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Chapter- TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

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2. Review of Literature

2.1 Introduction

In this chapter the basic concepts of markets, marketing, marketing channels,

marketing system, market supply and the approaches and methods to evaluate the

efficiency of mango marketing have been discussed. The details of the review of related

books, articles, research papers, and Ph. D theses are also given in the same chapter.

2.2 Market

Kotler, 2007 stated that traditionally, market is a physical place where buyers and

sellers meet to buy and sell goods. He has defined market as a place where buyers and

sellers meet and function, goods or services are offered for sale and transfers of

ownership of title occur. According to him market is an aggregate demand by potential

buyer of a product or service.

M.M.Varma, 1999 describes market as a centre around which marketing functions

revolve. It may be described as a place where goods and services are offered for sale. At

this place buyers and sellers meet to transfer the title to goods. In brief market is a

geographical area where buyers and sellers meet to exchange goods and where

commodities are placed for sale. At this point price-making force operates; exchange

takes place, goods moves actually and title to goods transfers. Varma has given

classification of market as below,

Classification of Market

On Geographic or area basis

On Economic basis On Time basis On the basis of Business

On the basis of Importance

On the basis of Nature of Goods

On the basis of Regulation

1. Local Market 1.Perfect Market 1.Very Short Period Market

1.Wholesale Market

1. Primary Market

1Commodity 1. Regulated Market

2.National Market

2.Imperfect Market 2. Short Period Market

2. Retail Market 2.Secondary Market

Market 2.Unregulated Market or Free Market

3.International Market or World Market

3.Long Period Market

3. Terminal Market

2. Capital Market

3. Foreign Exchange Market

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Tanmay Panda, 2004, described market as a place which consists of people, goods

and services. These are having a specific monetary or utilitarian value or both, which are

exchanged to meet the needs of the individuals which facilitate their daily movement of

activities. It is presumed to be a place or physical premise without which its presence and

existence are in question. However, in the 21st Century, the concept of market has

changed which does not necessarily require a physical place. The journey from barter

system to e-commerce indicates the ever changing concept of market.

Parag Ajgaonkar, 2003, has mentioned that the concept of exchange leads to the

concept of market. Traditionally market was a place of buyers and sellers meeting. But

over period this concept has evolved which doesn’t need physical place. Now it is only

arrangement which helps for exchange. E-commerce is the result of advancement in

information and communication technology.

Ayelech Tadesse, August, 2011, has mentioned that market is more than a

physical place. Important characteristics of a market are its pricing and exchange

processes.

2.3 Marketing

Kotler, 2007, stated that marketing consist of selling and advertising. As

marketing deals with identifying and meeting human and social needs its role is crucial in

customer satisfaction. Marketing begins with identification of consumer needs and ends

with meeting those needs profitably. All the marketing decisions (product, pricing,

promotional tools, the place of sale etc.) are customer centric. And marketing is an art and

science of creating and maintaining customers.

Neil Richardson, 2011 has stated that marketing is not just about advertising. It is

not only for sales promotion but also for customer satisfaction. He has suggested that

marketing concept should be embraced by placing the customers at the heart of marketing

decisions.

According to Parag Ajgaonkar, 2003, marketing is the management, application

and satisfaction of demand through the exchange process. In narrow sense marketing is

only related with buying and selling but in broader sense it is societal process for

customer satisfaction and society welfare.

Aubrey Wilson, 2001, describes the concept of marketing as an evolutionary

rather than revolutionary. It consists of planning and executing the conception, pricing,

promotion and distribution of ideas, goods and services. This is an exchange to satisfy

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human needs and to achieve organizational objectives. Aubrey Wilson suggested that

marketer should have far more knowledge of current and past. He should be able to

forecast future. For this, system which will provide more accurate and timely information

is needed.

William Stanton, 1978 describes marketing as a total system which consists of

various functions to fulfill needs and to achieve organizational objectives. Marketing is

for converting customer purchasing power into effective demand for achieving business

targets.

Walter E. Vielra, 2002, has said that marketing is one of the world’s oldest

professions but it has also been a new field. He stated that marketing starts with consumer

and ends with consumer. Marketing involves all those functions for providing customer

satisfaction with profit.

M. M. Varma, 1999, stated that marketing is very popular but widely

misunderstood term. General meaning of marketing is purchasing and selling of products.

But it is something more than that of. It is challenging process of providing satisfaction to

customer. Recent marketing requires innovation of new ideas to market products more

effectively and efficiently.

Tanmay Panda, 2004, has described marketing as a socio-economic process. This

process is undertaken to acquire goods and services to fulfill needs through processing,

trading and exchanging. It is a complex concept which deals with identification of

consumer needs and providing satisfaction to customers with profit.

According to M.A.Matin, M.A. Baset, Q.M Alam, M.R. Karim,

M.R. Hasan,

September, 2008, marketing plays a crucial role not only in stimulating production but

also in accelerating the pace of economic development of a nation. Effective marketing

system is that which ensures higher returns to producer, reduces the number of

intermediaries and restricts the unfair practices during marketing procedure.

Ruchika Ramakrishnan, 2006 has mentioned that marketing is the last link in the

chain of production process. An efficient marketing system which ensures fair returns to

the producer is essential to induce them to produce more and more.

Ayelech Tadesse, August, 2011, has argued that marketing is a very debatable

concept. Definition of marketing is given by different ways by different scholars.

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2.4 Marketing Management

Philip Kotler, 2007 has stated that marketing management is an art & science of

choosing target markets and getting, keeping & growing customers through creating,

delivering & communicating superior customer value. Successful marketing management

includes functions like developing marketing strategies & plans, delivering value,

connecting with customers, shaping the market offerings, building strong brands,

capturing marketing insights & performance and creating successful long term growth.

Parag Ajgaonkar, 2003, mentioned strategic marketing management as a process

of creating, communicating and delivering value to consumers. It includes various

concepts like segmentation, SWOT analysis, marketing mix and target market.

Tanmay Panda, 2004, described scope of marketing management. It includes use

of all management techniques for effective utilization of marketing resources. It is

planning, organizing, directing & controlling of marketing functions. It encompasses

objectives, policies, plans, programmes & standards to achieve marketing objectives.

Marketing management is to be adjusted according to changes in internal and external

business environment.

William J Stanton, 1978, stated that marketing management is the marketing

concept in action. Marketing management is the vehicle which business uses to activate

the marketing concept.

According to Walter E. Vielra, 2002, marketing management is planned method

to carry out exchange relationships. It consists of planned and organized methods hence it

constitutes professionalisation. Proper marketing management delivers higher standard of

living to the people.

2.5 Marketing Mix

Philip Kotler, 2007, mentioned that marketing mix is the mixture of variables and

its sub variables. Marketing mix is to be adjusted according to the changes in external

business environment. Proper marketing mix is essential to achieve the marketing

objectives.

M. M. Varma, 1999 described marketing mix as blending of marketing variables.

It is combination of 4 P’s which are product, price, place and promotion. It is a plan

designed to evaluate the marketing problems. It is one of the most crucial concepts in

marketing management.

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Parag Ajgaonkar, 2003 has suggested that for providing satisfaction to the

consumers every business should prepare and focus on marketing mix. Each element of

marketing mix is to be used according to the need of situation and changing customer

needs. Right marketing mix facilitates to achieve marketing objectives. He suggested that

separate marketing mix is to be prepared for rural and urban market if company serves

both the markets.

Vinayak Paralikar, June 2010, stated that marketing manager should prepare

marketing mix by taking into consideration internal and external environment of business.

The variables of marketing mix are interrelated hence change in one variable result in to

change in other variable.

Walter E. Vielra, 2002, has given 4C’s of marketing mix in place of 4P’s. These

4C’s are Customer Value, Cost to the Customer, Convenience and Communication. He

has further stated that in 21st Century 4C’s will be replaced by 4 R’s which are Relevance,

Response, Relationships and Returns.

2.6 Market Segmentation

Philip Kotler, 2007 described market segment as a segment which consists of a

group of consumers who share a similar set of needs and wants. Markets are not

homogeneous. Consumers vary on many dimensions and often can be grouped according

to one or more characteristics. A company needs to identify which market segments it can

serve effectively.

Parag Ajgaonkar, 2003, in his book ‘Marketing’ mentioned that consumer likes

and dislikes, needs and wants purchasing power are different. Hence total market needs

are divided into homogeneous segments. In order to enhance consumer satisfaction

market is required to be segmented.

According to M.M. Varma, 1999, nature of market is heterogeneous. Customer

likes, dislikes, requirements, expectations, purchasing pattern etc. vary as per segment.

Segmentation is a process of dividing total market into groups of homogeneous

characteristics. The basic purpose of market segmentation is to prepare separate

marketing strategy for all market segments to provide full satisfaction to consumers of

different segments.

Tanmay Panda, 2004, mentioned market segmentation is a process of dividing

heterogeneous market and identifying homogeneous segments from it for a product. He

pointed out that market Segmentation is customer oriented philosophy.

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2.7 Marketing Costs

Ayelech Tadesse, August, 2011, has described marketing cost as the costs which

is incurred to do different marketing functions which are undertaken to reach the goods

from producer to consumer. It includes cost of goods handling, transportation, packing

and packaging etc.

Satyanjai Yadav, March 2012, in his research article has given the details of the

term marketing cost. Marketing costs refer all expenses required in bringing goods from

the producer to the customer. The marketing cost normally includes handling charges at

farm, assembling expenses, transportation and storage costs, handling charges by

intermediaries, expenses to obtain finance and market intelligence, market fee,

commission, taxes and other charges. (Weighing, loading, unloading and cleaning

charges)

M.A.Matin, M.A. Baset, Q.M Alam, M.R. Karim,

And M.R. Hasan September,

2008, suggested that to improve marketing efficiency knowledge of the distribution of

marketing costs among various intermediaries is essential. Marketing costs vary

according to trader. By selecting direct channel of distribution, farmers can reduce

marketing costs to get more benefits.

Walter E. Vielra, 2002, has mentioned two types of marketing cost which are

fixed marketing cost (cost of salesman to book order, the payments made in advance for

advertising etc.) and variable marketing cost (order filling cost). Marketing manager has

to take efforts in such a way that it will not take too long duration to recover marketing

cost.

2.8 Marketing Information System

According to Vinayak Paralikar, June, 2010, MIS is a systematic process of

collecting, storing and analyzing data for right and on time marketing decisions. This

system is a data bank which continuously collects data regarding all marketing aspects

through internal and external sources to avoid delay and errors in decision making.

Ayelech Tadesse, August, 2011, stated that effective and efficient MIS is required

to provide accurate and update data on current supply, demand position, prices and

existing market conditions to the farmers and traders. Timely, required and continuous

information enables the farmers to face marketing challenges.

G.H. Dhankar, 2003 states that update and steady market information is the

essence of proper agricultural marketing system. Market information is not only the need

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of farmers but also of the intermediaries to take quick and proper decisions. It helps them

to simplify marketing procedure. In India more than 75 per cent farmers are small and

marginal farmers hence marketing information service should ideally be available to all of

them. For removal of inter and intra-state restrictions on storage and movement of

agricultural products and for better realization of prices for the produce marketing

information service is most essential.

Puja S. Gandhi- Vora, January, 2010, in her research article titled “Agriculture

Online Marketing” states that use of computers can improve the availability and delivery

of information to farmers and other market functionaries. Existing information systems

are conventional hence communication of information to the required groups is delayed.

This system has certain limitations such as delay in collection of market information and

delay and inaccuracy in dissemination through media like radio, newspaper etc. A farmer

is in need of update information about quality requirements, packing standards, prevailing

conditions and safety standards to expand market. Otherwise his scope will be limited to

local market and intermediaries will take away the major share of returns from the

regional, national and international markets.

Parag Ajgaonkar, 2003, states that MIS is a mechanism which provides data

continuously for right marketing decisions. It is a set of people, procedure and

equipments for gathering, storing and analyzing data.

2. 9 Marketing Myopia

Theodore Levitt, 2008, has mentioned that successful industries have fallen due to

more emphasis on selling than marketing. Because selling focuses on needs of seller and

marketing focuses on needs of consumers. Hence companies to ensure continued

evolution must identify the needs and desires of customers. They should not work for

producing goods but for fulfilling needs of consumers.

Michael Vaz, 2014, stated that some companies focus on product than customer.

These product oriented companies always suffer from the phenomenon of marketing

myopia. This term is coined by Prof. Theodore Levitt. Marketing myopia refers to narrow

perception of marketing. As per this term excessive attentions is given to production or to

the product or to the selling aspects and customers are ignored in the marketing process.

