadingridge in this area. Right lateral strike-slip fault between Scotia Sea and Antarctic peninsulawas active (Lawver et al. 1992, Maldonado et al. 1998, 2005, Golonka 2000, 2002, Barker2001, Eagles et al. 2005). Mixed clastics were deposited on the South American andAntarctic margins while carbonates were abundant around the South African margin(Dingle & Hendry 1984, 1989, Clemson et al. 1997, Billups, et al. 2002, Richardson &Underhill 2002, Ford & Golonka 2003, Kiessling et al. 2003, Maldonado et al. 2005,Wigley & Compton 2006, Parras et al. 2008). Deltas of Orange and Limpopo rivers con-tinue supply of coarse clastics (Goudie 2005, Bluck et al. 2007). Marine basins with clasticsedimentation rich in glauconite existed in Argentina (Pindell & Tabbutt 1995, Ford &Golonka 2003). Volcanics and volcanoclastic were abundant in the Andean foreland(Giacosa & Heredia 1987, Bissig et al. 2002, Ford & Golonka 2003, Gorring et al. 2003,Lagabrielle et al. 2004, Martina et al. 2006). Deposition of diatomaceous ooze andfine-grained clastics with silica, rich in radiolarians continued on Falkland Plateau (Fig. 35)(Muza & Wise 1983, Weaver 1983, Howe et al. 1997, Richardson & Underhill 2002, Ford& Golonka 2003).

554 J. Golonka

Fig. 35. Plate tectonic, paleoenvironment and lithofacies map of South Atlantic, southwestern IndianOcean and adjacent areas during Late Miocene-Pliocene times

Fig. 35. Mapa tektoniki p³yt, paleoœrodowiska i litofacji po³udniowego Atlantyku, po³udniowo--zachodniego Oceanu Indyjskiego oraz obszarów s¹siednich w pliocenie

The author is grateful to prof. Witold Zuchiewicz for the constructive remarks and todr. Micha³ Krobicki for his editorial effort.

The research was partially financially supported by grant no 4T12B 002 30 and AGHgrant 11.11.140.447. The cost of printing of color figures was covered by the Faculty ofGeology, Geophysics and Environmental Protection, AGH University of Science and Tech-nology, Krakow, Poland, AGH grant no 18.18.140.439.

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Streszczenie

Artyku³ przedstawia szczegó³owe mapy paleogeograficzne dla siedmiu przedzia³ówczasowych w obrêbie kenozoiku. Trzydzieœci piêæ map zawiera informacje dotycz¹ce tektonikip³yt, paleoœrodowiska i paleolitofacji w czasie paleocenu, eocenu, oligocenu, miocenui pliocenu. Mapy by³y skonstruowane przy u¿yciu programów PLATES i PALEOMAP.Wulkanity znacz¹ce dzia³alnoœæ plam gor¹ca pomagaj¹ przy okreœlaniu paleod³ugoœci geo-graficznej. Dane paleomagnetyczne pos³u¿y³y do oznaczenia paleoszerokoœci geograficz-nej. Informacje zawarte w szeregu globalnych i regionalnych prac zosta³y wyselekcjonowa-ne i naniesione na mapy. Mapy paleogeograficzne ilustruj¹ geodynamiczn¹ ewolucjê Ziemiod póŸnej kredy po neogen, rozrost (spreding) i tworzenie siê oceanów, zamykanie siê oce-anów, kolizje, ³¹czenie siê kontynentów i tworzenie siê nowych superkontynentów. Prze-strzenn¹ rekonstrukcjê architektury basenów w okresie ich powstawania, ekspansji, zamy-kania i inwersji oraz analizê dynamiki grzbietów œródbasenowych uzyskano, wykonuj¹cmodelowanie palinspastyczne, przy uwzglêdnieniu badañ paleomagnetycznych oraz analizystratygraficzno-facjalnej basenów i rozdzielaj¹cych je grzbietów. W obrêbie basenów wy-dzielono poszczególne strefy paleoœrodowiskowe i paleolitofacjalne.