In modern days customer should be at the center of marketing. Production should be

according to the likes, expectations, needs are requirements of the customers.

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According to A Nag, January, 2000 the companies become victims of marketing

myopia who run after short term profit maximization, have too much faith on mass

production and follow short sighted marketing policies and programmes.

2.10 Marketing Channels

According to William Stanton, 1978, marketing channels is a business structure

for movement of products from the point of origin to the point of destination. Analysis of

marketing channel is essential to provide systematic knowledge of this movement.

Marketing channel selection is based on kind and quality of the product, marketing

services and prevailing conditions in market.

Parag Ajgaonkar, 2003 has stated that here can be no marketing without

marketing channels. Marketers have to use three kinds of marketing channels to reach

their target market which are,

1. Communication channels- Consists of the media like newspapers, radio,

Television, telephone etc. to deliver and receive messages from target customers.

2. Distribution channels- To display or deliver the physical products or services to

the buyer. It consists of warehouses, transportation vehicles and various trade channels

such as distribution, wholesalers and retailers.

3. Selling channels- This is to transact with potential buyers. It includes not only

distribution and retailers but also banks and insurance companies.

According to M. M. Varma, 1999, channels of distribution are the media to reach

the produce to the market and to the final consumers. Through this tools journey of

produce begins from production place to consumption place. In modern days, due to

demand and supply heterogeneity this process is become critical. Distribution channels

for agriculture produce vary according to product and season and it consists of a large

number of intermediaries. In case of perishable produce shorter channel is advisable.

M.A.Matin, M.A. Baset, Q.M Alam, M.R. Karim,

And M.R. Hasan September,

2008 undertaken study in order to identify the most efficient and suitable marketing

channels of mango in some selected areas of Bangladesh. Researchers found out that

mangoes move from producer to consumer through some market intermediaries such as

Bairals who have no own land, Beparis, Aratdars and retailers. Researchers have

suggested that is essential for the farmers to explore the efficient marketing channels to

obtain due returns of their hardwork.

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The research by Ali Muhammed Khushk and Laurence E. D. Smith 1996

describes the structure and operation of the marketing channels, and quantifies marketing

margins of producers and other market palyers. The researchers concluded that

distribution is an exceptionally important stage in the magno marketing. Mangoes after

harvest have to pass through several agencies before reaching the final consumers.

According to N.P. Agarwal and Arvind Jain, 2003, marketing channel can be

viewed as an orchestrated network that creates value for ultimate consumer.

M. Sudha, December, 2006, has observed that a large number of intermediaries

and many alternative channels is the main characteristic of mango market chain. And the

most common intermediary in this chain is pre-harvest contractor. Irrespective of mango

variety, type of orchard and area of mango cultivation, mangoes are mainly marketed

through pre-harvest contractors.

2.11 Supply Chain Management

Kotler, 2007, describes the supply chain as a longer channel for movement of raw

material to producer and product to consumer. The supply chain represents value delivery

system. The object of the company should be to capture a higher percentage of supply

chain value. SCM starts before physical distribution as it involves procuring the right

inputs (raw material, components and capital equipments) converting them efficiently

into finished products and dispatching them to the final destinations.

According to Sangchan Kantabutra & Phattaraporn Kalaya, 2012, supply chain

and logistics management is a strategic model which integrates business activities. This

integration is from the product developmetn to product marketing in order to meet the

customer needs. In 21st century Supply chain management (SCM) is recognized as one of

the major developments in business field which is increasingly seen to be a strategic,

highly integrative management area that.

T. Abeysekera and S.Abeysekera, December, 2006, have investigated that the

emergence of supermarkets over the last decade has changed the existing marketing

system of horticulture products. They have changed traditional marketing channels. This

is due to alternative supply chain management practices adopted by them. Especially

Indian markets are gaining due to emergence of supermarkets and their leading role. It is

suggested that individual small farmers have to supply to supermarkets jointly with other

farmers.

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M. Sudha, December, 2006, had pointed out that there are many challenges in the

supply chains of horticulture products due to their perishable nature. Efficient distribution

depends upon flow of physical resources, financial resources and information. Smooth

functioning of physical resources again depends on technology, infrastructure, financial

resources and policy.

According to Sarada Gopalakrishnan, 2013, in to realize more prices a modern

market structure should shift from mere “marketing” to “supply chain management”. It is

suggested that for successful trading of mangoes, best contribution of growers,

contractors, traders, processors, exporters and supermarket owners is essential. Other

suggestion given is to sell horticulture products through modern retail markets including

supermarkets, hypermarkets, and fruit stalls.

Ayelech Tadesse, August, 2011 in his research focused on analyzing the market

chain of fruit to identify major fruit marketing channels. It is found out that market supply

is determined by the quantity produced, education and experience of producer and his

contacts with the market players. It is suggested that mango farmers should increased

production by cultivating new mango varieties. And for increasing supply with fair return,

the best channel option is suggested which is Producer-Consumer channel. Along with

these many actions are needed to promote the development of mango market chain.

According to Guillermo E. Zúñiga-Arias, 2007, SCM is vital for understanding

the behavior of agents in mango exchange. Study suggested that efforts of middlemen in

mango supply chain are to be integrated to meet customer preferences. In order to deliver

the quality as per consumer desire, quality management, standardization and coordination

among intermediaries are so important. In case of horticulture products most of the power

is at the retailer level. It is suggested that in order to fulfill demand of national and

international market all the functionaries in mango supply chain should try to meet

international standards.

E.O. Brown, A.B. Flores, December, 2006, has suggested that in order to improve

mango supply chain existing practices and conditions are to be identified and

improvements are to be tried out. Mango quality is deteriorated along the supply chain

from orchard to market. To improve mango supply chain careful post harvest handling,

dissemination of market information and adequate infrastructure etc. measures are

required.

Suvarna Anantrao Deuskar, December, 2009 in her Ph D thesis titled “A Study of

Selected Mango Processing Units in Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg Districts” has pointed out

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that in study area maximum mango production/mango pulp is sold through the

middlemen like commission agents, distributors and brokers this is due to small scale of

operations and lack of required capital. Except the EOUs, other processing units sell

through indirect channels.

2.12 Logistics

Tanmay Panda, 2004, describes logistics as the physical supply/ movement of

goods from manufacturer to customers. This includes functions like transportation,

storage and warehousing done by the manufacturer. Logistics management is the planning

of infrastructure and implementation and control of physical flow in order to fulfill

customer requirements at a profit.

Kotler, 2007, mentioned that physical distribution is another common name for

logistics. Logistics is the management of the flow of resources, between the point of

origin and the point of destination. It is transporting, storing, and handling of goods to

fulfill the consumer needs. Only right distribution channel is not enough to deliver at right

time and in right quantity. For this place requires right logistics decisions. Though

logistics activities are invisible to consumers but breakdown in logistical activities can

lead to customer dissatisfaction. Recently large firm outsource logistics responsibility to

specialized firms.

M.M.Varma, 1999, stated that physical distribution includes various activities

mainly transportation, storage, and inventory control. These activities are performed by

the producers, wholesalers, retailers and even by the consumers. Efficiency in physical

distribution significantly influences a company’s chances for marketing success.

Sangchan Kantabutra & Phattaraporn Kalaya, 2012 revealed that logistics is seen

as a value-adding process. Ultimate aim of an organization should be competitive in terms

of price, customer service, quality and flexibility. Logistics activities for mango exporting

process consist of material handling, inventory management, storage, packaging,

transportation, and customer service. It is suggested that attention should be given to

enhance mango growers capabilities to increase export oriented mango production and to

reduce logistics costs.

William Stanton, 1978, stated that physical distribution in marketing is essentially

a problem in logistics. He has given five parts of the task of physical distribution which

are as below,

1. Confirm the inventory locations and establish a warehousing system.

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2. Establish a materials handling system.

3. Maintain an inventory control system.

4. Establish procedures to process the orders.

5. Select a method of distribution.

N.P. Agarwal and Arvind Jain, 2003, focused on physical handling of goods.

Logistic cycle comprises of materials management cycle and physical distribution cycle.

Distribution network is to reach the goods up to destination which may be final

consumers, wholesalers and retailers. The basic objective of physical handling is to

provide maximum service to the customers by creating time, place and possession

utilities.

E.O. Brown, A.B. Flores, December, 2006, have identified major areas for mango

supply chain improvements. These areas are effective distribution and logistics and

information and communication strategy which includes all chain members.

Parag Ajagaonkar, October, 2013 has mentioned the main fields within logistics

which include:

1. Procurement Logistics: To undertale market research, to plan material

requirement and to select suppliers.

2. Production Logistics: To control the flow through the supply chain from point

of origin to the end.

3. Distribution Logistics: Order processing, warehousing, transportation, material

handling and packagingto delivere finished products to the final consumer.

4. Disposal Logistics: Reverse logistics to reuse products and materials.

Michael Vaz and Aurora Vaz, 2014, have mentioned that logistics management is

the part of supply chain management which is for effective and efficient flow of goods,

services and information. The main elements/components of logistics are indicated

below;

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Figure No. 2.1 Main Elements of Logistics

2.13 Agriculture Marketing

Agriculture marketing is a process which consists of functions and agencies for

movement of farm-products and raw materials. The movement of farm products is from

farmer to consumer. Agriculture sector is the most crucial sector and backbone of Indian

economy because it is the largest contributor to GDP.

Shakeel-Ul-Rehman M. Selvaraj M. Syed Ibrahim 2012, have mentioned

agricultural marketing as a commercial function which involves transfer of agricultural,

horticultural and other allied products from farmer to consumer. Due to farmers

unawareness though India has adequate technology, it is not fully implemented. It affects

quality of agriculture produce and farmers return. Poor infrastructure, poor transport, poor

communication, limited rule of law and limited access to finance are the major constraints

in agriculture marketing which leads to market failure.

Ruchika Ramakrishnan, 2006, has revealed importance of agriculture marketing.

It is stated that disposal of the agriculture produce and return determine farmers welfare.

Before independence, Indian agriculture was stagnant and backward but after

independence its profile is totally changed and it has become a prime concern for the

planners.

Benjamin Chijioke Asogwa and Victoria Ada Okwoche, July, 2012, have stated

that the marketing of agricultural products begins at the farm but usually farm products do

Transportatio

ntTTrW

MMaterial Handling Iventory

Inventory Management

Customer Order

PorcesingHa

Logistical Packaging Packin

Wareho-using

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not go directly from the farmer to consumer. They are moved up to consumers through

many middlemen. Agriculture is the source of livelihood to majority of Indian population.

Hence it is an important tool of economic development and other sectors production

depend on agriculture production.

As per Parag Ajgaonkar 2003, agricultural marketing includes collection &

assembling, cleaning, standardization and grading, processing, packaging, warehousing,

transporting, negotiations and exchange. These activities are performed by a number of

intermediaries such as village merchants, commission agents, wholesalers, retailers,

transport operators, storage operators etc. Agriculture marketing has two aspects Input

Marketing (marketing of products required for agricultural production) and Output

marketing (marketing of agriculture produce). Accuracy, Availability, Applicability and

Analysis are the four 'A's of marketing information. Computer based market information

technology is important for providing single window service to different market

participants.

According to Shallu Gupta and Shakuntla Gupta, 2013, efficient agriculture

marketing is an important means of raising the income level of farmers and satisfaction

level of consumers. Agricultural marketing is risky and complicated due perishable nature

of produce, seasonal production, dependence on nature, lack of in time disposal, quality

deterioration, minimum value addition, illiterate and ignorant farmers, lack of uniformity

in quality, overdependence on intermediaries etc.

Forhad Shilpi Dina Umali-Deininger, 2008, has mentioned that farmers decide to

sell in a specific market on the basis of market access and his wealth level. Farmers with

high wealth level can avail of market facilities and capture a major share of the benefits.

Hence in India policies are to be framed out in such a way that more benefits of market

facilities will be enjoyed by the poor farmers.

G.H. Dhankar, 2003, has analyzed that agricultural marketing in India is changing

with a rapid pace in the era of liberalization, privatization and globalization. To face

increased foreign competition agriculture marketing should be driven, competitive, cost

effective, innovative and responsive to high tech and IT applications.

2.13.1 Deficiencies in Agriculture marketing

Parag Ajgaonkar, 2003, has described deficiencies in agriculture marketing. He

stated that the agriculture marketing is in a pathetic state. Major deficiencies in

agriculture marketing are seasonal production, preference to village market, farmers

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indebtedness, less marketable surplus, perishable nature of produce, lack of cooperatives,

too many intermediaries in supply chain, improper and inadequate infrastructure facilities,

little knowledge of marketing functions, lack of market information, unregulated markets,

illiterate and ignorant farmers, etc.