W okresie póŸnej kredy-wczesnego paleocenu nastêpuje wyraŸne rozszerzenie Atlan-tyku równikowego (Fig. 1, 2). Podniesione kontynenty wokó³ oceanu dostarcza³y znacz-nych iloœci materia³u klastycznego. Istnia³y rozleg³e platformy wêglanowe miêdzy innymi naobszarze wysp Bahama, Florydy i Jukatanu. Trwa³y procesy tektoniczne w obszarze karaib-skim i w Andach w Ameryce Po³udniowej. P³yta indyjska by³a ulokowana na pó³kulipo³udniowej i zbli¿a³a siê w kierunku Eurazji (Fig. 3). Afryka i Arabia zbli¿a³a siê równie¿do Eurazji, na skutek rozszerzania siê Atlantyku po³udniowego (Fig. 3, 5). Kolizja pomiê-dzy jednostkami austroalpejskimi i teranem briansoñskim w Alpach rozpoczê³a siê w pa-leocenie (Fig. 4). W póŸnej kredzie-najwczeœniejszym paleocenie zamkn¹³ siê basen pie-niñskiego pasa ska³kowego i mia³a miejsce kolizja Karpat Wewnêtrznych z grzbietemczorsztyñskim. Z³o¿ony system fa³dów i nasuniêæ rozwin¹³ siê w pieniñskim pasie ska³ko-wym. Wynikiem podnoszenia siê obszarów krawêdziowych by³a ogromna iloœæ materia³uklastycznego dostarczanego do basenów fliszowych. Trwa³ rozrost pó³nocnego OceanuAtlantyckiego. Morza Labradorskiego i jego przed³u¿enia, basenu Makarowa w Arktyce(Fig. 4).

W okresie paleocenu-œrodkowego eocenu (Fig. 6–10) trwa³ dryft Ameryki Pó³nocneji Po³udniowej. Z dryftem tym zwi¹zane by³y procesy tektoniczne w Andach, Górach Ska-listych i na obrze¿ach Morza Karaibskiego w Ameryce Po³udniowej. Procesom tym towa-rzyszy³ rozwój basenów sedymentacyjnych. Trwa³a sedymentacja wêglanowa na platfor-mach wysp Bahama, Florydy i Jukatanu (Fig. 7).


Mapy Azji po³udniowej (Fig. 6, 8) przedstawiaj¹ tradycyjny punkt widzenia dotycz¹cykolizji Indii z Eurazj¹. Ocean Indyjski utworzy³ siê w wyniku ruchu Indii w kierunkupó³nocnym. Kolizja nast¹pi³a w eocenie, rozpoczynaj¹c proces tworzenia siê Himalajów.Orogeneza himalajska mia³a istotny wp³yw na rozwój tektoniczny Azji po³udniowo--wschodniej, przyczyniaj¹c siê w trzeciorzêdzie do powstania licznych basenów ekstensyj-nych. W paleocenie-eocenie trwa³o zamykanie Neotetydy przez orogenezy alpejsk¹ i hima-lajsk¹. P³yty Adria (Apulia), Alp Wschodnich (austroalpejska) i blok Karpat Wewnêtrz-nych nieustannie przesuwa³y siê ku pó³nocy (Fig. 9). Ich kolizja z p³yt¹ europejsk¹ zaczê³asiê w Alpach oko³o 47 milionów lat temu. Blok Alkapa powsta³ przez z³¹czenie AlpWschodnich, Karpat Wewnêtrznych oraz mniejszych p³yt, takich jak Bükk, bloki transdu-najski czy bukowiñsko-getycki. Zamkniêcie basenu pieniñskiego pasa ska³kowego w Kar-patach zosta³o zakoñczone i rejon ten zosta³ w³¹czony do pryzmy akrecyjnej basenu magur-skiego. W póŸnym eocenie nast¹pi³o równie¿ fa³dowanie strefy renodunajskiej. Pó³nocnyAtlantyk i Morze Grenlandzkie otworzy³y siê w paleogenie (Fig. 9). W tym czasie trwa³ te¿rozrost po³udniowego Oceanu Atlantyckiego (Fig. 10).

W okresie póŸnego eocenu (Fig. 11–15) trwa³a kontynuacja procesów tektonicznychi sedymentacyjnych wokó³ Atlantyku centralnego, Morza Karaibskiego, Zatoki Meksy-kañskiej, w Andach i w Górach Skalistych (Fig. 12). Kolizja Indii z Eurazj¹ spowodowa³atektonikê ucieczki Azji po³udniowo-wschodniej, miêdzy innymi powstanie uskoku RzekiCzerwonej (Fig. 13). Otwarcie pó³nocnego Atlantyku by³o zwi¹zane z dzia³alnoœci¹ plamkigor¹ca i pióropusza p³aszcza Islandii (Fig. 14).