Shakeel-Ul-Rehman M. Selvaraj M. Syed Ibrahim 2012, detected several

problems and challenges involved in marketing of agricultural produce like limited access

to the market information, low level of literacy among the farmers, inadequate and

improper infrastructure facilities, export restrictions, natural calamities, draught and

uneven rainfall, subsistence farming to commercial farming, fiscal and political instability

etc. Apart from these there are many imperfections in Indian agriculture marketing

system. Still it is facing a lot of problems. Hence so much is to be done to improve the

agriculture sector of India.

Vishwas Bhosale, June, 2012 emphasized on farmers return. He mentioned that

farmers do hard work but they do not get fair and fixed market price of their produce.

And consumers have to purchase these produce at a very high price. This is due to

involvement of many intermediaries and absence of adequate and proper marketing

system in India.

Jahangir G Mulani, January 2013, has mentioned that the most important

problems in marketing of Raisin are delay in payment of raisin by the commission agent,

low quality and rates, non availability of labor in time, high cost of packing materials and

lack of modern technology for quality production.

Forhad Shilpi Dina Umali-Deininger 2008, states that the poor condition of the

rural transportation network strongly influences on the efficiency of agricultural

marketing system.

Puja S Gandhi-Vhora, January 2013 has pointed out the deficiencies in agriculture

marketing which are limited access to the market information, low literacy level of

farmers and multiple distribution channels. Numerous intermediaries in supply chain eat

away the pockets of farmers as well as consumers. Due to inadequate funding from

government still farmers prefer to informal sources of finance which are money lenders

and commission agents. These vultures eat away the benefits of the farmers.

Benjamin Chijioke Asogwa and Victoria Ada Okwoche, July, 2012, have

described in detail the problems faced by the rural farmers in Nigeria which are absence

of marketing facilities such as proper storage, transportation and processing. The most

common obstacles found are high taxes during transportation, poor rural roads, lack of

25

central market, robbery, accidents and pest. Market margin of the farmers is reduced due

to high transportation cost and exploitation by middlemen.

Kshirsagar P. J., October, 2008, has undertaken the study with an overall objective

to examine the cost and profit of kokum marketing. This study was also undertaken to

identify the problems of kokum growers and middlemen in production and marketing.

The problems identified are late bearing, wastage of fruits for want of processing,

laborious processing procedure, problems of stray cattle, low prices rates to fruits, no

demand for fruits, no standard grades followed in market for the processed products,

malpractices by the intermediaries, irregular supply of electricity and water, no incentive

by government, high taxes and duties, inadequate infrastructure, high marketing expenses

and labor shortage during peak period of processing, delay in payment, high

transportation cost, price fluctuation and lack of market information.

Shallu Gupta and Shakuntla Gupta, 2013 has pointed out that Indian agriculture

has reached at the peak production level of various crops but the nutritional security is

still a big question mark which has hampered on export promotion of agriculture

products. Due to short harvest period and perishable nature agriculture products have to

be diverted to markets immediately.

2.13.2 Measure for effective agriculture marketing.

Parag Ajgaonkar, 2013 has suggested that though there are many deficiencies in

agriculture marketing but various measures can be undertaken to make it effective. The

suggested measures are as below;

1. Regulated markets to remove the deviations of traditional markets.

2. Use of standard weights.

3. Market Information System for all market players.

4. Adequate incentives and assistance by the government.

5. Fixed floor prices for different products.

6. Proper arrangements to collect farm produce.

7. Facilities for retail outlet.

8. Development of co-operative marketing.

9. Suitable and adequate credit sources to farmers.

According to M. M. Varma, 1999, agriculture produce marketing is different from

manufacture product marketing. Agriculture marketing is a complex process which is

subject to many functions, challenges and multiple distribution channels. Agriculture

26

marketing can be effective with regular supply of accurate and update market information

to all the participants. The suggestions given are, to place the produce in market after

cleaning, to sell different qualities of products separately, to sell product after grading, to

shorten the supply chain, to transport produce smoothly, to decide on the basis of

marketing intelligence, to use proper storing facilities and to sell in regulated markets.

Ruchika Ramakrishnan, 2006 has suggested measures to improve present

agricultural marketing system in India. A good suggestion is that credit facilities should

be provided to the farmers at the time of harvest so that they will not forced to sell to

specific agents and they will sell their produce as per their choice. Contribution of

government is important in establishment of cold storage facility which will enable the

farmers to place produce in selected market at remunerative price. Other suggestions are

given that the farmers should be provided latest information of market for proper decision

making. And number of intermediaries should be reduced to increase share of farmers in

consumer price.

J. L.Hine and S.D. Ellis, 2001, in research paper titled “Agriculture Marketing and

Access to Transport Services.” emphasized on efficient transport system for effective

agricultural marketing. A transport cost is an important element of total cost which

determines the final market prices. If transport services are infrequent, are of poor quality

and expensive then farmers will be at a disadvantage. In such situation when they attempt

to sell their produce, time and cost of transportation will be increased. Crop loss and

quality deterioration is the result of improper roads, poor storage and improper handling.

This is one of the reasons why farmers get low price of their produce. It is concluded that

high internal transportation cost leads to high export price and ultimately suffers to scope

of export.

Ayelech Tadesse, August, 2011, has suggested that market information should be

made available to the farmers at the right time so that they could be able to take proper

marketing decisions. It is also suggested that agriculture production should be linked with

marketing and it should be customer focused.

Vishwas Bhosale June, 2012, has suggested that under the Negotiable Instrument

Act, all banks should provide mortgage loan to farmers on the security of ‘Vakhar

Receipt’. As like crop loan, Central Government grants credit at the concessional rate on

stored agricultural produce. Maharashtra Rajya Vakhar Mandal has issued related circular

to all grampanchayats, marketing societies, market committees, agriculture offices etc.

For ‘Vakhar Receipt’ quality certificate is essential. Maharashtra Rajya Vakhar Mandal is

27

setting laboratories and cleaning and grading yards at every center. It has planned to

provide facility of Packing Units. It will enable the farmers to launch the produce at any

market and to get high prices of their produce. And it will increase export potential of

agricultural products.

Apart from this Maharashtra Rajya Vakhar Mandal has made a contract with spot

exchanges like NCDEX. Through which online agricultural marketing facility will be

made available to the farmers. At present there are 170 centers where all these facilities

are made available for the farmers. Some centers are far away from the farmers’ hence a

plan to establish new 1300 centers is framed out.

2.14 Agriculture Online Marketing

In a study undertaken by Puja S Gandhi-Vhora, January 2013 it is stated that

many activities are involved in movement of agricultural products from the farm to

consumers. Along with these numerous functions different challenges have made

agricultural marketing a lengthy and critical process. On line marketing can be used as a

tool to overcome these problems. In changed world economic scenarios online marketing

is become an emerging need. Online agriculture marketing has provided tremendous

opportunities and facilities to the farmers as well as consumers.

Vishwas Bhosale June, 2012, described online agriculture marketing as a method

of marketing which is convenient to consumers to shop from anywhere and to find the

information, products or services they desire and then order them on the spot. Online

agriculture marketing not only can make business and services known to the consumer

market but also can translate an investment into profit in the shortest time ever. In

developed nations like Europe, agricultural products reach to consumers through online

and cold chain system by retaining quality.

2.15 Scope for Export of Agriculture Produce

According to Ghate J.P. & Debjani Chaudhari, 2004, India’s share in agricultural

export is merely 1.4 per cent of the world trade. The main reason of this is high wastage

due to absence of retailing. Agriculture trade was purposely kept away from the

jurisdiction of GATT. Hence this trade was completely free from global rules and

regulations. Even developed countries like Japan and USA have not exposed there

agriculture sector to world competition. It has resulted into very poor share of India’s

agriculture in world trade. In India still agriculture sector is dominant sector of the

economy. Agriculture sector can not keep away from the globalization. As a result

28

WTO’s Agreement on Agriculture (AoA) has changed the profiles of world agriculture

trade vary rapidly.

V.K. Pande, January, 2004 mentioned that under the GATT agreement, Uruguay

Round of Trade Negotiations has opened the doors of the world market for agricultural

products. The benefits of non-discriminatory, full transparant, rule based agriculture trade

will be enjoyed by the farmers and exporters. This will be advantageous for all countries

and particularly for India being an agricultural country. Agriculture output can be

increased with application of latest technologies, high yielding seed varieties, fertilizers

and insecticides. India has shown keen interest to access international market for

agricultural products. For this GOI has reduced restrictions on export of agricultural

products. There is substantial increase in export of fruits, seeds, flowers, vegetables and

processed foods.

Govind Hande, 2012, stated that in World Trade Agreement, agriculture produce

is involved since 1993. And it is implemented from 2005. This has opened world market

for agriculture goods. It has generated many export opportunities of agriculture goods.

Along with the increased opportunities there are many challenges for the agricultural

exporters. Agriculture produce is mostly exported through traders but now farmer can

directly export his farm produce.

2.16 Indian Horticulture Sector

The special issue of ‘National Horticulture Mission’, March-April, 2006, reveals

that the share of horticulture sector in India’s GDP is about 24.5 per cent. Around 13 per

cent of India’s gross cropped area is occupied by horticulture crops. And in the year

2008-2009, total output was of 214.7 million tones valued at Rs. 6769 billion. There are

lots of opportunities in horticulture sector which are from farming to marketing areas.

Horticulture sector includes production of vegetables, fruits, medicinal and aromatic

crops, potato, tuber, ornamental plants and spices. In India ample opportunities are

available to grow a variety of horticulture crops due to diverse soil, favorable climatic

conditions and long growing season. India’s fruit production has been increased over 300

percent during the last three decades.

Shallu Gupta and Shakuntla Gupta, 2013, in their book titled ‘Production and

Marketing of Fruits and Vegetables- Recent Trends and Potential’, have mentioned that

India is considered as fruit basket of the world. It is second largest fruit producer in the

world and Brazil stood first. Developing countries like India focus on production and

29

marketing of horticulture products. Since 1997, production of fresh tropical fruits has

been increasing especially in these countries. Role of horticulture is become significant in

Indian agricultural and industrial economy. At global level, production of fruits and

vegetable crops has grown faster than that of cereal crops. It has been doubled between

1960 and 2000. As compared to cereal profitability horticulture profitability is higher

which has attracted Indian farmers to focus on horticulture production and marketing.

Horticulture production and marketing both are labor intensive which have

allowed productive employment. By creating many off farm jobs, horticulture processing

has contributed to commercialization of Indian rural economy. However many constraints

like lack of market access, lack of market information and lack of proper infrastructure

have hampered horticulture production.

Kshirsagar P. J. October, 2008 in his study states that horticultural activity is an

important element of the farming system. Horticultural products contribute to human

dietary and nutritional needs. India’s diverse tropical and sub-tropical agro-climatic

conditions are suitable to grow variety of fruits. Share of horticultural products is

significant to the world economy. But there are lots of hard work and barriers in

horticulture production and marketing. Adverse effects of diseases on fruit quality and

contamination by remaining pesticide create problems in marketing of horticulture

products. Along with this, due to increasing competition in horticulture business profit

margin is getting down and adversely affecting on growth of horticulture sector.

2.17 Challenges before Indian Horticulture Industry.

Kshirsagar P. J. October, 2008 has mentioned that fruits are source of minerals

and vitamins hence they are considered as protective food. Fruits are perishable and have

short harvesting season. Due to this they are immediately diverted to market. But the

markets do not have adequate and required facilities for storing, handling and transporting

fruits. Other challenge is that adverse climatic conditions influence the shelf life of the

fruits.

In special issue of ‘National Horticulture Mission’, March-April, 2006, challenges

before Indian Horticulture Industry are described in detail. It has been stated that the

percentage of horticulture products used for processing is less than 1 per cent. But this

percentage is 40 to 60 per cent in USA, Australia, Brazil, and Israel. In India percentage

of value-addition is merely 7 per cent and in developed countries it is 50 to 70 per cent.

The reason behind this is mentioned that in India wastage rate of fruits is very high.

30

Though area under horticulture production and production are increasing with pace but

still India’s horticulture products share in world trade is negligible (less than 2 per cent).

This is due to improper post harvest management.

As per research findings by Shallu Gupta and Shakuntla Gupta, 2013, the Indian

horticulture sector is facing severe constraints such as low productivity, limited irrigation

facilities and inadequate and improper infrastructure facilities like cold storages, markets,

roads, transportation, processing etc. Apart from this horticulture business is

unpredictable as it requires a long gestation period. High capital investment at initial stage

and increasing labor cost leads to heavy processing cost.

In India fruit processing rate is low because majority of population prefer fresh

fruits. Less fruits are available for processing and supply is not also steady. Indian

farming is more sustenance than market driven. Fruit growers are not much aware about

primary and minimal processing. As fruit supply is inadequate and unsteady processors

have to purchase from mandis where there is no control over the grading and quality

maintenance. Because of all these reasons efficiency of Indian processing industries is

very low.

E.O. Brown, A.B. Flores, December, 2006, have mentioned that to reduce

transportation cost is the main challenge faced by fruit processing industries in India.

Main reason of post harvest losses is rough roads from orchard to distant markets. Fruits

are transported by trucks and due to compression and abrasion damage is resulted as they

are not properly packed and over stacked. Apart from this several challenges are involved

in processing of horticulture produce. Government funding is inadequate and there is lot

of confusion regarding use of technology amongst the farmers and processing industries.

2.18 Indian Government Horticulture Policies.

Many companies are entered in fruit processing business due to favorable policies

of the GOI. Government provides support for fruits processing, developing cold chains

and distribution of horticultural crops. It has undertaken many measures in form of

policies to develop horticulture sector and fruit processing. Through APEDA, Ministry of

Commerce and Industry, Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Food Processing

Industries are taking initiative to boost horticulture sector.

Shallu Gupta and Shakuntla Gupta, 2013 have mentioned that GOI have created

infrastructural facilities for smooth marketing, advertisement for market promotions,

Research & Development for innovations and quality control laboratories to ensure and

31

improve quality. The objective is to overcome obstacles in marketing of horticulture

products. For this various schemes like State Share of National Horticulture Mission,

Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) etc. are implemented. Indian Horticulture

Industry is booming industry which have created ample employment opportunities and

enhanced export of India.

Different authorities like National Horticulture Mission, National Horticulture

Board and Ministry of Food Processing Industries through various schemes provide

financial, logistics, technical, micro irrigation system, consultancy and marketing support

to create the infrastructure like cold chains and pack houses, greenhouses, terminal

markets etc. Various horticulture boards of different states are working with farmers and

traders to make them aware of the opportunities and the schemes available from the

Central government to improve their setup and scale up operations.

The Government schemes are motivating and encouraging fruit producers to

cultivate and market on large scale basis. Different horticulture schemes like ‘Rojgar

Hami Yojana’, ‘Fruit Plants Cultivation Programme’, ‘Crop Protection scheme’,

‘Akatmic Falbaug Vikas Yojana’, ‘Rajya Shasan Puraskrut Falotpadan Vikas Yojana’ etc.

are coordinated by National Horticulture Mission for the benefits of the farmers.

Four groups are identified by this mission, which are Kokan region, Vidharbh

region, West region and Marathwada region, for the development of state horticulture.

The main aim of this mission is to create link farmers and customers. This link will

enable the fruit farmers to get high returns. The Kokan region includes Thane, Raigad,

Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg districts and the fruits in this region listed are mango, banana,

chickoo, cashunut and spices. Mission provides financial assistance and training to fruit

producers to promote export. Through rural self employment scheme agriculture

departments in different districts training is provided to the rural youth. Training is also

provided to Adivasi people for proper mango protection.

By considering fruit cultivation scope in Maharashtra, fruit development scheme

is continued in this state. As mango farmers get financial assistance to cultivate different

mango varieties, now along with Alphonso variety many mango varieties are produced in

Kokan region of Maharashtra. This financial assistance is for cultivation, land

preparation, protection of orchards, fertilizers and water supply. It is also extended for

packing and grading functions.

32

Kshirsagar P. J. October, 2008 investigated that the fruit juice industry has

become one of the major agribusiness in world. The share of developing countries in fruit

and vegetable juices trade is 50 % in the world. India’s share in the world market for fruit

juices is only 0.3%. In this major contribution is of mango pulp. On the other hand,

demand for fruit juices in Indian domestic market has been steadily grown up. In this

situation horticulture production is significant to promote processing business. It is

concluded that future of Indian horticulture industry in coming era is bright.

2.19 About Indian Mangoes

Satyanjai.Yadav, March 2012, in his research titled “Post –Harvest Profile of

Mango” stated that Mango (Mangifera indica) is one of the most liked, popular and

favorite fruit of the world. The origin of mango is in Southeast Asia where it has been

grown for over 4,000 years. Then it was started to produce all over the world. In India it

is recognized as a ‘National fruit’. Due to its delicious taste, typical fragrance and

attractive shape it is called as “King of fruits” and “Nectar of God”. Now mangoes are

grown almost in all parts of the world. Mango tree is multi-branched evergreen tree which

grows 60 feet tall and live more than fifty years. Generally it starts to give fruits after 4 to

6 years of planting.

C. Mehrotra, scientist form Birbal Sahani Institute, Lucknow of Palebotany, has

proved that the origin of mango is Meghalaya’s ‘Damalgiri’ Hill in North East India. The

scientific name of mango is ‘Mangifera indica’. The mango is called in Sanskrit

‘Aamra’, in Tamil ‘Manake’ or ‘Mangas’, in Portugis ‘Mangura’, in French ‘Magmar’,

and in Hindi ‘Aam’. In India mango trees were available before 4000 years. The mango

tree is mentioned in six ‘Ramayanas’ out of eighteen ‘Ramayanas’. Sutikshin Rushi

mentioned about mango tree in his ‘Manjul Ramayan’. Lomesh Muni mentioned in his

‘Ramayan’ that Sita said to use mango tree wood for ‘Agnidivya’. A Portugal man

‘Alphanso Albukark’- a nobleman and military expert had first tried to produce the

Hapoos variety by Hybrid method at Shirgaon in Ratnagiri. Then this variety was

introduced in other parts of Kokan region of Maharashtra, Gujarat and in parts of South

India. (Reporter, 1st March, 2008)

In the days of Zamindars and extensive leisure mango eating session would be

held in a place called ‘Kakori’ in Uttar Pradesh. In Pune, Raghobadada Peshve had

planted a mango tree at Ganeshkhind which is known as ‘Peshva’. Mango fruits are

perennial trees and can live more than fifty years. Most of the mango trees have alternate

33

or irregular bearing (biennial bearers), which is the tendency of mango trees to bear a

heavy crop in one year (On year) and very little or no crop in the succeeding year (Off

year), fruits are not available in required quantity, each year.

Along with economic importance of mango fruit, mango trees are forest and

environmentally friendly to fight against drought. Following table depicts mango diseases

and pests;

Table No 2.1 Mango Diseases and Pests.

Mango Diseases Mango Pests.

01 Powdery mildew 01 Hopper

02 Anthracnose 02 Mealy bug

03 Die back 03 Inflorescence midge

04 Phoma blight 04 Fruit fly

05 Bacterial canker 05 Scale insects

06 Red rust 06 Shoot borer

07 Sooty mould 07 Bark-eating caterpillar

(Source- A.V.Patil and Karale)

The study was undertaken by Viraj Vishnu Zagade, 2014, with an objective to

evaluate different maturity stages of Alphonso mango for quality and shelf life of mango.

It was observed that within 100 to 150 days after flowering mango fruit matures. The

fruits ripe on the tree will be of best flavor. As it starts ripening original color changes

and starts to soften to the touch. It is suggested that ideal period for harvesting of

Alphonso mango variety is from 120-135 days after fruit set.

B.M. Kapse, June 2012, in his research article “Kesharchya Premat America.”,

has suggested that the mango farmers should use ‘Insitu’ method for large scale mango

production. He suggests that the net developed by Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Kokan

Agriculture University, Dapoli is useful for proper mango plucking as it prevents mango

wastage. A good suggestion given by the writer is that an individual mango farmer can

pack the mangoes in ‘Netlon’ and can sale them even in international market with own

brand. But for this Global Gam Certification is essential.

Suhas G. Nevaskar, June, 2012, Information Officer, Raigad District, emphasized

on application of ‘Gardling Technique’ of mango cultivation. This technique enables the

mango farmers to get the yield earlier than the other cultivation techniques. Due to this

34

technique the food generated by the mango leaves remains at the top of the tree and this

results into early and high mango flowering. This enables the mango farmers to launch

the mangoes in market in the month of January. If this technique will be adopted by the

mango farmers in Raigad district then they could place the mangoes in the market earlier

than manoges from other regions. This will help them to fetch high profit by fixing high

prices due to lack of competition.

2.19.1 Suitable Climate for Mangoes

For mango well growth tropical and subtropical climates are suitable. For growth

of young mango tree temperature below 600 m. is required. It can not be survived in the

area with high wind velocity, low humidity and severe frost. It requires good rainfall (75

to 375 cm per annum). Rainfall requirement also varies according to growth stage i.e. at

the flowering stage- moderate rainfall, at the fruit development- little rain and at the

ripening stage- no rainfall.

2.19.2 Suitable Soil for Mangoes

The study undertaken by Viraj Vishnu Zagade, 2014, titled “Effect of period of

maturity on quality and shelf life of mango (Mangifera indica L.) cv. Alphonso.” states

various varieties of soils like loamy, alluvial, well drained, aerated and deep soils rich in

organic matter, lateritic and sandy loam are are suitable for mango well growth. On the

other hand sandy, shallow, rocky, water-logged, heavy textured and alkaline or calcareous

soils are not suitable for mango cultivation.

2.19.3 Mango Nutritional Value and Benefits.

The weight, percentage of pulp and per tree production of mangoes depends upon

its variety. The details of which are depicted in the following table;

35

Table No 2.2 Mango Variety wise Differences in Weight, Pulp and Production.

Sr. No. Mango Variety Average weight in gm.

Percentage of Pulp

Per Tree Production

1 Alphonso 260 60.3 250-3002 Payri 246 57.2 150-2003 Kesar 206.79 59.62 250-3004 Dashahari 244.5 60 200-2505 Langda 288.33 60.96 180-2006 Neelam 140 53.57 200-2507 Vanraj 396 59.44 50-808 Totapuri 325 50.6 150-2009 Malgoa 220 58.24 100-15010 Goa Mankur 168.08 56.8 150-200

11 Dudh Pedha 155.46 55.34 150-20012 Rajapuri 463.89 56.48 100-12513 Badami Model 267 53.56 80-10014 Kaswaji patel 242.5 56.22 100-150

(Source- A.V.Patil and Karale)

Graph No. 2.1 (A) Mango Variety wise Differences in Weight.

36

(B) Mango Variety wise Differences in Pulp.

Mango has religious importance in several cultures. Mango leaves are used as

floral decorations at religious programmes and weddings. For our daily diet mango can be

used as a staple. It is source of Vitamins A and C, Potassium and contains beta carotene.

Mangoes are high in fiber, but low in calories, fat and sodium. They contain an enzyme

with stomach soothing properties which work as a digestive aid. A sour mango powder

(Amchur) can be used as a seasoning and tenderizing aid. Mango fruit offers various

nutritional benefits hence it is a perfect fruit. (Sunil Patil, May, 2009) Following table

indicates the mango nutrient information.

Table No. 2.3 Mango Nutrient Information (Serving Size: 3 ½ ounces mango slices)

Sr. No. Nutrient Weight

01 Calories 66

02 Protein 0.5g

03 Total Carbohydrate 17g

04 Fat 0.27g

05 Cholesterol 0mg

06 Sodium 2mg

07 Potassium 156mg

08 Vitamin A 3,890IU

09 Vitamin C 27mg

(Source: Rawol, 2003)

37

Ripeness of mango can be confirmed by smelling or squeezing. A mango with

full, fruity aroma is treated as ripe mango. By touching softly and putting gentle pressure

it is confirmed whether mango is ready to eat or not. As per mango variety ripe fruit color

may be yellow, green, orange, red, or any combination.

2.19.4 Indian Mango Hybrid Varieties

Along with the original mango varieties hybrid varieties are also cultivated in

India. These varieties are indicated in the following table;

Table No. 2.4 Indian Mango Hybrid Varieties

Sr. No. Mango Hybrid Variety

Sr. No. Mango Hybrid Variety

1 Amarapali 10 Manjeera2 Mallika 11 Alfazali3 Arka Aruna 12 Sundar Langra4 Arka Puneet 13 Sabri5 Arka Anmol 14 Jawahar6 Arka Neelkiran 15 Neelphonso7 Ratna 16 Neeleshan8 Sindhu 17 Neeleshwari9 Au Rumani 18 PKM2

(Source: Indian Horticulture Database, 2010-11)

2.19.5 Characteristics of Indian Mango Varieties

A.V.Patil and Karale have described the characteristics of important mango

varieties which are cultivated in India. There are about 30 varieties of mangoes which are

grown commercially. These varieties and their characteristics are indicated in the

following table;

38

Table No. 2.5 Characteristics of Indian Mango Varieties.