W oligocenie (Fig. 16–20) otwarciu siê basenów oceanicznych wokó³ Antarktydy, to-warzyszy³o powstanie lodowców na tym kontynencie (Fig. 20). W tym czasie trwa³y te¿kolizje (Fig. 18, 19) pomiêdzy Indiami, Afryk¹ i Eurazj¹. Dosz³o do kolizji Apulii jakrównie¿ teranów alpejsko-karpackich z p³yt¹ europejsk¹. Morze Paratetydy powsta³o w Eu-ropie i Azji centralnej, przed posuwaj¹cymi siê na pó³noc pasmami orogenicznymi. Geo-dynamiczna ewolucja basenów w paœmie alpejskim doprowadzi³a do przejœcia typu sedy-mentacji od fliszu do molasy. Procesy tektoniczne i sedymentacyjne wokó³ Atlantyku cen-tralnego, Morza Karaibskiego, Zatoki Meksykañskiej, w Andach i w Górach Skalistych(Fig. 17) by³y kontynuacj¹ tych z poprzedniego okresu. Trwa³a sedymentacja wêglanowana platformach wysp Bahama, Florydy i Jukatanu (Fig. 17).

We wczesnym miocenie (Fig. 21–25) nastêpowa³o dalsze rozszerzanie siê oceanówAtlantyckiego i Arktycznego, a tak¿e dryft obu Ameryk. Procesy tektoniczne w rejonieMorza Karaibskiego i pó³nocnej czêœci Ameryki Po³udniowej doprowadzi³y do powstaniaprzesmyku panamskiego, ci¹gle zalanego przez morze (Fig. 22). Istnia³o po³¹czenie morskiepomiêdzy Atlantykiem i Pacyfikiem. Szat-burdyga³ by³ okresem g³ównej fazy orogenezyalpejskiej, formowania siê gór w obszarze alpejsko-karpackim, œródziemnomorskim, hima-lajskim i Azji centralnej (Fig. 23, 24). Kolizja Australii i Filipin z Eurazj¹ w neogeniezapocz¹tkowa³a tektonikê kompresyjn¹ w Azji po³udniowo-wschodniej. W zachodniejczêœci Tetyda zosta³a zast¹piona przez wspó³czesne Morze Œródziemne. Arabia oddzieli³asiê od Afryki, powsta³o Morze Czerwone i ryft wschodnioafrykañski (Fig. 23, 24). Ruchyprzesuwcze w rejonie Grenlandii i Svalbardu doprowadzi³y do szerokiego po³¹czeniapó³nocnego Atlantyku z basenem eurazjatyckim w Arktyce. Zaawansowany spreding trwa³na obszarze pomiêdzy Ameryk¹ Po³udniow¹, Afryk¹ i Antarktyd¹ (Fig. 25).

586 J. Golonka

W œrodkowym miocenie (Fig. 26–30) nast¹pi³o przyœpieszenie ruchu Ameryki Po³ud-niowej. Zwi¹zane z tym by³o odnowienie ruchów orogenicznych miocenie Andach i po-wstanie strefy subdukcji na po³udniowym obrze¿eniu Morza Karaibskiego (Fig. 27, 30).

Orogeneza himalajska w Azji zwi¹zana jest dalszym procesem ekstruzji Azji po³ud-niowo-wschodniej, rozwojem uskoków przesuwczych i zwi¹zanych z nimi basenów, któ-rych przyk³adem jest basen Rzeki Czerwonej w Wietnamie (Fig. 28). W okresie tympowsta³o Morze Po³udniowochiñskie. Kolizja Arabii z p³ytami irañskimi doprowadzi³a dopowstania orogenu gór Zagros. Kolizje Indii i Arabii mia³y swój wp³yw na geodynamiczn¹ewolucjê Azji centralnej, a tak¿e Kaukazu, Morza Czarnego i Morza Kaspijskiego. Na ob-szarze alpejsko-karpackim nast¹pi³a g³ówna faza kolizji Alkapy i Adrii z p³yt¹ europejsk¹.Ukoœna kolizja pomiêdzy p³yt¹ pó³nocnoeuropejsk¹ i naje¿d¿aj¹cymi na ni¹ p³ytami KarpatZachodnich prowadzi³a do rozwoju zewnêtrznej pryzmy akrecyjnej, uformowania siê sze-regu p³aszczowin fliszowych i utworzenia zapadliska przedgórskiego. P³aszczowiny by³yodk³ute od swojego pierwotnego pod³o¿a i nasuniête na paleozoiczno-mezozoiczne osadyplatformy pó³nocnoeuropejskiej pokryte czêœciowo przez utwory trzeciorzêdowe. Utworyte na Ni¿u Europejskim zawieraj¹ facje œrodowiska jeziornego z pok³adami wêgla brunat-nego (Fig. 29).