(Source: A.V.Patil and Karale)

Season stage

Size Shape Colors Special Features

1

Alphonso Mid season

medium ovate oblique

orange yellow Leading, commercial, choicest, excellent variety, used for table & canning purpose.

2Bangalora Mid

seasonmedium tolarge

oblong- necked base

golden yellow Commercial variety, used for processing.

3Banganpalli Mid

seasonlarge ovate-

obliquegolden yellow, Commercial variety, fibreless, used

for canning.

4Bombai Early

seasonmedium ovate-

obliqueyellow Commercial, medium keeping

quality.

5Bombay Green

Early season

medium ovate oblong

spinach green Early ripening habit, medium quality.

6Dashehari Mid

seasonmedium oblong to

obliqueyellow Commercial, excellent keeping

quality, used for table purpose.

7Fajri Late

seasonlarge obliquely

ovallight chrome Medium quality.

8

Fernnadin Late season

medium tolarge

oval to obliquely oval

yellow- red blush on shoulders.

Oldest varieties, used for table purpose.

9

Himsagar Early season

medium ovate to ovate oblique

yellow choicest varieties, good keeping quality

10Kesar Early

seasonmedium oblong red blush on the

shouldersleading variety, good keeping quality

11Kishen Bhog Mid

seasonmedium roundish

obliqueyellow good keeping quality

12Langra Mid

seasonmedium ovate lettuce green good keeping quality

13Mankurad Mid

seasonmedium ovate yellow commercial, good keeping quality

14Mulgoa Late

seasonlarge roundish

obliqueyellow commercial, good keeping quality

15Neelum Late

seasonmedium ovate

obliquesaffron yellow commercial, good keeping quality

16Chausa Late

seasonlarge ovate to

oval oblique

light yellow medium keeping quality

17Suvarna-rekha

Early season

medium ovate oblong

light cadmium commercial, good keeping quality

18Vanraj Mid

seasonmedium ovate

oblongdeep chrome good keeping quality

19

Zardalu Mid season

medium oblong to obliquely oblong

golden yellow medium keeping quality

20Totapuri Mid

seasonmedium tolarge

oblong , necked base

golden yellow fibreless

CharacteristicsSr.No. Variety

39

2.19.6 State wise Indian Mango varieties.

Though mangoes are cultivated throughout the India but specific mango variety is

cultivated and found in the specific state. Important mango varieties cultivated in

different states of India are as below,

Table No 2.6 State wise Indian Mango varieties.

Sr.No. States Varieties

1Andhra Pradesh

Banganpalli, Bangalora, Cherukurasam, Himayuddin, Suvarnarekha

2 Bihar Bombai, Langra, Fazri, Himsagar, Kishen Bhog, Sukul, Bathua

3 Goa Fernandin, Mankurad, Alphonso

4 Gujarat Alphonso, Kesar, Rajapuri, Vanraj

5 Haryana Dashehari, Langra, Bombay Green

6 Karnataka Alphonso, Bangalora, Mulgoa, Neelum, Pairi

7 Kerala Mundappa, Olour, Pairi

8Madhya Pradesh

Alphonso, Bombai, Langra and mostly seedling types

9 Maharashtra Alphonso, Kesar, Mankurad, Mulgoa, Pairi

10 Orissa Baneshan, Langra, Neelum, Suvarnarekha and mostly seedling types

11 Punjab Dashehari, Langra, Chausa

12 Tamil Nadu Banganpalli, Bangalora, Neelum, Rumani, Mulgoa

13Uttar Pradesh

Bombay Green, Dashehari, Fajri, Langra, Safeda Lucknow, Chausa

14 West Bengal Bombai, Himsagar, Kishan Bhog, Langra

(Source: Indian Horticulture Database, 2013-2014)

2.20 Indian Mango Production Scenario

Gopi Muralidhar, April 2012, in his research article titled “Efficiency of

Marketing Channels for Mango in Mahabubnagar District of Andhra Pradesh”, reported

that recently world has started taking notice of India’s progress. World has realized

importance of India as a global leader and its contribution to world economy. Now

Multinational companies are also looking to India’s outsourcing. This is due to low labor

cost, high rate of growth, development opportunities and one of the largest consumers

markets of the world.

40

Purushottam Bung, March, 2013 has stated that India is that country which is

blessed by nature to have production and availability of one or more fruits at any point of

the year. It is due to varied agro climatic conditions which are favorable to cultivate

various crops. Mango is one of the most important fruits of India and treated as king of

fruits. In India out of total fruit cultivation area, 40% area is occupied by mango

cultivation. India ranks first among world’s mango producing countries accounting for

52.63 per cent of the total world’s mango production of 19 million tones.

Shallu Gupta and Shakuntla Gupta, 2013, reveal in their study that India is the

largest producer of mangoes whose share is about 57.18 per cent in world mango

production. Mango is grown throughout the length and breadth of the country. The study

reported that India is rich in mango varietals wealth, as it produces more than

1300 varieties in different parts of the country. But the fact is that only 20 to 25 varieties

have commercial status and cultivated on large scale. In India, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar,

Maharashtra, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Gujarat, Orissa, Kerala and Tamil

Nadu are the major states having major area under mango constituting 65% of total area

under mango crop in India. Researchers found out that the mango productivity of India

has become stagnant around 8.67 tones/ha as against world average of around 12 to 15

tones/ha.

A.V.Patil and Karale in their book titled ‘Maharashtratil Falzade’ mentioned that

mango is grown over an area of 1.23 million hectares and producing 10.99 million tons in

India. The world’s finest mangoes are produced in India, which are of different sizes,

colors, and shapes. Many people wait for the mango season to purchase Indian mangoes.

This season starts in the last week of February and ends in the last week of April in which

duration many varieties make their entry in the fruit bazaars across the country. In some

areas mango season ends up to the end of June or up to the first week of August.

Alphonso a leading commercial mango variety and is one of the best varieties in India.

Due to attractive color, attractive shape, excellent flavor and sweet taste mango fruit is

preferred by Indians and foreigners.

Bhaskar N. Patil and A. J. Nirban May, 2013, have reported that Maharashtra

constitutes 65% of total area under mango crop in India. The rank of Maharashtra state is

10th in the mango productivity of India. And largest cultivation area of it is under mango

cultivation. Maharashtra is having more than 20.00 per cent of India’s area under mango,

but the share in production is only 2.18 per cent. India’s average productivity of mango is

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ranging from 5.52 to 7.84 M.T. per ha. But the productivity of Maharashtra ranged from

0.69 to 3.40 M.T. per ha. during last 11 years.

2.20.1 Indian Mango Production Area, Production and Productivity.

Mango fruit is grown almost in all the states of India. Uttar Pradesh is at the top of

the list of mango producing states. Other major producing states are Andhra Pradesh,

Maharashtra, Karnataka, Bihar and Gujarat. Rest of the states has quite less production.

Following table indicates mango production in different years.

Table No 2.7 Mango Production Area, Production and Productivity in India

Sr. No Year Area (000’ ha) Production (000’tons)

Productivity (tons/ha)

1 2000-2001 1519 10056.8 6.622 2001-2002 1575.8 10020.2 6.363 2002-2003 1623.4 12733.2 7.844 2003-2004 1906.7 11490 6.035 2004-2005 1970.4 11829.7 66 2005-2006 2080.7 12663.1 6.097 2006-2007 2153.87 13733.97 6.38

8 2007-2008 2201.38 13996.78 6.36

9 2008-2009 2308.98 12749.77 5.52

10 2009-2010 2312.3 15026.69 6.5

11 2010-2011 2296.8 15188.38 6.61

12 2011-2012 2308 15761 6.83

13 2012-2013 2464 17300 7.02

14 2013-2014 2516 18431 7.32

(Source: Indian Horticulture Database, 2013-14)

42

Graph No. 2.2 Mango Production Area, Production and Productivity in India

In 2008-2009 mango production was decreased due to unexpected rain and

unfavorable climatic changes. (Pranay Patil, 2014) During the year 2000-2001, area under

mango cultivation was 1519000 hectors which rose to 2296800 in the year 2010-2011. In

this decade mango cultivation area has been almost doubled. From 2011-2012 to 2013-

2014 mango cultivation area, production and productivity has increased steadily. The

main reason behind this is the measure undertaken through National Horticulture Mission

for expansion of mango cultivation area. Year 2013-2014 witnessed highest mango

productin which is 18431000 tons.

2.20.2 State wise Mango Production in India

In India, Uttar Pradesh leads in mango production. After that Andhra Pradesh is

on the second rank which is followed by Karnataka then Bihar and Gujarat. Area,

production and productivity of mango in different states of India are depicted in following

table;

43

Table No.2.8 State wise Mango Production in India (in Tons).

Sr. No. State 2008-2009 2009-2010 2010-2011 2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014

1 Uttar Pradesh 3465950 3588000 3623220 3840000 4386990 43009802 Andhra Pradesh 2522000 4058000 3363400 3542000 4406920 27370103 Karnataka 1284420 1694000 1778750 1868000 1795100 17555604 Bihar 1329800 996000 1334870 1242000 1363800 13675705 Gujarat 299820 857000 911300 890000 1003710 11256106 Tamil Nadu 821410 636000 823740 890000 714080 7855007 Orisa 449710 578000 642010 715000 753790 7510208 West Bengal 548920 578000 620170 662000 735000 430710

10 Maharashtra 445400 597000 331000 503000 633000 121250011 Kerala 712800 373000 380860 373000 441030 441030

11880230 13955000 13809320 14525000 16233420 14907490Total

(Indian Horticulture Database: 2013-2014)

Graph No. 2.3 Mango Production in Major Mango Producing States in India

In India, Uttar Pradesh is the leading state with highest production in every year.

In this state, except in the year 2013-2014, mango production is increased comparing with

the last preceding years. In Maharashtra largest mango production is in the year 2013-

2014 this increasing trend is due to farmers preference to mango production, government

measures through schemes like National Horticulture Mission and increasing mango

demand in domestic and foreign markets. In case of Andra Pradesh mango production has

shown considerable downtrend which was 4406920 MT in 2012-2013 and reduced to

2737010 MT in 2013-2014.

44

2.20.3 Arrival pattern of mangoes in top five states in India

In India mango launching period is generally from March to May. In this period

different mango varieties are arrived in different months as per their nature and ripening

period. The arrival months of particular mango variety in major mango producing states

of India are shown in the following table;

Table No. 2.9 Arrival Period of mangoes in top five states in India

Sr. No. State Season of availability

Mango Varieties

1 Uttar Pradesh May – August Bombay Green, Dashehri, Langra, Chausa, Amrapali

Banganpalli, Totapuri,Suvarnrekha,Neelum

3 Karnataka April – July Banganpalli, Totapuri,Neelum,Alphonso,Pairi

4 Gujarat April – July Alphonso, Kesar,Rajapuri

5 Maharashtra March – July Alphonso, Kesar,Pairi

2 Andhra Pradesh Mid Feb. - mid July

(Source: Indian Horticulture Database, 2010-11)

Comparing with the other states, mangoes of Maharashtra state arrived in the

market early that is in the month of March. Mango marketers from Maharashtra can avail

of benefit of this early arrival. Due to less competition in this month they will be enabled

to fix high prices to earn more income.

2.20.4 Collection Areas of Mangoes in India.

In major mango producing states of India mangoes are collected from the various

identified blocks. This collection is preferably for sale in national and international

market. The following table indicates the catchments areas of mangoes in India;

45

Sr. No. States Districts Catchment Blocks/ Areas

Kurnool

Emmiganuru, Kappagalu, Alur, Adoni, Atmakpur, Pattikonda, Dhone, Koilkuntla, Banganpalli, Allagadda

WarangalMongalapalli, Jangaon, Mahbubabad, Kottagudem, Narlappu, Gudur, Zafargarh.

Prakasam

Emmiganuru, Kappagalu, Alur, Adoni, Atmakpur, Pattikonda, Dhone, Koilkuntla, Banganpalli, Allagadda

RatnagiriMandargarh,Dapoli,Khed,Chiplun,Guhagarh,Sangamesh-war, Lanja,Rajapur, Sangva

RaigadMatheran, Karjat, Khalapur, Pen, Alibagh, Panvel, Uran, Pali, Poladpur, Mangaon, Mhasla, Mahad, R h M d Sh i dh

SindhudurgDevgarh, Kankaulli, Malvan, Kudal, Vengurla, Savantvadi

ValsadKadiyan, Zoz, Kikawada, Nimeta, Tundav, Kadachhala, Nasvadi, Kwant, Dabhoi. Karjan, Sinor, Ambadunger, Vadodara, Sankheda

SuratMangrol, Umarwada, Nizer, Olpal, Kamrej, Mahuva, Valod, Bardoi, Buhari, Umra, Tadkeshwar

NavsariGandevi, Jalalpor, Bansda, Ahond, Khanpur, Kariawadi, Satam, Saravani

Lucknow

Mal, Rahimabad, Bhauli, Itaunja, Mahoma, Nagram, Nigohan, Sisendi, Bijnaur, Utrahthia, Gosainganj, Jugganar, Chanhat, Bani, Alamnagar, Kakori, Bhauli

MuzaffarnagarChausera, Titron, Jalalabad, Bidauli, Shahpur, Banal, Sisanli, Khatauli, Janesh, Mimpur, Kandala.

Saharanpur

Badshahbagh, Raipur, Muzzafarabad, Kalsia, Behat, Chilkana, Rampur, Sarsawa, Pilkhani, Bhayla, Deoband, Gangoh, Lukhnauti, Nanauta

VaranasiSindhora, Babatpur, Phulpur, Cholapur, Mirzaurad, Samath

MeerutMulharia, Tanda, Sakoti, Phalavada, Bashuma, Lawar, Daurala, Marware, Hastinapur, Jani, Kithaur

DharmapuriPennagaram, Harur, Pappireedipatti, Palakkodu, Pochampalli

TeniPeriyakulam, Andipatti, Uttammapalayam, Bodimayakkanur, Kamban, Megamali, Vadugapatti,

TirunelveliSivagiri, Sankarankovil, Tenkasi, Virakeralampudur, Alangulam, Nangumeri, Radhapuram,

SalemMettur, Yercaud, Idappadi, Omalpur, Attur, Gangavalli, Sankagiri

Uttar Pradesh

5 Tamil Nadu

1Andhra Pradesh

2 Maharashtra

3 Gujarat

4

Table No.2.10 Collection areas of mangoes in India.

(Source: Post- Harvest Manual for Export of Mangoes, APEDA, New Delhi.)

The collected mangoes from the blocks are distributed in primary markets first

and then in terminal markets. Mangoes grown throughout India are transported to the big

cities for marketing and export purpose. In Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu mangoes are

distributed in the markets of Nagpur, Bombay, and Calcutta. The important wholesale

mango markets in India are as below:

46

Delhi Ahmedabad

Mumbai Nagpur

Madras Pune

Calcutta

The terminal markets in the leading mango growing states of India are as below;

Uttar Pradesh - Lucknow and Varanasi

Gujarat - Gandevi, Gadat and Amalsar talukas

Delhi - Sabzimandi, Ashoka

Maharashtra - Ratnagiri, Vengurla. and Mumbai

According to data with the Maharashtra State Agricultural Marketing Board

(MSAMB), Alphonso mangoes are mainly grown in the Kokan region, especially in

Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg districts which produce about 2.9 lakh tones of mangoes. In

Kokan region Devgad taluka in Sindhudurg district produces the world's best Alphonso

mango variety and the annual turnover is approximately 50,000 metric tones annually.

Raigad and Thane districts also produce varieties of mangoes on a large scale basis.

Mostly at the end of Alphonso season, MSAMB introduces Kesar mangoes

variety which is grown in Aurangabad, Beed and Latur. This variety is known for its taste

and color. The Agriculture Produce Marketing Committee, Vashi, has tied up with the

Aurangabad based Mangrow - a co-operative society of Kesar mango growers. This

society supplies Kesar mangoes to APMC, Vashi till the end of the season. The marketing

board has been providing pre- and post harvesting guidance to mango growers who are

the members of this society. This society has done considerable work for the export of

Kesar mango variety.

2.20.5 Criteria and description of Mango grades

According to Agmark standards, mangoes are classified into following

grades/classes, the details of which are shown in the table given below:

47

Table No 2.11 Grade Designation of mango as per AGMARK standards.

Grade designation Grade requirements Grade tolerances

1. Superior Quality 1. 5% by number or weight not satisfying the requirements

2. Characteristics of Variety 2. Meeting requirements of Class I

3. Free from defects

4. Keeping Quality

1. Good Quality 1. 10 % by number or weight not satisfying the requirements

2. Characteristics of Variety 2. Meeting requirements of Class II

3. Slight Defects 4. Keeping Quality

1. Quality- not qualify for higher grades 1. 10 % by number or weight not satisfying the requirements

2. Satisfy Minimum Requirements 2. Meeting minimum requirements 3. Defects- provided retaining essential characteristics 4. Keeping Quality

Extra class

Class I

Class II

(Source: Post- Harvest Manual for Export of Mangoes, APEDA, New Delhi.)

2.20.6 Mango Size Code

According to weight of the mango fruit its size is determined. Following table

depict the size code of mango as per AGMARK standards;

Table No. 2.12 Size Code of Mango (As per AGMARK Standard)

Size

Code

Weight in grams

(minimum)

Maximum permissible difference between

fruits within the package(in grams)

A 100-200 50

B 201-350 75

C 351-550 100

D 551-800 125

(Source: Post- Harvest Manual for Export of Mangoes, APEDA, New Delhi.)

Grading is done according to weight of mango. And as per the grade of mango

price is fixed. Following table indicates mango grading as per weight.

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Table No. 2.13 Mango Grading as per Weight

Sr. No Grade Size (in gm.)

01 A+ Grade more than 301 gm.

02 A Grade 250 to 300 gm.

03 B Grade 225 to 250 gm.

04 C Grade 200 to 225 gm.

05 D Grade 175 to 200 gm.

(Source: Mango Horticulture Board)

2.21 Mango Marketing Through Contract System.

The research undertaken by Sarada Gopalakrishnan, 2013, attempts to study the

type of marketing systems existing in India. This research provides suggestions to realize

higher value of the mango produce. Researcher has mentioned that contract marketing

system is an agreement between mango farmers and processing industries and/or

marketing firms for the production and supply of mangoes for the predetermined prices.

This system is in existence in almost all mango producing states of India. It is a major

marketing system in the supply of mangoes. This system is preferred by the mango

farmers as they want to avoid complications and risks in mango marketing and another

reason is that they have no knowledge of marketing.

Ali Muhammed Khushik and Laurence E. D. Smith 1996, in their research paper

titled “A Preliminary Analysis of the Marketing of Mango in Sindh Province, Pakistan.”

found out that more than 90 percent of mango farmers sold harvesting rights to

contractors and only 10 percent sold their produce directly in hope of getting more

returns. Survey results show that harvesting rights are sold at the stage of mango fruit.

This study has examined share of every functionary in mango supply chain which is

farmers - 25%, contractors- 43%, commission agents- 6%, wholesalers- 5% and retailers

21%. Thus it is identified that share of mango farmers is not fair and satisfactory.

Gopi Muralidhar, P. Radhika, April 2012, in study found out that contracting out

harvest of the mango orchard is the most common practice in the study area. It is pointed

out that the commission agents do not provide financial assistance to mango farmers for

management of orchards and for purchase of inputs. Apart from this they do not provide

adequate and factual market information to mango farmers. Hence mango farmers have to

face a number of barriers to involve directly in the mango marketing process. Another

49

reason for preferring contract system is that the mango farmers are also engaged in

cultivation of other crops. As a result they can not spare adequate time for mango

marketing.

M. Sudha, December, 2006, found out that taking mango orchards on contract

basis is beneficial to the pre-harvest contractors. Pre-harvest contractors enters into

contract with different mango farmers at a time hence they enjoy economies of large

scale. Due to perishable nature of mangoes, high transportation cost, lack of market

information and lack of access to credit mango farmers prefer to contract with pre-harvest

contractors and they hand over responsibility of further journey of mango to pre-harvest

contractor.

Sangchan Kantabutra, Phattaraporn Kalaya, and Narat Hasacho, 2012 have

mentioned that contract system is mostly based on mutual understanding, trust and

relationships between mango farmer and contractor. The contract price may be decided as

per tree or per orchard. Mango farmers bargain less for contract price but demand

advance payment and tied to the same contractor for a longer period. It is concluded in

the study that contractors receive the highest margins in the marketing of mango as they

bear the most risk in marketing of mangoes. This system provides economic advantages

to the contractors.

2.22 Mango Processing Industries in India.

Increased mango demand in world is due to its use in variety of ways. Majority of

mangoes are consumed as a fresh fruit. Apart from this, mangoes are also processed into

dehydrated fruit, canned fruit, juices, jams, jellies, pulps, pickles, chutneys.

Shallu Gupta and Shakuntla Gupta, 2013 mentioned that the horticulture

development is not possible without the establishment of processing industries in the

production areas. Development of horticulture industries is essential to generate

employment opportunities for the people and to increase income level of the farmers. In

this study the fact is mentioned that less than five per cent of the produced mangoes are

processed. It is identified that in India, Mango pulp is the main export product both in

terms of volume and value.

Sarada Gopalakrishnan, 2013 in her research reveals that mangoes can be

processed into a number of unique products such as dried mangoes, chutney,

puree, halves juice, scoops, jelly jams, and pickles. Mango processing offers various

benefits for the mango farmers and mango exporters. Mango farmers can supply mangoes

50

and exporters can serve markets even in off season period. Researcher has found out that

Chittoor in Andhra Pradesh and Krishnagiri in Tamilnadu are the two main clusters of

Mango Pulp in India with around 65 processing units. During the year 2012-2013 India’s

mango pulp export was 1, 47,815.70 MT worth of Rs. 608.49 crores. And the major

importing countries were Saudi Arabia, Yemen Republic, Netherlands, United Arab

Emirates and United States.

In Agriculture Dairy of Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Agriculture University,

Dapoli, 2006, it is mentioned that the mango processing industry in Sindhudurg and

Ratnagiri districts plays an important role in processing perishable and seasonal fruits like

mango. Due to supply to these processing units mango farmers are enabled to get

remunerative prices at the time of glut production. Development of these units leads to

generation of more employment opportunities to the area people and increased standard

of living. Though many varieties of mangoes are produced in Sindhudurg and Ratnagiri

districts, only Alphonso variety is used for commercial processing due to its delicious

taste, fragrance, aroma, attractive color and good keeping quality. For this KVK has

carried out research and conclusion is given that ‘Ratna’ and ‘Sindhu’ mango varieties are

also good for processing purposes.

Suvarna Anantrao Deuskar, December, 2009 in her Ph D thesis titled “A Study of

Selected Mango Processing Units in Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg Districts” has pointed out

that in India fruit processing industry is a sunshine industry. This industry has ample

opportunities to export processed products. As a result a number of national companies

and MNCs have entered in this industry. The researcher has found out that mango pulp is

a continuously dominant item among the export of processed horticulture products. It has

always shown a rising trend and potential in the global market.

Kshirsagar P. J., October, 2008 stated that the fruit processing industry has

become one of the world’s major agribusiness. In world fruit and vegetable juices trade

share of developing countries is 50% and India’s share is only 0.3%. Out of this India’s

share major share is of mango pulp. But demand of fruit juices is steadily increasing in

Indian domestic market. India has a good opportunity to increase share of fruit juice trade

in world market and to fulfill increasing demand of domestic market.

The study undertaken by Ayelech Tadesse, August, 2011 is for analysis of

marketing performance of fruits. This study was undertaken to identify and analyze major

fruit marketing channels. The examination of marketing cost and margin showed the

51

share of juice processors was highest (88.73%) and producers was least (11.27%) in

marketing margin.

Samsai Thangarasu, 2013 has suggested that though mango is consumed as fresh

fruit but due to its perishable nature it can not be store for long time and hence it is

feasible to focus on the production of mango processed products.

An article “Ambyapasun Tikau Utpadane Banawa.” by Anil Karale and U.T.

Desai, 2005 in ‘Kisanshakti’ magazine emphasizes on production of mango by products.