Zaawansowany spreding trwa³ na obszarze pomiêdzy Ameryk¹ Po³udniow¹, Afryk¹i Antarktyd¹ (Fig. 30). Rozwija³o siê zlodowacenie na pó³kuli po³udniowej.

W póŸnym miocenie-pliocenie (Fig. 31–35) nast¹pi³ dalszy rozwój orogenezy andyj-skiej i reorganizacja tektoniczna rejonu Morza Karaibskiego. W póŸnym miocenie ci¹gleistnia³o po³¹czenie morskie pomiêdzy Atlantykiem i Pacyfikiem (Fig. 32). Zosta³o ono zlikwi-dowane w pliocenie, kiedy przesmyk œrodkowoamerykañski (panamski) sta³ siê obszareml¹dowym. Zamkniêcie przesmyku spowodowa³o zmianê cyrkulacji oceanicznej i w konsek-wencji zmianê klimatu na ch³odniejszy oraz powstanie zlodowacenia na pó³kuli pó³nocnej.Klimat Ziemi w kenozoiku odzwierciedla etapy tektoniczne rozpadu i ³¹czenia siê kon-tynentów. Klimat zmienia³ siê od ciep³ego do wspó³czesnego okresu zimnego. Przez ca³ypaleogen i neogen a¿ po pliocen istnia³y rozleg³e platformy wêglanowe na obszarze wokó³-atlantyckim, miêdzy innymi na obszarze wysp Bahama, Florydy i Jukatanu (Fig. 32). ZatokaMeksykañska natomiast charakteryzowa³a siê sedymentacj¹ klastyczn¹ p³ytkomorsk¹ naobrze¿ach i g³êbokomorsk¹ w centralnej czêœci basenu.

Rejon obrze¿y Oceanu Indyjskiego charakteryzuje powstanie licznych delt (Fig. 33).Delty Indusu i Gangesu i ich sto¿ki siêgaj¹ce daleko w g³¹b oceanu by³y zasilane materia-³em z wypiêtrzanych i erodowanych Himalajów. Himalaje dostarcza³y te¿ materia³ kla-styczny do po³o¿onego w pó³nocnych Indiach rowu przedgórskiego. Kolizja Indii z Eurazj¹doprowadzi³a do powstania uskoków przesuwczych siêgaj¹cych w g³¹b Azji centralnej(Fig. 34). Na obszarze pomiêdzy Afryk¹ a Europ¹ w wyniku ewolucji morza Alborannast¹pi³o zamkniêcie Cieœniny Gibraltarskiej. Odciêcie Morza Œródziemnego od Atlantykuspowodowa³o kryzys salinarny. Seria ewaporatów o mi¹¿szoœci 3000 m osadzi³a siê na dniemorza. Ruchy górotwórcze mia³y miejsce w pó³nocnej Afryce. W pó³nocnej Europie mia³omiejsce wypiêtrzanie Norwegii oraz zwi¹zana z tym erozja i dostarczanie materia³u kla-stycznego do basenów pó³nocnoatlantyckich (Fig. 34). Zaawansowany spreding trwa³w dalszym ci¹gu na obszarze pomiêdzy Ameryk¹ Po³udniow¹, Afryk¹ i Antarktyd¹(Fig. 35). Delty rzeki Orange i Limpopo dostarcza³y materia³ klastyczny do basenów wokó³po³udniowej Afryki.


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PHANEROZOIC PALEOENVIRONMENT AND PALEOLITHOFACIES MAPS ...yadda.icm.edu.pl/.../c/Golonka_kenozoik.pdf · Phanerozoic paleoenvironment and paleolithofacies maps. Cenozoic 509 Fig