As mango fruit is perishable and seasonal in nature, trade mango products can fetch profit

throughout the year. Only one percent of mango production is exported. Mango products

can be made available throughout the year to take the taste of mango. Mango fruit

processing industry is the need of today. Along with the fresh mangoes, processed

mangoes have also demand in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bangladesh, Bahrain, Britain etc. In

Kokan, producing mango products is a cottage business. Pickle, panhe, gulamba,

sakharamba, etc products are prepared from raw mangoes and juices, jams, wadi, poli,

sate, etc. are prepared from ripped mangoes. Along with these from mango stalk and seed

shirka, pectis, cattle breed etc is prepared.

2.22.1 Problems of Indian Mango Processing Industry

Satyanjai Yadav, March 2012 described the problems of Indian mango processing

industry. The most important obstacle in development of Indian Mango industry is

complex supply chain with multiple functionaries with whom processors have to deal. In

India actors in mango supply chain do not prefer to sell to processing units hence mango

supply to processing units is inconsistent, interrupted and inadequate. High freight,

increased transport cost and rising fuel prices have increased processing cost.

E.O. Brown, A.B. Flores, December, 2006, have mentioned that primarily due

to over stacking in the truck, rough loading and unloading, poor handling during final

sorting at the warehouse and poor quality control at the buying station are the

important reasons of deterioration of mango quality.

Suvarna Anantrao Deuskar, December, 2009 has pointed out that non-

availability of mango fruits during the processing period is the major problem of

mango processing industry. It is due to high consumption of fresh fruits in the domestic

market, the alternate-year bearing nature of mango trees, growing exports in the global

market at remunerative prices and heavy post-harvest losses.

52

2.23 Problems in Mango Marketing

Sarada Gopalakrishnan, 2013 has pointed out that by nature India has tremendous

potential to produce different variety, delicious taste and high quality mangoes. And these

mangoes have high demand in international market. Then also Indian mango export is not

satisfactory. What is lacking is the longest mango supply chain with many intermediaries

and improper post harvest management.

Ayelech Tadesse, August, 2011 argues that though India has large potential to

produce horticulture products. But the fact is that their contribution to the total GDP is

extremely low. The main reason is the many constraints in mango marketing which are as

below;

1. Lack of market oriented production- Traditional and not scientific.

2. High Marketing Cost- inefficient and costly transport and cold storage.

3. Lack of market information- Inadequate sources to provide information.

4. Inadequate Government Support- Poor Infrastructure.

5. Absence of Market Regulations- Inadequate Laws.

Other reasons which have hampered mango production and marketing are

diseases, declining prices, absence of cooperative marketing and lack of credit

availability. It is suggested that mango marketing need attention of the government and

should be considered while framing fruit development plan.

M. Sudha, December, 2006, has stated that Agriculture Produce Market

Committees assist the farmers and traders. These committees provide required

infrastructure facilities at the market. Then also mango farmers have to face certain

problems like improper storage facilities, inadequate handling systems, involvement of

many middlemen in supply chain, etc. Apart from these license holders in the market

have been given wide powers in the market this results in to their over domination over

market.

Sarada Gopalakrishnan, 2013 has described in detail the constraints in marketing

of mangoes which are improper pre and post harvest practices, numerous intermediaries,

high Scale of mango wastage, fluctuations in mango price, inadequate and poor

infrastructure and poor linkage in the marketing channel. It is found out that methods of

mango plucking are traditional and mango wastage scale is 20-40% which results into

low productivity.

53

The study carried out by Bhaskar N. Patil and A. J. Nirban May, 2013, revealed

that the Indian mango export is not increasing at desired pace. The major reason behind

this is unavailability of requisite infrastructural facilities in the production zones.

The study by Samsai Thangarasu, 2013 was undertaken to examine the production

and marketing of mango in Krishnagiri, Tamil Nadu. This study has covered the aspects

like mango markets, information flows, technology, service provision, problems faced by

the farmers and factors affecting mango marketing. It is mentioned that the mango

farmers are facing problems in mango marketing and getting market information. The

major problem is lack of information on changing market needs.

Various problems which the mango farmers are facing in the study area are

described in detail in the study undertaken by M.A.Matin, M.A. Baset, Q.M Alam, M.R.

Karim, and M.R. Hasan, September, 2008. The researchers have pointed out that though

mango farmers do hard work but they do not get the full benefit of higher prices

prevailing in the market. As the mangoes are bulky and perishable in nature they need

cold storage and smooth transport. Cold storage facility is not feasible for the mango

farmers as it is costly. Due to lack of these two, mango spoilage scale is high. Other

reason of low income of mango farmers is fall in price due to excess supply in peak

period.

Ali Muhammed Khushk and Laurence E. D. Smith 1996 have reported pre harvest

problems faced by the mango farmers in the research area. It has been observed that

mango farmers do not follow the recommendations for an effective use of fertilizer,

sprays, and timely irrigation. Along with these post-harvest problems are also described

by the researchers which are immature fruit harvesting, improper handling, and

inadequate transport and storage facilities. Mango farmers relay on middlemen and

informal credit sources. The researchers have focused on inadequate public investment in

infrastructure.

According to E.O. Brown, A.B. Flores, December, 2006, the major problem in

mango marketing is that the flow of price information is asymmetric between the mango

farmers and middlemen. A middleman is the only source of information for the farmers.

Commission agents proliferate in the major production areas they locate mango orchards

with mature mango fruit and inform the traders for an agreed commission.

54

2.24 World Mango Scenario

Bhaskar N. Patil and A. J. Nirban May, 2013, have mentioned that throughout the

world mangoes are produced. In around 111 countries in the world mango production has

been taken. Area under mango production in the world is 51.65 lakh ha. Total mango

production in the world is 20 to 23 million tones and world mango productivity is 7.74

M.T. /ha. Mango production share is 50% in production of tropical fruits in the world. At

the world level in the year 2010 mango production was 37.12 million tons.

Sangchan Kantabutra & Phattaraporn Kalaya, 2012 have stated that the major

mango producing countries in the world are India, Thailand, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Brazil,

China, Philippines, Mexico, Indonesia, and Nigeria. India is on the first rank in mango

world production. Out of the total world mango production 40.48% mangoes are

produced in India. China is on the second ranking which produces 4,366 thousand tons of

mangoes. And on the third position is Thailand with 2250 thousand tons mango

production.

The following table depicts the major mango producing countries in the world,

their area under mango production, total mango production in 2010, their mango

productivity and share in world total mango production.

Table No. 2.14 Major Mango producing countries in the world. (2010)

Sr.No. Name of the country Area (‘000ha)Production (‘000 tons)

Productivity (tons/ha)

% age share in world total production

1 India 2312.3 15026.7 6.5 40.48

2 China 465.337 4351.29 9.35 11.72

3 Thailand 311.048 2550.6 8.2 6.87

4 Pakistan 173.7 1845.5 10.62 4.97

5 Mexico 174.97 1632.65 9.33 4.4

6 Indonesia 131.674 1287.29 9.78 3.47

7Brazil 75.111 1188.91 15.83 3.2

8Bangladesh 170.8 1047.85 6.13 2.82

9Philippines 189.437 825.68 4.36 2.22

10 Nigeria 114.9 790.2 6.88 2.13

11Other Countries 827.04 6578.07 7.95 17.72

(Source: UN Food & Agriculture Organisation (FAO)

55

Graph No. 2.4 Mango Cultivation Area and Production in Major Mango

producing countries.

The share of other major mango producing countries in the world mango

production is Pakistan- 4.97%, Mexico- 4.4%, Indonesia- 3.47%, Brazil- 3.2%,

Bangladesh- 2.82%, Phillipines-2.22%, and Nizeria2.13%. Though many countries in the

world produce mangoes but mango export percentage is very low. In the year 2004, only

4.3% of the total mangoes produced in the world were exported. The reason is that

majority of the mangoes are consumed domestically. Another reason is that though

mangoes of near about 1000 varieties are produced at the world level but only few of

them are exported.

The share of Asian countries in world mango production is considerably high but

their mango trade is relatively low as compared to production. For these developing Asian

countries mango is an important horticulture product for their emerging economy. From

the domestic trade and export point of view mango production and marketing is very

vital. Mangoes of these countries have high demand and they are imported by the

developed countries and other developing countries in the world. The consumers of

developed countries prefer to purchase mangoes of Asian countries due to their delicious

taste, attractive color and nutritional value.

In a study undertaken by Ghafoor, Abdul, 2010, results of analysis of primary data

shows that for export of mangoes of Pakistan the major determinants are reasonable

marketing cost, average purchase and sales price and ISO certification. Scale of mango

production, available infrastructure facilities and real agricultural GDP also influence on

56

scale of mango export. The suggestions given to increase mango export are efficient

production, more focus on high price markets, meeting international standards and value

addition.

The research titled “An Analysis of the World Market for Mangoes and its

Importance for Developing Countries.” undertaken by Jedele, Stefan, Angela Maria Hau,

Matthias von Oppen, 2003 with the purpose of analyzing world mango production and

trade. This study has examined importance of mango trade for the developing countries.

Mango is an important product exported from the developing countries like India and

China. The study has indicated that developing countries are facing many social and

economic problems but their mango export has contributed significantly to the welfare of

these countries. It is found out that those developing countries which are the major

mango producing countries in world have potential to promote production and export of

mangoes. Through this they can accelerate the growth speed of their economy.

Throughout the world mango production is increased which has resulted into stiff

competition in mango exporting countries. The suggestions to face this increasing

competition are focus on mango quality and appearance, application of improved

production technology, preference to mango production variety demanded at world level,

production of longer shelf life varieties and concentration on varieties which offer more

economic benefits. The ultimate suggestion is that the exports are to be increased for

world welfare.

2.25 Indian Mango Export

M. Sudha, December, 2006, has mentioned that in India’s agricultural export

major share is of export of mangoes and its processed products. The world major mango

demand is fulfilled by the Alphonso mangoes of West India and Totapuri mangoes of

South India.

In a research article in Lokrajya magazine titled ‘Shetkaranyo Swatach Kara

Niryat’ written by Govind Hande, 2012 it is stated that among mango growing countries

of the world, India occupies top position in total mango production. It has many

opportunities of mango export promotion in the world market. India due to favorable

climatic conditions cultivates a wide variety of mangoes which are colorful and attractive

with par excellence edible quality. In almost all the states India mangoes are cultivated

with sizable production. Transfer of technology for cultivation of mangoes is easy as in

many states, farmers have formed associations. In Maharashtra state mango growers are

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quite innovative. Agriculture produce is involved in WTO agreement from 2005, which

has created ample opportunities to promote export of agriculture and horticulture

products.

2.25.1 Mango Exporting Regions in India.

It is stated in Post- Harvest Manual for Export of Mangoes, APEDA, New Delhi

that Agri Export Zones for facilitating mango exports have been established in almost all

mango growing areas of India. Along with this pack houses have been also established in

all mango exporting regions. These regions are indicated in the following table;

Table No. 2.15 Mango Exporting Regions in India.

Sr. No. Region State Mango Variety

1 Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg

Maharashtra Alphonso

2 Latur and Aurangabad

Maharashtra Kesar

3 Navsari and Borsad Gujarat Alphonso

4 Saharanpur and Malihabad

Uttar Pradesh Dashehari and Chausa

(Source: UN Food & Agriculture Organisation)

Post-harvest Management Centers have been established at Malihabad and

Saharanpur to provide facilities for mango export. Apart from this a mango Export

Facility Centre has been established at Ratnagiri in Maharashtra. Training has been

provided to the mango farmers on GLOBALGAP requirements of Alphonso and Kesar

variety. GOI has set up facilities for Vapour Heat Treatment and irradiation for

eliminating fruit fly. Mango growers of Saharanpur have already branded their product as

“NAWAB” mango.

An article titled “Amba Niryatikarita Anusarayachi Karyapadhati.” (Phalotpadan

Vibhag, March, 2005) in Krishi Vyaspith magazine gives details about the Handling and

Processing Technology of the mangoes to be exported. It is mentioned that pre-harvest

management is important to maintain and improve quality of mangoes. This management

is for increasing size of mangoes and making them colorful and attractive. It is suggested

that before two weeks of plucking of mangoes use of pesticide and water is to be avoided.

Second part of the article emphasizes on proper mango plucking. For this suggestion is to

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pluck mangoes early in the morning or at the evening with the use of net. After plucking,

mangoes are essential to keep in shadow. Within six hours mangoes are to be transferred

to the packing house. Grading criteria are also explained in this part. At the end of the

article the suggestions are given to promote sale of Indian mangoes in international

market. These suggestions are to place ripped mangoes in international mango

exhibitions, use refractometer to test mango ripening, use of the process of carbendazim

to avoid mango wastage, careful and logistical packing and packaging, special care while

handling mangoes and transport mangoes preferably at night to avoid the percentage of

Saka in mangoes.

2.25.2 Mango Packing for Export

In Post- Harvest Manual for Export of Mangoes, APEDA, New Delhi mango

packaging requirements for export are given in detail. Mango packing requirements for

domestic market and foreign market are different. Usually mangoes are packed in wooden

boxes for domestic market. But special care is to be taken while packing mangoes for

export purpose as the distance is long, mangoes are perishable and foreign consumers are

quality and health conscious. Mango export packaging requirements are as below,

Each individual mango fruit should be covered with a new, clean, white, soft,

expandable and netted type polystyrene sleeve to prevent bruising before packing.

The mangoes are to be placed in insect-proof boxes. Boxes should be ventilated and

covered with insect-proof screen. To prevent entry of pests all the sides of boxes

should be sealed properly.

Inside the package new, clean and quality material is to be used to avoid any damage

of mangoes.

For easy identification labeling is to be done properly.

Mangoes are to be packed in each container according to recommended international

code of practice for packaging and transport of fresh fruits which is amended in the

year 2004.

Specification details of Corrugated Fiber Board boxes are given in the following table.

2.25.3 Documents for Mango Export

Mango export is subject to documentation formalities. Mango exporter has to

submit various documents to the concerned authorities. Following table depicts the

documents required for mango export.

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Table No. 2.16 List of Documents required for mango export.

Sr. No. Category Documents Commercial Invoice Packing List

Certificate of origin (coo) Mate's Receipt Shipping Bill

Bill of lading Letter of Credit (L/C)

Bill of Exchange

Phytosanitary Certificate

GLOBALGAP Certificate

Health Certificate

5 Organic Certification Organic Certificate

6 Documents related to Foreign ExchangeRegulations

General Removal Form

7 Other Document Bank Realization Certification (BRC)

4 Documents related to quality of goods

1 Documents related to goods

2 Documents related to shipment

3 Documents related to Payment

(Source: Post- Harvest Manual for Export of Mangoes, APEDA, New Delhi.)

2.25.4 Country wise Export of Indian Mangoes

Bhaskar N. Patil and A. J. Nirban May, 2013, have viewed that India’s export is

not increasing as per the required speed. Export of Indian mangoes is to more than 33

countries in the world. India’s mango export was 37,109 M.T. in 2000-01 and it is

increased up to 58, 863M.T. in 2010-11 worth Rs. 16481 lakhs. Though India ranks first

in world mango production but Indian mango export is comparatively very low. The

major reason behind this is inadequate and improper infrastructural facilities in the

production areas. India’s major mango export is to Bangladesh, Saudi Arabia and United

Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Belgium, United Kingdom, Baharain, Oman, Singapore,

Netherlands, Malaysia and Qatar.

In 2010-2011, out of India’s total mango export, 87% export was to UAE,

Bagladesh, UK, Saudi Arabia, and Nepal. The details of India’s export to different

countries are depicted in the following table;

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Table No. 2.17 Country wise Export of Indian Mangoes

Qty(MT) Value(Lacs) Qty(MT) Value(Lacs) Qty(MT) Value(Lacs) Qty(MT) Value(Lacs)

1United Arab Emirates

25,608.15 10,382.97 25,725.00 10,066.87 22,013.88 10,736.68 23,046.65 17,231.11

2 Bangladesh 33,549.90 3,295.82 23,049.69 1,859.43 27,599.48 4,058.91 3,381.08 4,544.99

3 United Kingdom 2,958.65 1,746.88 2,723.54 1,453.81 2,532.42 1,641.64 1,721.91 1,218.95

4 Saudi Arabia 3,147.13 1,345.40 1,592.18 617.99 2,388.63 1,169.70 4,601.44 823.555 Nepal 4,058.15 378.63 1,991.26 209.58 3,925.74 671.42 770.08 655.086 Kuwait 804.15 520.09 580.29 377.79 731.24 539.7 242.42 561.87 Singapore 367.58 190.28 387.81 206.04 599.27 358.11 545.94 503.658 Qatar 659.02 512.78 374.97 199.05 816.1 328.76 2,899.85 411.019 Bahrain 1,238.49 402.33 980.66 355.42 623.69 289.95 634.54 403.91

10 United States 175.4 256.58 136.7 193.94 353.18 221.29 1,106.44 322.92

72,566.62 19,031.76 57,542.10 15,539.92 63,441.27 20,974.29 38,950.35 26,676.97

2010-2011Sr.No Country

2013-142011-2012

Total Mango Export

2009-2010

(Source: DGCIS)

Graph No. 2. 5 Country Wise Export of Indian Manoges.

2.25.5 Region wise Export of Indian Mangoes

The major Indian mango importing regions are WANA, South Asia and EU-27

countries. The main regions importing mangoes of India is WANA countries. The largest

mango importer of India’s mango was Bangladesh in the year 2011-2012. In future India

has opportunity to promote mango export in these regions. Indian mango export to these

regions is indicated in the following table;

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Table No. 2.18 Region wise Export of Indian Mangoes (2011-2012)

Region Major Importing Countries Mango Export(in tons) UAE 22013.88 Saudi Arabia 2388.63 Kuwait 731.24 Qatar 816.1 Bahrain 623.69

Malaysia 353.41 Singapore 599.27 Brunei 13

SAARC Countries Bangladesh 27599.48 Nepal 3925.74

UK 2532 Other EU countries 528

WANA Countries

ASEAN Countries

European Union

(Source: DGCIS)

During the year 2010, ASEAN countries mango import from the world was 64930

tons. However India’s share in this mango export was very negligible. India has to

undertake adequate and required measures to promote mango export to ASEAN

countries. EU countries import 2, 50,000 tons - 3, 50,000 tons from India. The demand

for Indian mangoes from these countries is increased but India was unable to fulfill this

increasing demand. The reasons are EU people are became more hygiene conscious and

cheap supply from Brazil, Peru, and Israel in EU market. In May, 2014 the European

Union imposed ban on Indian mangoes after it found flies in a significantly high number

of fruits. Efforts are on to resolve the issue of this temporary ban and positive results

could be seen. (Press Trust of India, New Delhi, 9th Dec. 2014). The opportunities to

promote mango export in EU countries will be more in future.

2.26 Export Potential for Indian Mangoes

Mangoes in India have export potentials due to their domestic strengths. As India

produces finest quality mangoes, it has tremendous scope for promoting mango exports in

international market. India can promote export of Kesar variety which is less costly than

Alphonso. This variety is more acceptable due to increased productivity. India can

achieve the target of at least 50,000 to 60,000 tons of mangoes exports to WANA

countries in coming future. Due to irradiation process there are opportunities to promote

mango sale in United States, Australia and New Zealand. These countries accept only

those mangoes which are sent after Irradiation. This treatment (replacing chemical

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fumigants) is developed by Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay. Due to this

treatment India enabled to export irradiated mangoes to the US – from 157 tons to 290

tons in the year 2007.

M. Sudha, December, 2006, has mentioned that India is the second largest

exporter of mango in the world. This export generates higher returns hence many efforts

are undertaken at the government level to meet international production and packaging

standards for mango fruits.

As India is more near to Middle East Countries it can supply mangoes with less

transportation cost than Kenya who are the largest suppliers of mango to the Middle East

Countries. In this way India can take advantage of this geographical nearness.

Comparison between India’s mango exports in 2006-2007 (Rs. 142 crores) with the

mango export in 2010-2011 (209 crores) reveals that India’s mango export is increased at

considerable percentage which is 47%. In coming future it has potential to promote

mango export worldwide. Another good indication for mango export promotion is that

from the year 2006, Japan and U.S.A. have permitted to import of Indian mangoes it has

opened new doors to Indian mangoes. Along with this Australia and New Zealand have

also allowed to import Indian irradiated mangoes. Indian mango export profile of last

decade shows that UAE is the biggest importer of Indian mangoes in terms of value.

India has also started to export mangoes to London and China. In 2009 mango export was

reduced due to world economic recession.

In a research article by B.M. Kapse June, 2012 it is reported that Maharashtra

Rajya Krishi Panan Mandal, APEDA, Agriculture University, Marathwada, Mango

growers associations and Multinational Companies are undertaking joint efforts to

promote export of Indian Kesar variety. The Kesar mango variety from Marathwada is of

higher quality than other Kesar mango producing regions. This has result into tremendous

increase in export of mango Kesar variety to Japan and America.

On 8th March, 1991, ‘Mahamango’, a co-operative society was established with

the support of Maharashtra State Agricultural &Marketing Board (Pune). The head office

of Mahamango society is located at Kudal, Dist. Sindhudurg. This society is established

to promote export of Alphonso mangoes. APEDA, New Delhi and Maharashtra State

Agricultural &Marketing Board (Pune) have provided financial assistance to set up

facilities like pre-cooling, cold storages, pack house, grading packing line etc. at this

center. In the mango season of the year 2002, total 42 MTs Alphonso mangoes were

processed at this center by using these facilities. In April 2004, Chinese delegation had

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visited to this center and inspected these facilities. This delegation has certified the pack

house which was earlier certified by the APEDA. Delegation allowed to import Indian

Alphonso mango variety and also visited to mango orchards in the Sindhudurg and

Ratnagiri district. Apart from this China has also permitted to import Kesar mangoes from

the pack house of Jaikisan Bhajipala Utpadak Sahakari Sanstha, Aurangabad.

Agricultural Marketing Boards are undertaking Indian mango distribution and

promotion measures. The measures are also on the part of central government which has

permitted Agriculture Export Zones for export of Alphonso and Kesar mango varieties.

The mango farmers from the zones producing these two varieties have been provided

training regarding mango export. This training porgramme covers various issues related

to pre harvest management, post harvest management and export of mangoes. Generally

training is of 5 days which impart the information about forthcoming opportunities and

challenges which are created due to agreement on agriculture (AoA) of World Trade

Organisation, Pest Management, Proper handling, Management Technology, Panan

Management, International market information, Procedure to obtain Export Import Code

Number, International Standards for Agri-export, Urogap Certification, Agmark, etc.

The policies of GOI are favorable to promote export of horticulture products.

Because of favorable policies Indian mango exporters are enabled to promote domestic

and foreign sale. The demand of mango variety is different in different countries. Indian

mango exporters should take into consideration this difference and accordingly use the

strategy to make available required mango variety is specific country. A cheaper mango

variety like Totapuri should be placed in Malaysian market while quality mango varieties

like Suvarnrekha, Kesar and Alphonso in Singapore market. The marketing strategy

which will enable market oriented and quality production, less cost of production,

increased productivity can increase India’s share in world mango export.

Anil Karale and U.T. Desai, March, 2005, stated that in Maharashtra, mango

cultivation area is 3.5 lacks hector and mango production is near about 4 lack tons.

Though mango cultivation is increased due to government’s Falbaug Yojana, but there is

difference between expected mango production and existing mango production. Proper

management can increase production capacity to fill this gap. Though Indian mango

production is 54% of world mango production, mango productivity of Thailand and

Brazil is 3 to 3.5%. more than India. It means India is far behind in per hector mango

production. Hence there is scarcity of exportable mangoes. From the export point of view

Alphonso mango variety is crucial. Share of this variety is 90% in Indian mango export.

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But productivity of Alphonso variety is also very low. This share is near about 3 to 4%

per hector.

Hence if India has to grab mango export opportunities in the world market it has

to increase per hector mango productivity. In future emphasis should be given on

scientific mango cultivation. Regular use of fertilizers and pesticides, cutting of mango

trees at needed time, use of ‘Kultar’ to prevent unnecessary growth of mango trees, etc.

measures are given to increase mango productivity. Export can not be promoted unless

productivity of mangoes will not increased by 12 to 15% per hector. For this emphasis

should be given on maintaining and improving quality of mangoes. Indian mangoes are to

be placed in world market at early stage of mango season and on adequate basis before

the other countries. Indian mango quality should be in such a way which can give quality

assurance to the foreign buyers.

Bhaskar N. Patil and A. J. Nirban May, 2013, argued that India has need of

planned strategies to identify new international markets and their quality specifications,

phyto-sanitary measures, codex standards and market preferences. As mango export is a

lucrative business India has vast scope to increase it. India can become the world’s major

mango exporter by improving the basic infrastructural facilities like grading and handling

systems, quality packing material, reefer vans for transport, C.A. containers, Vapor Heat

Treatment machines, irradiation units, pre-cooling cold storages and ripening chambers in

the production area.